THE VALUE OF RELIABILITY IN POWER SYSTEMS- PRICING OPERATING RESERVES-

第八章氧化还原反应与电极电位首页难题解析学生自测题学生自测答案章后习题解答难题解析[TOP]例8-1写出并配平下列各电池的电极反应、电池反应，注明电极的种类。

(1)(-) Ag(s) | AgCl(s) | HCl(sln) | C12(100kp) | Pt (s) (+)(2)(-) Pb(s) | PbSO4(s) | K2SO4(sln) II KC1 (sin) | PbC12(s) | Pb(s) (+)(3)(-) Zn(s) | Zn2+(cl) llMnO4-(c2), Mn2+(c3), H+(c4) | Pt (s) (+)(4)(-) Ag(s) | Ag+ (cl) II Ag+(c2) | Ag(s) (+)分析将所给原电池拆分为两个电极。

负极发生氧化反应，正极发生还原反应，写出正、负极反应式，由正极反应和负极反应相加构成电池反应。

解(1)正极反应C12(g)+2e-〜2 Cl- (aq) 属于气体电极负极反应Ag(s)+Cl-(aq)〜AgCl(s)+e-属于金属-难溶盐-阴离子电极电池反应2Ag (s) + C12(g) ^2AgCl(s) n=2(2)正极反应PbC12(s)+2e --------- P b(s)+2C1- (aq)属于金属-难溶盐-阴离子电极负极反应Pb(s)+SO42-(aq) -*PbSO4(s)+2e- 属于金属-难溶盐-阴离子电极电池反应PbC12(s) +SO42- (aq)f PbSO4(s) +2Cl-(aq) n二2(3)正极反应Mn04-(aq) +8H+(aq)+5e- -Mn2+(aq)+ 4H20(l)属于氧化还原电极负极反应Zn(s) — Zn2+(aq)+2e- 属于金属-金属离子电极电池反应2MnO4~ (aq)+16H+(aq)+5Zn(s)f2Mn2+(aq)+8H20(l)+5Zn2+ (aq) n二10 (4)正极反应Ag+(c2) +e- - Ag(s) 属于金属-金属离子电极负极反应Ag(s) -* Ag+ (cl) + e- 属于金属-金属离子电极电池反应Ag+ (c2) f Ag+ (cl) n=l例8-2 25°C时测得电池(-)Ag(s) | AgCl(s) | HCl(c) | C12(100kp) | Pt(s) (+)的电动势为 1. 136V,已知(C12/C1-)二1.358V, ( Ag+/Ag)二0. 799 6V,求AgCl 的溶度积。

最新卓越管理方案您可自由编辑供参考1潜在失效模式及后果分析（FMEA）集体讨论什么情况下会导致一次培训失效品质管理FMEAFMEA中英文潜在失效模式及后果分析（PotentialFailureMode供参考andEffectsAnalysis）是一种系统化的可靠性定性分析方法。

通过对产品/过程各组成部分进行事前分析，发现、评价产品/过程中潜在的失效模式及起因2/机理，查明其发生的可能性及对系统的影响程度，以便采取措施进行预防。

失效（Failure）实体全部或部分失去了完成其功能的能力。

其中实体是指产品、过程或系统。

潜在有可能发生有可能不发生的事情。

供参考3PotentialFailureModeandEffectsAnalysis（FMEA）DiscussionWhatmayleadthetrainingfailed?DefinitionofFMEAPotentialFailureModeandEffectsAnalysis(FMEA)canbedescri bedasasystemizedandqualitativeanalysismethodforreliability. ThepurposeofFMEAistoRecognizeandanalyzethepotentialfailureo faproduct/process,evaluatitseffectsandprobabilitybeforethee vent,identifyactionswhichcouldeliminateorreducethechanceoft hepotentialfailureoccurring.供参考FailureItisamannerwhichthethingscouldfailtomeettheintentpartly orwholely.Thethingsmaytheproduct,processorsystem. PotentialThefailuremayhappenornot.FMEA的类型SFMEA——是针对产品开发、过程策划进行的FMEA。

会计英语第四版参考答案Chapter 1: Introduction to Accounting1. What is accounting?- Accounting is the systematic recording, summarizing, and reporting of financial transactions and events of a business entity.2. What are the main functions of accounting?- The main functions of accounting are to providefinancial information for decision-making, ensure compliance with laws and regulations, and facilitate the management of a business.3. What are the two main branches of accounting?- The two main branches of accounting are financial accounting and management accounting.4. What is the purpose of financial accounting?- The purpose of financial accounting is to provide an accurate and fair representation of an entity's financial position and performance to external users.5. What is the double-entry bookkeeping system?- The double-entry bookkeeping system is a method of recording financial transactions in which every transactionis recorded twice, once as a debit and once as a credit, to maintain the equality of the accounting equation.Chapter 2: Accounting Concepts and Principles1. What are the fundamental accounting concepts?- The fundamental accounting concepts include the accrual basis of accounting, going concern, consistency, and materiality.2. What is the accrual basis of accounting?- The accrual basis of accounting records transactions when they occur, regardless of when cash is received or paid.3. What is the going concern assumption?- The going concern assumption is the premise that a business will continue to operate for the foreseeable future.4. What is the principle of consistency?- The principle of consistency requires that an entity should apply accounting policies consistently over time.5. What is the principle of materiality?- The principle of materiality states that only items that could potentially affect the decisions of users of financial statements are included in the financial statements.Chapter 3: The Accounting Equation and Financial Statements1. What is the accounting equation?- The accounting equation is Assets = Liabilities +Owner's Equity.2. What are the four main financial statements?- The four main financial statements are the balance sheet, income statement, statement of changes in equity, and cashflow statement.3. What is the purpose of the balance sheet?- The balance sheet provides a snapshot of an entity's financial position at a specific point in time.4. What is the purpose of the income statement?- The income statement reports the revenues, expenses, and net income of an entity over a period of time.5. What is the purpose of the cash flow statement?- The cash flow statement reports the cash inflows and outflows of an entity over a period of time.Chapter 4: Recording Transactions1. What is a journal entry?- A journal entry is the initial recording of atransaction in the general journal.2. What are the steps in the accounting cycle?- The steps in the accounting cycle are analyzing transactions, journalizing, posting, preparing a trial balance, adjusting entries, preparing financial statements, and closing entries.3. What is the difference between a debit and a credit?- A debit is an increase in assets or a decrease inliabilities or equity, while a credit is an increase in liabilities or equity or a decrease in assets.4. What are adjusting entries?- Adjusting entries are made at the end of an accounting period to ensure that revenues and expenses are recorded in the correct period.5. What is the purpose of closing entries?- Closing entries are made to transfer the balances of temporary accounts to the owner's equity account and to prepare the accounts for the next accounting period.Chapter 5: Accounting for Merchandising Businesses1. What is a merchandise inventory?- A merchandise inventory is the stock of goods held by a business for sale to customers.2. What is the cost of goods sold?- The cost of goods sold is the direct cost of producing the merchandise sold during an accounting period.3. What is the gross profit?- The gross profit is the difference between the sales revenue and the cost of goods sold.4. What is the difference between a perpetual and a periodic inventory system?- A perpetual inventory system updates inventory records in real-time with each sale or purchase, while a periodicinventory system updates inventory records at specific intervals, such as at the end of an accounting period.5. What is the retail method of inventory pricing?- The retail method of inventory pricing is a method of estimating the cost of ending inventory by applying a cost-to-retail ratio to the retail value of the inventory.Chapter 6: Accounting for Service Businesses1. What are the main differences in accounting for service businesses compared to merchandise businesses?- Service businesses do not have inventory and their primary expenses are typically labor and overhead costs.2. What is the main source of revenue for service businesses? - The main source of revenue for service businesses is the fees charged for the services provided.3. What are the typical expenses。

高一英语哲学观点单选题40题1. “The unexamined life is not worth living.” This quote is attributed to which ancient philosopher?A. PlatoB. AristotleC. SocratesD. Pythagoras答案：C。

Socrates 以“未经审视的生活不值得过”这句名言而闻名。

Plato 是苏格拉底的学生，主要作品有《 理想国》等；Aristotle 是柏拉图的学生，是一位伟大的哲学家和科学家；Pythagoras 以毕达哥拉斯定理等成就闻名。

2. Which philosopher is known for his concept of the “Categorical Imperative”?A. Immanuel KantB. Friedrich NietzscheC. René DescartesD. John Locke答案：A。

Immanuel Kant 提出了“绝对命令”（Categorical Imperative）的概念。

Friedrich Nietzsche 以批判传统道德和提出超人哲学等闻名；René Descartes 以“我思故我在”等观点著名；John Locke 主要在政治哲学和认识论方面有重要贡献。

3. “To be is to be perceived.” This statement is associated with whichphilosopher?A. George BerkeleyB. David HumeC. Thomas HobbesD. Adam Smith答案：A。

George Berkeley 提出“存在就是被感知”。

David Hume 是经验主义哲学家；Thomas Hobbes 在政治哲学方面有重要贡献；Adam Smith 是经济学家。

常用光学期刊英文缩写常用光学期刊英文缩写Acta Optica SinicaActa Photonica SinicaAIP CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGSAIP CONF PROCAPPLIED OPTICSAPPL. OPTICSAPPLIED PHYSICS LETTERSAPPL PHYS LETTChinese Journal of LasersChinese J. 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LaserJ. Optoelectronics . LaserJOURNAL OF THE OPTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICAJ OPT SOC AMJOURNAL OF THE OPTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA A-OPTICS IMAGE SCIENCE AND VISION J OPT SOC AM AJOURNAL OF THE OPTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA B-OPTICAL PHYSICSJ OPT SOC AM BOPTICAL TECHNOLOGYOPT. TECHNOL.OPTICS LETTERSOPT LETTOPTICAL TECHNICSOPT. TECH.OPTICS AND PRECISION ENGINEERINGOPT. PRECISION ENG.OPTICA ACTAOPT ACTAOPTICA APPLICATAOPT APPLOPTICAL AND QUANTUM ELECTRONICSOPT QUANT ELECTRONOPTICAL ENGINEERINGOPT ENGOPTICAL FIBER TECHNOLOGYOPT FIBER TECHNOLOPTICAL IMAGING OF BRAIN FUNCTION AND METABOLISM 2ADV EXP MED BIOLOPTICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMSOPT INF SYSTOPTICAL MATERIALSOPT MATEROPTICAL PROPERTIES OF SEMICONDUCTOR QUANTUM DOTS SPRINGER TR MOD PHYSOPTICAL REVIEWOPT REVOPTICAL SPECTRAOPT SPECTRAOPTICS & PHOTONICS NEWSOPT PHOTONICS NEWSOPTICS AND LASER TECHNOLOGYOPT LASER TECHNOLOPTICS AND LASERS IN ENGINEERINGOPT LASER ENGOPTICS AND SPECTROSCOPYOPT SPECTROSC+OPTICS AND SPECTROSCOPY-USSROPT SPECTROSC-USSROPTICS COMMUNICATIONSOPT COMMUNOPTICS EXPRESSOPT EXPRESSOPTICS LETTERSOPT LETTOPTIKOPTIKOPTIKA I SPEKTROSKOPIYAOPT SPEKTROSK+PATTERN ANALYSIS AND APPLICATIONSPATTERN ANAL APPLPATTERN FORMATION IN GRANULAR MATERIALS SPRINGERTR MOD PHYSPATTERN RECOGNITIONPATTERN RECOGNPATTERN RECOGNITION LETTERSPATTERN RECOGN LETTPROGRESS IN OPTICSPROG OPTICSPROGRESS IN OPTICS, VOL 33PROG OPTICSPROGRESS IN OPTICS, VOL 35PROG OPTICSPROGRESS IN OPTICS, VOL 38PROG OPTICSPROGRESS IN OPTICS, VOL XLPROG OPTICSPROGRESS IN OPTICS, VOL XXXIIPROG OPTICSPROGRESS IN OPTICS, VOL XXXIXPROG OPTICSPROGRESS IN OPTICS, VOL XXXVIPROG OPTICSPROGRESS IN OPTICS, VOL. 37PROG OPTICSSpacecraft Recovery & Remote SensingSOLAR ENERGY MATERIALSSOL ENERG MATERSOLAR ENERGY MATERIALS AND SOLAR CELLS SOL ENERG MAT SOL CVISION RESEARCHVISION RESVISION TECNOLOGICA VIS TECNOL。

The concept of striving for excellence and demonstrating ones value is a universal theme that resonates across cultures and languages.In English,this idea can be expressed through various narratives and perspectives.Heres an essay that encapsulates the essence of striving and the value it brings:The Pursuit of Excellence:Unveiling Our True WorthIn the vast expanse of human endeavor,there lies a relentless pursuit that transcends time and spacethe pursuit of excellence.It is a journey that each individual undertakes,not merely to achieve greatness,but to reveal the intrinsic value that lies within us all.The Essence of StrivingStriving is not merely an act of effort it is a testament to our willpower and determination. It is the force that propels us through the darkest hours,the relentless drive that keeps us moving forward even when the odds are stacked against us.When we strive,we are not just working towards a goal we are engaging in a dialogue with our potential,challenging the limits of what we believe we can achieve.The Catalyst for GrowthEvery step we take in our pursuit of excellence is a step towards personal growth.It is through this journey that we learn,adapt,and evolve.The challenges we face,the obstacles we overcome,and the victories we celebrate all contribute to the tapestry of our character.They shape us,refine us,and ultimately reveal the depth of our capabilities. The Reflection of ValueThe value that we seek to demonstrate is not an abstract concept it is the reflection of our capabilities,our contributions,and our impact on the world.It is the recognition of the unique gifts we possess and the ways in which we choose to utilize them.When we strive for excellence,we are not just showcasing our talents we are affirming our worth and the significance of our existence.The Power of PerseverancePerseverance is the cornerstone of striving.It is the unwavering commitment to continue, even in the face of adversity.It is the quiet resilience that allows us to rise above ourcircumstances and reach for the stars.In persevering,we demonstrate our value not just through our achievements,but through our ability to endure and to keep moving forward.The Legacy of StrivingThe legacy of those who strive is not measured by the heights they reach,but by the paths they pave for others.It is the inspiration they provide,the lessons they teach,and the standards they set.When we strive for excellence,we leave a legacy that extends beyond our own lives,influencing and inspiring future generations to pursue their own paths of excellence.ConclusionIn conclusion,the act of striving for excellence is a profound journey of selfdiscovery and affirmation.It is a journey that challenges us,shapes us,and ultimately reveals the true extent of our value.As we continue to strive,we not only achieve our goals but also contribute to a legacy that echoes through time,inspiring others to uncover and demonstrate their own worth.This essay highlights the importance of striving for excellence as a means of demonstrating ones value.It emphasizes the growth,perseverance,and legacy that come with the pursuit of personal and professional excellence.。

An Industry-Based Survey of Reliability in Power Electronic ConvertersShaoyong Yang,Member,IEEE,Angus Bryant,Member,IEEE,Philip Mawby,Senior Member,IEEE, Dawei Xiang,Li Ran,Senior Member,IEEE,and Peter Tavner,Senior Member,IEEEAbstract—A questionnaire survey was carried out to deter-mine the industrial requirements and expectations of reliability in power electronic converters.The survey was subjective and conducted with a number of high-profile semiconductor manufac-turers,integrators,and users in the aerospace,automation,motor drive,utility power,and other industry sectors.According to the survey,power semiconductor devices ranked the most fragile com-ponents.It was concluded that main stresses were from the envi-ronment,transients,and heavy loads,which should be considered during power electronic system design and normal operation.This paper has also highlighted that there is a significant need identified by the responders for better reliability-monitoring methods and indicators.Index Terms—Converter,failure rate,power electronics,power semiconductor device,reliability.I.I NTRODUCTIONR ELIABILITY for power electronics has been an impor-tant issue since the early power electronic applications.In recent years,the reliability of power devices has been greatly improved.For example,the average failure rate for power modules in traction dropped from1000failures in time(FITs) in1995to20FITs in2000[1],where1FIT=1failure per109 device hours.Meanwhile,power device failure mechanisms have been closely examined in recent years.Methods of de-tecting both bond wire lift-off and solder cracking have been greatly improved[2]–[6],using accelerated failure tests to demonstrate such improvements[7]–[9].Recently,there has been interest in developing better de-sign tools to consider device reliability during the converter design stage[3],[10],[11].There has also been interest in developing methods to detect imminent device failure,i.e., condition monitoring of converters[12],which offer the means to reduce failure costs by replacing devices before damageManuscript received July5,2010;revised September12,2010;accepted November5,2010.Date of publication March14,2011;date of current version May18,2011.Paper2010-PEDCC-305.R1,presented at the2009IEEE Energy Conversion Congress and Exposition(ECCE),San Jose,CA,September20–24, and approved for publication in the IEEE T RANSACTIONS ON I NDUSTRY A PPLICATIONS by the Power Electronics Devices and Components Committee of the IEEE Industry Applications Society.This work was supported by the En-gineering and Physical Sciences Research Council under Grants EP/E02744X/1 and EP/E026923/1.S.Yang,A.Bryant,and P.Mawby are with the School of Engineering, University of Warwick,Coventry,CV47AL,U.K.(e-mail:shaoyong.yang@ ;atb230@;p.a.mawby@).D.Xiang,L.Ran,and P.Tavner are with the School of Engineering and Computing Sciences,Durham University,Durham,DH13LE,U.K.(e-mail: dawei.xiang@;li.ran@;peter.tavner@durham. ).Digital Object Identifier10.1109/TIA.2011.2124436occurs or maintenance is required.However,there has been no study of the converter reliability issues that industry actually experiences.Pertinent questions exist,such as the following.1)Are power semiconductor devices the only componentsworth considering,or should components such as capaci-tors and gate drives be considered too?2)Are the reliability concerns the same across all powerelectronic applications,or do they change depending on power rating?3)What are the demands from industry for better conditionmonitoring and reliability prediction tools?4)What methods are used by designers to achieve betterreliability?A questionnaire survey is an effective way to collect reliabil-ity information from power electronic industries.Surveys have been carried out to study the impact of operating conditions and maintenance on reliability in high voltage direct current (HVdc)converters[13]and motor reliability[14].As for the reliability for general power electronic converter applications, such a survey has not been published.Therefore,a comprehensive survey to determine the re-quirements and expectations of power electronic reliability is needed.In this paper,a questionnaire was designed to address concerns such as those previously listed.The questionnaire was sent out by e-mail;the survey took3mo and was completed in March2008.A total of295questionnaire documents was sent out,and56effective responses were collected,giving a response rate of19%.(An effective response means that the responder has answered more than80%of the questions.) This paper will present the key results from the question-naire.The aim of this paper is to establish the reliability-related needs of power electronic applications and to influence the direction of condition-monitoring research.II.Q UESTIONNAIRE S TRUCTUREAs illustrated in[13]and[14],application category,oper-ating range,stress level,duty time,and maintenance all have impact on system reliability.All these factors were consid-ered when designing the questionnaire survey document.The questionnaire includedfive parts,each consisting of several questions:1)Responder sectors and attitudes:a)Question1:the types of company/industry;b)Question2:the attitudes to power electronicreliability.0093-9994/$26.00©2011IEEE2)Reliability status and power device operating conditions:a)Questions3–4:system lifetimes and scales;b)Question5:satisfaction of reliability-monitoringmethods;c)Question6:acceptable failure rates;d)Question7:weak points in power electronic systems;e)Questions8–10:power devices and operating condi-tions(load current and switching frequency).3)Main stresses and deterioration indicators:a)Question11:most likely failure reasons;b)Question12:indicators of deterioration;c)Question13:stresses from the environment.4)Load profiles,including load levels and duty times:a)Questions14-15:power ratings and load levels;b)Question16:overload or overvoltage durations;c)Question17:temperature swing scales;d)Questions18–19:duty days per year and duty hoursper day.5)Failure counteraction and costs:a)Question20:improvements or remedies for the leastreliable components;b)Question21:voltage and current operating margins;c)Question22:failure costs.Most questions in the questionnaire document used check boxes to allow responders to conveniently provide answers. Several questions used ranks,open answers,and value inputs to gather detailed information.Some key results from the survey will be described and analyzed in the following sections.It should be noted that more than one choice to a question may be selected in the responses.For example,a company may have more than one application area or type of product.In these cases,the response can be spread across the selected choices by assigning them a value less than one;for example,0.5would be assigned if the responder selects two choices.Here,this is described as a weighted average.III.K EY R ESULTSA.Characterization of Industries,Components,andPower RatingsThe responders were classified into six categories by Ques-tion1:component manufacture,aerospace,automotive,motor drive,utility,and others.Nearly all the responses were from power electronic industries,as shown in Table I.The survey included participation from staff at device manufacturers,drive and converter manufacturers,and plant operators.Since an enterprise may cover more than one category,the total number is more than56.All the responders regard power electronic reliability as an important issue(Question2),with93%of those considering it a“very important”issue.Questions8and14examine the types of power devices used and the rated power levels of the converters,respectively.Fig.1 shows that insulated-gate bipolar transistors(IGBTs)were the most used devices,followed in rank order by MOSFETs,thyris-tors,p-i-n diodes,gate turnoff thyristors,and integrated gate-commutated thyristors.Fig.2shows that the distribution among power levels is relatively uniform,giving confidence—in addi-TABLE IR ESPONDER S ECTOR STATISTICSFig.1.Types of power devices used,Question8.Fig.2.Rated power levels of converters,Question14.tion to that of Table I—to the survey being representative of most power electronic applications.The ranges of current levels recorded are shown in Fig.3,with switching frequencies shown in Fig.4.The latter indicates that frequencies in the range 500Hz to20kHz dominate the responses received.The voltage and current margins,from Question21,had averages of41% and47%,respectively,for the40out of the56responders giving an answer to this question.Most responders gave margins less than50%for each;however,four responders gave voltage margins above100%,and two gave current margins above 100%.These were peak or pulse applications that typically experience large transients.ponent FailureThe distribution of the acceptable converter failure rates is shown in Fig.5.Approximately half of the respondersYANG et al.:AN INDUSTRY-BASED SURVEY OF RELIABILITY IN POWER ELECTRONIC CONVERTERS1443Fig.3.Converter current levels,Question9.Fig.4.Converter switching frequencies,Question10.Fig.5.Acceptable failure rates,Question 6.observed a low failure rate of <100FITs.Among the re-sponders which could tolerate >500FIT failure rates,50%were utility power industries,25%were motor drive indus-tries,and the remainder were lighting and consumer electronic industries.Fig.6shows the distribution of fragile components.“Semi-conductor power device”was selected by 31%of the responders as the most fragile component,which was followed by “capaci-tors”and “gate drives.”Failures associated with “resistors”and “inductors”are clearly quite rare and only observed in a fewapplications.Fig.6.Fragile components,Question7.Fig.7.Failure causes,Question 11.TABLE III NDICATORS OF DETERIORATION1444IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS,VOL.47,NO.3,MAY/JUNE2011Fig.8.Load level distribution,Question15.Fig.9.Overload transient duration,Question 16.C.Load and Temperature VariationsThe distribution of load levels with respect to rated power is shown in Fig.8.It can be seen that overload operation,i.e.,above 100%rated power,is selected by approximately 14%of the responders.The overload transients themselves are considered in Ques-tion 16.The typical duration of these transients is shown in Fig.9.Clearly,the bulk of the transients lasts for less than 10s.However,there is a significant proportion that lasts for longer than 30s.Further analysis of these long overload transients shows that approximately half of them were from respondents operating in the 100-kW–10-MW range and a third of them were from those operating in less than 10kW.Very few were in the 10–100-kW and >10-MW ranges (approximately 6%each).Fig.10shows the distribution of temperature swings during operation.Nearly half of converter operation is subjected to junction temperature swings larger than 80◦C,which occur in heavy cycling applications,such as traction and wind power.Low junction temperature swings less than 30◦C are rare;these only occur for some power transmission applications and outdoor lighting systems.There are other stresses that power converters experience other than overload transients and thermal stresses.These are shown in Fig.11.Significantly more than half of the stresses are extremes in ambient temperature,moisture,andFig.10.Temperature swing distribution,Question17.Fig.11.External environmental stresses,Question13.Fig.12.Duty days per year,Question 18.mechanical vibration;these are expected for most converter applications.Lightning,the smallest of environmental stresses,may be expected to be dominated by the aerospace and utility industries;however,respondents selecting this category were spread evenly between industries.From Fig.12,it is noted that almost a quarter of the enter-prises run 365d annually,among which just over a third of them are utility power industries.These high-duty-cycle industries require very reliable systems since out-of-service or emergency maintenance incurs extra cost.YANG et al.:AN INDUSTRY-BASED SURVEY OF RELIABILITY IN POWER ELECTRONIC CONVERTERS1445Fig.13.Failure cost distribution,Question22.Fig.14.Methods to improve reliability,Question 20.D.Impact and Management of ReliabilityThe distribution of failure costs relative to system costs,shown in Fig.13,appears somewhat bimodal:25%for high costs (80%–100%)and 30%for low costs (<20%).The failure costs are related to the product types and their applications.(Note that “failure:cost ratio”is defined as failure cost divided by original system cost.)According to the comments in the responses,highly integrated products are designed to be main-tenance free.However,a system field failure may be higher than the cost of a single system,which includes replacement free of charge,travel cost,maintenance personnel,and penalty charges.Fig.14shows the methods to improve power electronic reliability.The first two choices emphasize improved cooling to reduce the device temperature,i.e.,“increased coolant flow”and “larger heat sinks.”“Overvoltage suppressors”are also popular.The “backup system”is chosen mainly by utility power industry,rail,space,and aerospace applications,where out of service may cause a significant operational or economic impact.“Others”include thermal management systems and improved design optimization.Finally,in Question 5,“satisfaction with reliability-monitoring methods,”approximately half of the responders were dissatisfied with their reliability-monitoring systems.Clearly,this indicates that reliability concerns are high in the power electronic industry,and further work is necessary to address some of theseissues.Fig.15.Correlation between responder sectors and fragilecomponents.Fig.16.Correlation between responder sectors and failure/cost ratio.IV .C ORRELATION B ETWEEN Q UESTIONSThe correlation between questions is calculated using the combinations of choices selected by the responders.In the case where a responder selects more than one choice for a question,the same approach as in Section III-A is used regarding the weighted average.Note that,in Figs.15–32,the right-hand scales indicate the percentage of responses for each combina-tion of categories.A.Importance of Power Electronic ReliabilityFig.15shows that power devices are the most fragile com-ponents across all industry sectors.Capacitors and gate drives are considered to be fragile by some responders,particularly capacitors for the utility power industry.However,the indica-tion that power devices are the most fragile devices strongly supports the assertion that device reliability is considered to be more of a risk or problem than for other components.1446IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS,VOL.47,NO.3,MAY/JUNE2011Fig.17.Correlation between responder sectors andlifetimes.Fig.18.Correlation between lifetime and annual duty.In Fig.16,the failure/cost ratio is shown against industry sector.(Note that “failure:cost ratio”is defined as failure cost divided by original system cost.)The utility power industry has a low failure/cost ratio at only 10%–20%.This suggests that redundancy is built-in,for example,in long series chains of thyristors used in HVdc converters.However,the high fail-ure/cost ratio in the motor drive and aerospace sectors indicates that a failure in a converter here would not be accommodated and result in converter failure and subsequent damage.Indeed,redundancy may not be built-in to such converters.Fig.17shows that the utility power industry clearly expects the longest lifetime of all the categories,with many converters designed for lifetimes in excess of 30years.This would be expected given the long lifetimes required in the utility power sector.Motor drives and individual components have a strong concentration of 10–20year lifetime,with a reduced proportion having a lifetime of 20–30years.Fig.18shows a further trend related to converter lifetime.It indicates that the average duty (days per year)increasesFig.19.Correlation between acceptable failure rate and measures to improvereliability.Fig.20.Correlation between responder sectors and measures to improvereliability.Fig.21.Correlation between fragile components and measures to improve reliability.with converter lifetime.This places extra demands on the converters with long lifetimes (e.g.,those in the utility power industry)since they must have both high availability and long lifetime.YANG et al.:AN INDUSTRY-BASED SURVEY OF RELIABILITY IN POWER ELECTRONIC CONVERTERS1447Fig.22.Correlation between failure causes and measures to improvereliability.Fig.23.Correlation between power rating and measures to improvereliability.Fig.24.Correlation between responder sectors and temperature swing.It should be noted that,although there are low response numbers for Figs.15–17,the results are still valid since they show that the distributions are categorydependent.Fig.25.Correlation between power rating and temperatureswing.Fig.26.Correlation between acceptable failure rate and temperatureswing.Fig.27.Correlation between responder sectors and satisfaction of reliability monitoring.B.Existing Measures to Improve ReliabilityFig.19shows the measures used to improve the reliability.Two ways to achieve this are to increase the coolant flow rate and increase the size of the heat sink.Both effectively reduce the thermal resistance to the dissipated power and decrease the junction temperature.From the results,it appears that this is a method strongly favored by the respondents,particularly for1448IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS,VOL.47,NO.3,MAY/JUNE2011Fig.28.Correlation between fragile components and failure/costratio.Fig.29.Correlation between satisfaction of reliability monitoring and failure/cost ratio.low FIT rates (high reliability)of less than 100FITs.Backup systems also appear to be more favored at higher FIT rates;this could be necessary to cope with the higher FIT rates.The sys-tem that is chosen would also depend on the industry sector;for example,high efficiency would allow a larger heat sink while high density would not.Increasing the coolant flow by using a fan also brings its own reliability impact,as some of the respon-ders noted.Fig.20shows the dependence on industry sector;in particular,motor drive manufacturers prefer increased coolant to larger heat sinks because of power density requirements,while component manufacturers—with different priorities—recommend larger heat sinks and voltage suppressors.Fig.21shows these measures against the fragile components.Devices would appear to prefer increased coolant or a larger heat sink (reduced thermal resistance,i.e.,lower temperatures).Capacitors would not appear to benefit from more in par-allel;however,capacitor aging may,to a larger extent,be regarded as due to environmental impact,e.g.,elevated ambient temperature.In Fig.22,these measures are shown against likely rea-sons for failure.Increased coolant is required for heavy load/overload or environmental triggers.Coolant reduces the thermal resistance,i.e.,reducing the long-term temperaturerise.Fig.30.Correlation between satisfaction of reliability monitoring and powerrating.Fig.31.Correlation between existence of deterioration indicator and reliabil-ity improvementmethods.Fig.32.Correlation between type of power device and existence of a deterio-ration indicator.YANG et al.:AN INDUSTRY-BASED SURVEY OF RELIABILITY IN POWER ELECTRONIC CONVERTERS1449In both these cases,the overload condition or environmental change is likely to last for long enough that the steady-state thermal resistance is important,requiring an increased coolant rate.However,while a larger heat sink may contribute to reduc-ing the thermal resistance,it also heavily affects or increases the thermal capacitance.Therefore,system transients,such as load current or power surges,may be safely ridden through if the thermal capacitance is high enough,as indicated in thefigure. The power rating of the converter may also have an influence; from Fig.23,it appears that increased coolant is preferred for higher power levels,suggesting either that the thermal capac-itance is already high enough or that coolant-based systems are simply more widely used at these power levels.C.Temperatures Experienced in Power ConvertersThe temperature swings experienced in converters strongly affect the reliability through the device packaging structure. Fig.24shows that the temperature swings depend strongly on the industry sector.The utility power industry has particularly low temperature swings of30◦C–80◦C,while motor drives have much higher swings of30◦C–110◦C.Automotive has particularly high swings of110◦C and above,although this may be related more to traction converters and not to low-voltage automotive power devices.The component manufac-turers’figures may be misleading,however,since the swings quoted may be those that the device can withstand rather than those actually experienced in the converter operation.Fig.25 shows these effects in a slightly different way,with temperature swing decreasing slightly with increased power rating.This may be indicative of larger converters having steadier loads or longer thermal time constants to reduce the temperature swings. Fig.26shows that there is a weak correlation between the temperature swing and FIT rate,albeit in the opposite direction from that expected since the acceptable FIT rate decreases as the temperature swing increases.This suggests that applications which demand low FIT rates also subject the converters to large temperature swings,making the design of reliable converters doubly challenging.Applications such as traction and wind power,where there are large transients and the thermal cycling issues are severe,are examples of this.It also suggests that greater reliability is being designed into applications with large temperature swings in order to give suitably low failure rates. It is not clear,however,what extra cost or size/mass is incurred in order to achieve this.However,examining the failure costs stated in the responses gives more insights into this tradeoff. After checking the responses,it has been found that failure costs caused by“power devices”are very application dependent. 1)Failure costs in utility power industries and consumerelectronics are not high perhaps because such failures do not cause very dangerous consequences or because there is sufficient redundancy.2)Failure costs in transport applications,military,aerospace,and some motor drives are very high because such failures can cause catastrophic results and unrecoverable effects.For the latter applications,power device reliability is clearly a critical issue.D.Importance of Condition Monitoring in Power Electronics Having discussed the importance of reliability and examined the converter temperatures and methods used to improve re-liability,there remains the question of condition monitoring. Condition monitoring could potentially improve reliability by measuring or estimating the health of the converter to predict when to perform maintenance on the converter.Fig.27shows that opinions on reliability-monitoring methods are split be-tween different industry ponent manufacturers are generally satisfied with reliability-monitoring methods,which may be expected since they are considering the components themselves and not thefinal converters.However,the other sec-tors are generally not satisfied with the reliability-monitoring methods,indicating that when it comes to monitoring converter reliability there is room for improvement.A significant motivation for monitoring reliability is the cost. Therefore,the failure/cost ratio(failure cost divided by original system cost)for a converter is important in determining the motivation for monitoring reliability.Fig.28shows that the number of failure/cost ratio responses in the80%–100%region is particularly high for power devices.However,a significant proportion of responses indicating that power devices are frag-ile reported that the failure/cost ratio is lower(10%–80%), although this is likely to be application dependent.Capacitors also had a generally high failure/cost ratio.Fig.29shows the satisfaction with reliability monitoring when related to the failure/cost ratio.Responders who were sat-isfied with reliability monitoring indicated that the failure/cost ratio is low(<10%),suggesting that,if failure is likely,then its impact is reduced by a low failure/cost ratio.However, those who were not satisfied with reliability monitoring had a high failure/cost ratio(80%–100%),suggesting that there is a strong demand for better reliability-or condition-monitoring systems for power conversion systems where failure costs are high.The satisfaction of reliability monitoring also follows power levels;Fig.30shows that the dissatisfaction increases with power level,perhaps indicating the more critical nature of higher power converter systems.In condition monitoring,the existence of a deterioration indicator is key.Fig.31shows that,if such an indicator is not known,then a range of methods is applied to improve the reliability,from increased coolantflow and heat sink size to in-cluding backup systems.However,if an indicator is known,the most popular solution is increased coolantflow.Fig.32shows the existence of deterioration indicators against the device type. Thyristors have an equal chance of having an indicator or not,while IGBTs and MOSFETs are much more likely not to have indicators.Given that the latter is more common in power converters,it is therefore important to determine which indicators may be used for condition monitoring in power converters.V.D ISCUSSIONThe questionnaire suggests that power electronic converter reliability is indeed an area of concern.The most fragile com-ponents in converters are the power semiconductor devices and1450IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS,VOL.47,NO.3,MAY/JUNE2011capacitors,which is consistent to some extent with a survey result for electronic products in[16],although,there,capacitors were regarded as the most fragile.The key difference here is that this survey examines power electronic converters in general,rather than just printed-circuit-board-based microelec-tronic circuits.The power devices are clearly considered to be the most fragile power components.This correlates with the importance placed by the responses on methods to improve reliability,such as improved cooling.According to the survey,the reliability concern is application dependent.The aerospace sector considers itself to face higher risks than other sectors,and its failure costs are much higher; this is expected given the nature of aviation.The utility power industries have much longer lifetimes,and their duty times are often365d and24h,which suggests a need for a very high reliability level.However,the failure costs are not high probably because a failure does not necessarily cause danger to life and there is adequate designed redundancy in such converters and the utility power network.This is a principal reason behind the ability of this sector to tolerate a FIT rate in excess of500,as noted in Section III-B.The sectors able to tolerate high FIT rates were motor drives industries—where fault tolerant control may have been applied—and lighting and consumer electronics,where the replacement cost is not very high and manufacturers would give customers a new replacement.However,it should be noted that,despite the ability of utility power converters such as static synchronous compensators to tolerate high failure rates due to redundancy, they are often unable to compete with passive solutions such as filters and capacitor banks.The main stresses come from system transients and overload conditions,with the most significant being external or environ-mental conditions,for example,ambient temperature extremes, mechanical vibration,and moisture.The effects of these con-ditions cannot be determined during the converter design.The ability of the converter to withstand these conditions depends upon the margins inherent in the converter,which may lead to rather conservative converter designs.Ultimately,this is a tradeoff between the extra cost and size or mass of the converter and the reduced cost and impact of reliability in the face of unexpected conditions.One aspect of stress which was not investigated here and warrants further investigation is that of voltage stress;indeed,the dc link voltage of a converter has a strong influence on the reliability of power devices. Component or system design and manufacture have been shown in Fig.6to be important,and power cycling has been shown in Fig.7to also be important as significant stress sources.However,these can be considered during the converter design only to some extent since detailed knowledge of the expected converter operating conditions,i.e.,load cycle or mission profile,is frequently not available.To what extent this is possible depends on the modeling techniques available for which there are currently relatively few in the area of reliability[10],[11],[17],[18].Indeed,modern power devices are intended to work at high temperatures,and their thermal behavior is the key design and performance issue.The satisfaction level with reliability-monitoring methods is low at50%,and the knowledge of an indicator for reliability and deterioration during use is also low at23%.According to Johnson and Palmer[19],the top three challenging technology areas are as follows:reliability and qualification,packaging and integration,and thermal management.It is expected that these challenges can be partly solved with continuous research efforts and investment until beyond2025.The results of this suggest that,for thefirst of these challenges,research effort into the power electronic health management area—such as diagnosis, prognosis,and condition monitoring—is needed.A review of such condition-monitoring approaches is given in[15]. Finally,the validity of the questionnaire should be discussed. It is noted that the survey is neither exhaustive nor definitive. It is inevitably limited by the question quality,the restricted detail of the replies,and,most of all,the restricted sample of the responses.However,the effective response rate was satis-factory at19%in view of the quality of the industrial partners responding;in future work,they could be widened in number and application area.VI.C ONCLUSIONA questionnaire survey has been carried out to determine the industrial requirements and expectations of reliability in power electronic converters,systems,and components.Power semiconductor devices were ranked as the devices for which reliability was of most concern.This,and the fact that there is significant need identified by the responders for better reliability-monitoring methods and indicators,suggests that there is significant work to be carried out in this area.A CKNOWLEDGMENTThe authors would like to thank all the responders for their time in contributing to the survey.The authors would also like to thank Dr.A.Muetze of the University of Graz,Austria,for her assistance in this paper.R EFERENCES[1]M.Mermet-Guyennet,“Reliability requirement for traction powerconverters,”in Proc.ECPE Workshop“Built-In Reliability Into Power Electronic Systems”,Jun.2008.[2]M.Held,P.Jacob,G.Nicoletti,P.Scacco,and M.-H.Poech,“Fast powercycling test for insulated gate bipolar transistor modules in traction appli-cations,”Int.J.Electron.,vol.86,no.10,pp.1193–1204,Oct.1999. [3]M.Ciappa and W.Fichtner,“Lifetime prediction of IGBT modules fortraction applications,”in Conf.Rec.IRPS,2000,pp.210–216.[4]L.Fratelli,B.Cascone,G.Glannini,and G.Busatto,“Long term reli-ability testing of HV-IGBT modules in worst case traction operation,”Microelectron.Reliab.,vol.39,no.6/7,pp.1137–1142,Jun./Jul.1999.[5]G.Coquery,llemand,D.Wagner,M.Piton,H.Berg,and K.Sommer,“Reliability improvement of the soldering thermal fatigue with AlSiC technology on traction high power IGBT modules,”in Conf.Rec.EPE, Lausanne,Switzerland,Sep.1999.[6]J.Thébaud,E.Woirgard,C.Zardini,and K.Sommer,“Extensive fatigueinvestigation of solder joints in IGBT high power modules,”in Conf.Rec.ECTC,2000,pp.1436–1442.[7]H.Berg and E.Wolfgang,“Advanced IGBT modules for railway tractionapplications:Reliability testing,”Microelectron.Reliab.,vol.38,no.6–8, pp.1319–1323,Jun.–Aug.1998.[8]U.Scheuermann,“Reliability of pressure contacted intelligentintegrated power modules,”in Conf.Rec.ISPSD,Santa Fe,NM, Jun.2002,pp.249–252.[9]R.Amro,J.Lutz,J.Rudzki,R.Sittig,and M.Thoben,“Power cyclingat high temperature swings of modules with low temperature joining technique,”in Conf.Rec.ISPSD,Naples,Italy,Jun.2006,pp.217–220.。

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目标mission/objective 内部环境internal environment 外部环境external environment 集体目标 group objective 计划 planning 组织 organizing 人事 staffing 领导 leading 操纵 controlling 步骤 process 原理 principle 方法 technique 经理manager 总经理 general manager 行政人员 administrator 主管人员 supervisor 企业enterprise 商业business 产业industry 公司company 效果effectiveness 效率efficiency 企业家 entrepreneur 权利 power 职权 authority 职责 responsibility 科学管理 scientific management 现代经营管理 modern operational management 行为科学behavior science 生产率 productivity 激励 motivate 动机 motive 法律 law 法规regulation 经济体系 economic system 管理职能 managerial function 产品 product 服务 service 利润 profit 满意 satisfaction 归属 affiliation 尊敬 esteem 自我实现self-actualization 人力投入 human input 盈余 surplus 收入 income 成本 cost 资本货物 capital goods 机器 machinery 设备 equipment 建筑 building 存货 inventory 经验法 the empirical approach 人际行为法 the interpersonal behavior approach 集体行为法 the group behavior approach 协作社会系统法 the cooperative social syst ems approach 社会技术系统法 the social-technical systems approach 决策理论法 the decision theory approach 数学法the mathematical approach 系统法the systems approach 随机制宜法 the contingency approach 管理任务法 the managerial roles approach 经营法the operational approach 人际关系human relation 心理学psychology 态度 attitude 压力 pressure 冲突 conflict 招聘 recruit 鉴定 appraisal 选拔select 培训train 报酬compensation 授权delegation of authority 协调coordinate 业绩 performance 考绩制度 merit system 表现 behavior 下级 subordinate 偏差 deviation 检验记录 inspection record 误工记录 record of labor-hours lost 销售量 sales volume 产品质量 quality of products 先进技术 advanced technology 顾客服务customer servi ce 策略strategy 结构structure 领先性primacy 普遍性pervasiveness 担忧 fear 忿恨 resentment 士气 morale 解雇 layoff 批发 wholesale 零售 retail 程序 procedure 规则 rule 规划 program 预算 budget 共同作用 synergy 大型联合企业 conglomerate 资源 resour ce 购买 acquisition 增长目标 growth goal 专利产品 proprietary product 竞争对手 riva l 晋升 promotion 管理决策 managerial decision 商业道德business ethics 有竞争力的价格competitive price 供货商supplier 小贩 vendor 利益冲突 conflict of interests 派生政策 derivative policy 开支帐户expense account 批准程序approval procedure 病假sick leave 休假vacation 工时 labor-hour 机时 machine-hour 资本支出 capital o utlay 现金流量 cash flow 工资率 wage rate 税收率 tax rate 股息 dividend 现金状况 cash position 资金短缺capital shortage 总预算overall budget 资产负债表balance sheet 可行性feasibility 投入原则 the commitment principle 投资回报 return on investment 生产能力 capacityto produce 实际工作者 practitioner 最终结果 end result 业绩 performance 个人利益 personal interest 福利 welfare 市场占有率 market share 创新 innovation 生产率 productivity 利润率 profitability 社会责任 public responsibility 董事会 board of director 组织规模 size of the organiza tion 组织文化 organizational culture 目标管理 management by objectives 评价工具 a ppraisal tool 激励方法 motivational techniques 操纵手段 control device 个人价值 pers onal worth 优势 strength 弱点weakness 机会opportunity 威胁threat 个人责任personal responsibility 顾问counselor 定量目标 quantitative objective 定性目标 qualitative objective 可考核目标 verifiable objective 优先 priority 工资表 payroll 策略 strategy 政策 policy 灵活性 discretion 多种经营 diversification 评估 assessment 一致性 consistency 应变策略 consistency strategy 公共关系 public relation 价值 value 抱负 aspiration 偏见 prejudice 审查 review 批准 approval 要紧决定 major decision 分公司总经理divisio n general manager 资产组合距阵 portfolio matrix 明星 star 问号 question mark 现金牛 cash cow 赖狗 dog 采购 procurement 人口因素 demographic factor 地理因素 geo graphic factor 公司形象 company image 产品系列 product line 合资企业joint venture 破产政策 liquidation strategy 紧缩政策 retrenchment strategy 战术tactics 追随 followership 个性 individuality 性格 personality 安全 safety 自主权latitude 悲观的 pessimistic 静止的 static 乐观的 optimistic 动态的 dynamic 灵活的 flexible 抵制 resistance 敌对 an tagonism 折中 eclectic 激励 motivation 潜意识subconscious 地位status 情感affecti on 欲望desire 压力pressure 满足satisfaction 自我实现的需要 needs for self-actualization 尊敬的需要 esteem needs 归属的需要 affi liation needs 安全的需要 security needs 生理的需要 physiological needs 维持 mainten ance 保健 hygiene 激励因素 motivator 概率 probability 强化理论 reinforcement theor y 反馈 feedback 奖金 bonus 股票期权 stock option 劳资纠纷labor dispute 缺勤率 a bsenteeism 人员流淌turnover 奖励reward 特许经营franchise 热诚 zeal 信心 confid ence 鼓舞 inspire 要素 ingredient 忠诚 loyalty 奉献 devotion 作风 style 品质 trait 习惯性 adaptability 进取性 aggressiveness 热情 enthusiasm 毅力 persistence 人际交往能力 interpersonal skills 行政管理能力administrative ability 智力 intelligence 专制式领导 autocratic leader 民主式领导democratic leader 自由放任式领导 free-rein leader 管理方格图 the managerial grid 工作效率 work efficiency 服从 obedience 领导行为 leader behavior 支持型领导supportive leadership 参与型领导 participative leadership 指导型领导 instrumental leadership 成就取向型领导 achievement-oriented leadership Automated inspection 自动化检验 automatic assembly system 自动化装配系统 applied biomechanics 应用生物力学 CAD/CAM 计算机辅助设计与制造 computer integrated manufacturing system 计算机整合制造系统 data structure 数据结构data base management system 数据库管理系统decision analysis 决策分析engineering economy 工程经济 engineering statistics 工程统计 facilities planning 设施规划 factory diagnoisis and improvement method 工厂诊断与改善方法 financial and cost analysis 财务与成本分析 fuzzy theory and application 模糊理论与应用human-computer interaction (HCI)人因工程与计算机系统 human factors engineering 人因工程 human information processing 人类讯息处理 human-machine system design 人机系统设计human resource management 人力资源管理human system diagnosis and improvement 人体系统诊断与改善 industrial environment evaluation 工业环境评估industrial organizations and management 工业组织与管理 industrial safety 工业安全information technology 信息技术 intellectual property laws 智慧财产权法 knowledge engineering 知识工程 linear algebra 线性代数 manufacturing automation 制造自动化manufacturing engineering 制造工程manufacturing management 制造管理manufacturing process 制造程序 manufacturing systems and management 制造系统与管理market and marketing 市场与行销material flows automation 物流自动化mathematical programming 数学规划multicriteria decision making 多目标规划multi-criteria decision methods 多准则决策分析network analysis 网络分析numerical analysis 数值分析 organization and management 组织与管理 product and technology development management 产品与技术开发管理 production management 生产管理 production planning and control 生产计划与管制 quality control 质量管理 quality engineering 品质工程 quality management techniques and practice 品质管理 queueing theory 等候线理论 reliability engineering 可靠度工程 research，development and innovation management 研究进展管理 semiconductor production management 半导体生产管理sequencing and scheduling 排序与排程 simulation 模拟分析 statistical method 统计方法 stochastic processes 随机系统 strategic management of technology 技术策略 system analysis and design in large scale 大型系统分析与设计 system performance evaluation 系统绩效评估技术 system quality assurance engineering 系统品质保证工程systems engineering 系统工程 systems simulation 系统仿真 vision and colors 视觉与色彩 work physiology 工作生理学 work study 工作研究 Accounting Assistant 会计助理Accounting Clerk 记帐员 Accounting Manager 会计部经理 Accounting Stall 会计部职员Accounting Supervisor 会计主管 Administration Manager 行政经理 Administration Staff 行政人员 Administrative Assistant 行政助理 Administrative Clerk 行政办事员Advertising Staff 广告工作人员Airlines Sales Representative 航空公司定座员Airlines Staff 航空公司职员 Application Engineer 应用工程师 Assistant Manager 副经理 Bond Analyst 证券分析员 Bond Trader 证券交易员 Business Controller 业务主任Business Manager 业务经理 Buyer 采购员 Cashier 出纳员 Chemical Engineer 化学工程师Civil Engineer 土木工程师Clerk/Receptionist 职员/接待员Clerk Typist & Secretary 文书打字兼秘书 Computer Data Input Operator 计算机资料输入员 Computer Engineer 计算机工程师 Computer Processing Operator 计算机处理操作员 Computer System Manager 计算机系统部经理 Copywriter 广告文字撰稿人 Deputy General Manager 副总经理 Economic Research Assistant 经济研究助理Electrical Engineer 电气工程师 Engineering Technician 工程技术员 English Instructor/Teacher 英语教师 Export Sales Manager 外销部经理 Export Sales Staff 外销部职员Financial Controller 财务主任Financial Reporter 财务报告人 F.X. (Foreign Exchange)Clerk 外汇部职员 F.X. Settlement Clerk 外汇部核算员 Fund Manager 财务经理 General Auditor 审计长 General Manager/ President 总经理 General Manager Assistant 总经理助理 General Manager's Secretary 总经理秘书 Hardware Engineer 计算机硬件工程师Import Liaison Staff 进口联络员Import Manager 进口部经理Insurance Actuary 保险公司理赔员 International Sales Staff 国际销售员 Interpreter 口语翻译 Legal Adviser 法律顾问 Line Supervisor 生产线主管 Maintenance Engineer 维修工程师Management Consultant 管理顾问Manager 经理Manager for Public Relations 公关部经理 Manufacturing Engineer 制造工程师 Manufacturing Worker 生产员工Market Analyst 市场分析员Market Development Manager 市场开发部经理Marketing Manager 市场销售部经理 Marketing Staff 市场销售员 Marketing Assistant 销售助理 Marketing Executive 销售主管 Marketing Representative 销售代表 Marketing Representative Manager 市场调研部经理Mechanical Engineer 机械工程师Mining Engineer 采矿工程师 Music Teacher 音乐教师 Naval Architect 造船工程师 Office Assistant 办公室助理Office Clerk 职员Operational Manager 业务经理Package Designer 包装设计师Passenger Reservation Staff 乘客票位预订员Personnel Clerk 人事部职员Personnel Manager 人事部经理 Plant/ Factory Manager 厂长 Postal Clerk 邮政人员Private Secretary 私人秘书 Product Manager 生产部经理 Production Engineer 产品工程师 Professional Staff 专业人员 Programmer 电脑程序设计师 Project Staff 项目策划人员 Promotional Manager 推售部经理 Proof-reader 校对员 Purchasing Agent 采购进货员Quality Control Engineer 质量管理工程师Real Estate Staff 房地产职员Recruitment Co-ordinator 招聘协调人Regional Manger 地区经理Research ＆.Development Engineer 研究开发工程师 Restaurant Manager 饭店经理 Sales and Planning Staff 销售计划员 Sales Assistant 销售助理 Sales Clerk 店员、售货员 Sales Coordinator 销售协调人 Sales Engineer 销售工程师 Sales Executive 销售主管 Sales Manager 销售部经理Salesperson 销售员Seller Representative 销售代表Sales Supervisor 销售监管 School Registrar 学校注册主任 Secretarial Assistant 秘书助理Secretary 秘书 Securities Custody Clerk 保安人员 Security Officer 安全人员 Senior Accountant 高级会计 Senior Consultant/Adviser 高级顾问 Senior Employee 高级雇员Senior Secretary 高级秘书 Service Manager 服务部经理 Simultaneous Interpreter 同声传译员 Software Engineer 计算机软件工程师 Supervisor 监管员 Systems Adviser 系统顾问Systems Engineer 系统工程师 Systems Operator 系统操作员 Technical Editor 技术编辑 Technical Translator 技术翻译 Technical Worker 技术工人 Telecommunication Executive 电讯（电信）员 Telephonist / Operator 电话接线员、话务员 Tourist Guide 导游 Trade Finance Executive 贸易财务主管 Trainee Manager 培训部经理 Translation Checker 翻译核对员 Translator 翻译员 Trust Banking Executive 银行高级职员 Typist 打字员 Wordprocessor Operator 文字处理操作员A access discrimination 进入歧视 action research 动作研究 adjourning 解散adhocracy 特别结构administrative principle 管理原则artifacts 人工环境artificial intelligence 人工智能工巧匠 avoiding learning 规避性学习 ambidextrous approach 双管齐下策略B balance sheet 资产负债表 bcg matrix 波士顿咨询集团矩阵bona fide occupation qualifications 善意职业资格审查 bounded rationality 有限理性bureaucracy 官僚机构 benchmarking 标杆瞄准 bounded rationality perspective 有限理性方法boundary-spanning roles 跨超边界作用C computer-aided design and computer-automated manufacturing(cad/cam) 计算机辅助设计与计算机自动生产confrontation 对话 consortia 企业联合 change agent 变革促进者 chaos theory 混沌理论 charismatic leaders 魅力型领导者 charity principle 博爱原则 coercive power 强制权 cohesiveness 凝聚力 collaborative management 合作型管理 comparable worth 可比较价值competitive benchmarking 竞争性基准confrontation meeting 碰头会constancy of purpose 永久性目标 contingency approach 权变理论 corporate social performance 公司社会表现 corporate social responsibility 公司社会责任 corporate social responsiveness 公司社会反应 critical incident 关键事件 current assets 流淌资产 current liabilities 流淌负债culture strength 文化强度 creative department 制造性部门 craft technology 技艺性技术 contextual dimension 关联性维度 continuous process production 连续加工生产 collectivity stage 集体化阶段 clan control 小团体操纵 clan culture 小团体文化coalition 联合团体 collaborative 协作网络 centrality 集中性 centraliazation 集权化charismatic authority 竭尽忠诚的权力 D decentralization 分权democracy management 民主管理 departmentalization 部门化 differential rate system 差别报酬系统 dialectical inquiry methods 辩证探求法 division of labor 劳动分工 downward mobility 降职流淌 dynamic engagement 动态融合 dynamic network 动态网络 domain 领域 direct interlock 直接交叉 divisional form 事业部模式 differentiation strategy 差别化战略 decision premise 决策前提 dual-core approach 二元核心模式 E electronic data-processing(edp) 电子数据处理employee-oriented style 员工导向型风格empowerment 授权encoding 解码end-user computing 终端用户计算系统entrepreneurship 企业家精神 equity 净资产 equity theory 公平理论 espoused value 信仰价值 ethnocentric manager 种族主义的管理者 expectancy theory 期望理论 expense budget 支出预算expense center 费用中心external audit 外部审计external stakeholders 外部利益有关者 extrinsic rewards 外部奖励 ethic ombudsperson 伦理巡视官 external adaption 外部习惯性 elaboration stage 精细阶段 entrepreneurial stage 创业阶段 escalating commitment 顽固认同 F family group 家庭集团 financial statement 财务报表flat hierarchies 扁平型结构flexible budget 弹性预算force-field theory 场力理论 formal authority 合法权力 formal systematic appraisal 正式的系统评估 franchise 特许经营权 formalization stage 规范化阶段 functional grouping 职能组合 formal channel of communication 正式沟通渠道 G game theory 博弈论general financial condition 通常财务状况geocentric manager 全球化管理者general manager 总经理 globalization 全球化 gossip chain 传言链 grapevine 传言网global strategic partnership 全球战略伙伴关系general environment 通常环境generalist 全面战略geographic grouping 区域组合global company 全球公司global geographic structure 全球区域结构 H hawthorne effect 霍桑效应 heuristic principles 启发性原理 hierarchy 科层制度 hiring specification 招聘细则 horizontal linkage model 横向联系模型 hybrid structure 混合结构 high tech 高接触 high-velocity environments 高倍速环境 I impoverished management 放任式管理 income statement 损益表 information transformation 信息转换 infrastructure 基础设施 integrative process 整合过程intelligent enterprises 智力企业 internal audit 内部审计 internal stakeholder 内部有关者 internship 实习 intrapreneurship 内部企业家精神 intrinsic reward 内在报酬inventory 库存, 存货internal integration 内部整合interorganization relationship 组织间的关系 intergroup conflict 团体间冲突 interlocking directorate 交叉董事会 institutional perspective 机构的观点 intuitive decision making 直觉决策 idea champion 构思倡导者 incremental change 渐进式变革 informal organizational structure 非正式组织结构 informal performance appraisal 非正式业绩评价 J job description 职务描述job design 职务设计job enlargement 职务扩大化job enrichment 职务丰富化 job rotation 职务轮换 job specialization 职务专业化 K key performance areas 关键业务区 key result areas 关键绩效区 L labor productivity index 劳动生产力指数 laissez management 自由化管理 large batch production 大批量生产lateral communication 横向沟通leadership style 领导风格least preferred co-worker(lpc)最不喜欢的同事 legitimate power 合法权力 liability 负债 liaison 联络者 line authority 直线职权 liquidity 流淌性 liaison role 联络员角色 long-linked technology 纵向关联技术 losses from conflict 冲突带来的缺失 low-cost leadership 低成本领先 M management by objective 目标管理 Managerial Grid 管理方格 matrix bosses 矩阵主管management champion 管理倡导者materials-requirements planning(MRP) 物料需求计划 Mslow,s hierarchy of needs 马斯洛需求层次论 marketing argument 管理文化多元化营销观 multiculturalism 文化多元主义multidivisional firm 多部门公司 moral rules 道德准则 management by walking around(MBWA) 走动式管理 matrix structure 矩阵结构 multinational enterprise(MNE) 跨国公司moral relativism 道德相对主义mechanistic system 机械式组织middle-of-the-road management 中庸式管理meso theory 常态理论multidomestic strategy 多国化战略 mediating technology 调停技术 N na?ve relativism 朴素相对主义need-achievement 成就需要 norming 规范化 norms 规范 nonprogrammed decisions 非程序化决策 nonsubstitutability 非替代性 nonroutine technology 非例行技术 niche 领地 O off-the-job training 脱产培训 on-the-job training 在职培训 operational budget 运营预算order backlog 订单储备organic system 有机系统organizational development(OD) 组织进展 orientation 定位 outcome interdependence 结果的相互依靠性 outplacement services 外延服务 organization ecosystem 组织生态系统 P paradox of authority 权威的矛盾 paradox of creativity 制造力的矛盾 paradox of disclosure 开放的矛盾 paradox of identify 身份的矛盾 paradox of individuality 个性的矛盾paradox of regression 回归的矛盾 partial productivity 部分生产率 participative management 参与式管理path-goal model 路径目标模型peer recruiter 同级招聘political action committees(PACs) 政治活动委员会 polycentric manager 多中心管理者portfolio framework 业务组合框架portfolio investment 资产组合投资positive reinforcement 正强化production flexibility 生产柔性profitability 收益率programmed decisions 程序化决策 psychoanalytic view 精神分析法 paradigm 范式personal ratios 人员比例 pooled dependence 集合性依存 professional bureaucracy 专业官僚机构problem identification 问题识别problemistic search 问题搜寻population ecology model 种群生态模型Q quality 质量quality circle 质量圈question mark 问题类市场 quid pro quo 交换物 R rational model of decision making 理性决策模式 realistic job preview(RJP) 实际工作预览 reciprocal interdependence 相互依存性resource dependence 资源依靠理论 routine technology 例行技术 retention 保留rational approach 理性方法 rational model 理性模型 rational-legal authority 理性—合法权威 S semivariable cost 准可变成本 sense of potency 力量感 sensitivity training 敏感性训练 sexual harassment 性骚扰 short-run capacity changes 短期生产能力变化 single-strand chain 单向传言链 situational approach 情境方法 situational force 情境力量 situational leadership theory 情境领导理论 sliding-scale budget 移动规模预算 small-batch production 小规模生产 sociotechnical approaches 社会科技方法 span of management 管理幅度 staff authority 参谋职权 standing plan 长设计划step budget 分步预算 stewardship principle 管家原则 stimulus 刺激 storming 调整阶段strategic management 战略管理strategic partnering 战略伙伴关系strategy formulation 战略制定 strategy implementation 战略实施 strategic control 战略操纵strategic contingencies 战略权变 satisficing 满意度 subsystems 子系统 subunits 子单位 synergy 协同 system boundary 系统边界 structure dimension 结构性维度sequential interdependence 序列性依存self-directed team 自我管理型团队specialist 专门战略 strategy and structure changes 战略与结构变革 symptoms of structural deficiency 结构无效的特征T tall hierarchies 高长型科层结构 task force or project team 任务小组或者项目团队 task independence 任务的内部依靠性 task management 任务型管理 task-oriented style 任务导向型管理风格 total productivity 全部生产率 Total Quality Management 全面质量管理 training positions 挂职培训 training program 培训程序 transactional leaders 交易型领导 transformational leaders 变革型领导 treatment discrimination 歧视待遇 two-factory theory 双因素理论 two-boss employees 双重主管员工 technical or product champion 技术或者产品的倡导者 U unfreezing 解冻 unit production 单位产品V variation 变种子 variety 变量 valence 效价 variable costs 可变成本 vertical communication 纵向沟通 vertical integration 纵向一体化 vestibule training 仿真培训 volume flexibility 产量的可伸缩性vertical linkage 纵向连接 venture team 风险团队 value based leadership 基于价值的领导W win-lose situation 输赢情境win-win situation 双赢情境workforce literacy 员工的读写能力 work in progress 在制品 work flow redesign 工作流程再造成work flow automation 工作流程自动化 whistle blowing 揭发 Z zero-sum 零与 zone of indifference(area of acceptance) 无差异区域(可同意区域)1。

外文资料名称：Value-Based Management ofSoftware Testing外文资料出处：Institute of SoftwareTechnology & Interactive System/research/valuebased-management-software-testing/ 附件： 1.外文资料翻译译文2.外文原文基于价值的软件测试管理作者：鲁道夫,斯蒂芬,保罗译：荣子健摘要:根据研究表明测试已经成为软件开发过程中一个很重要的环节，它占据了整个软件开发成本的百分之三十到五十。

然而测试往往没有重视到商业价值，也可能与预期的目标不一致。

路径测试、分支测试、功能测试、异常测试、场景测试以及需求测试等对于软件来说都是同等重要的。

然而在实践中百分之八十的价值往往来自百分之二十的软件。

为了从软件测试中得到最大的投资回报，我们通过测试管理最大化软件的价值。

在本章，我们将详细解释对基于价值的软件测试，阐述支持基于价值的测试实施，建立基于价值的测试管理的框架，并举例说明该框架。

关键词: 基于价值的软件测试,基于价值的测试,测试成本,测试收益,测试管理11.1 前言测试是软件质量保证过程中最重要和最广泛使用的方法。

校验和验证旨在通过需求分析, 测试软件来确保其正确运行功能，保证软件的质量和软件的可靠性。

在IEEE610.12(1990)中,测试被定义为“在规定条件下运行系统对组件进行观察和记录,并对系统或者组件进行评价的活动”。

测试在实践过程中被广泛的使用，质量保证策略在诸多组织中扮演着重要的角色。

软件影响着成千上万人的日常生活，担负着巨大的任务。

因此软件在不久的将来将显得尤为重要。

研究表明，测试通常消耗软件开发成本的30%至50%。

对于安全危急系统，甚至更高的比例也不足为奇。

因此软件测试面临的挑战就是为了进行高效的测试而寻找更多的合理途径。

软件测试管理的价值在于努力减少测试成本和满足用户需求。

电力职称英语试题及答案一、选择题（每题2分，共20分）1. The primary function of a transformer is to:A. Convert voltage levelsB. Amplify electrical signalsC. Rectify alternating currentD. Filter electrical noise答案：A2. In an electric power system, the term "load" refers to:A. The source of electrical powerB. The electrical equipment that consumes powerC. The transmission lines that carry powerD. The protective devices for circuits答案：B3. Which of the following is not a type of electrical fault?A. Short circuitB. OverloadC. Ground faultD. Surge protection答案：D4. The unit of electrical power is the:A. VoltB. AmpereC. WattD. Ohm答案：C5. The purpose of a circuit breaker is to:A. Provide a path for excess currentB. Maintain a constant voltage levelC. Protect the circuit from overcurrentD. Convert AC to DC答案：C二、填空题（每题1分，共10分）6. The three main components of an electric power system are the _______, transmission, and distribution.答案：generation7. The SI unit for electrical resistance is the _______.答案：ohm8. In a parallel circuit, the total resistance is always_______ than any individual resistance.答案：lower9. The process of converting mechanical energy intoelectrical energy is known as _______.答案：generation10. A fuse is a type of protective device that operates by_______ when the current exceeds a safe level.答案：melting三、简答题（每题5分，共30分）11. Explain the difference between AC and DC power systems. 答案：AC (Alternating Current) power systems use a current that regularly reverses direction, while DC (Direct Current) power systems use a current that flows in one direction only.12. What is the significance of Ohm's Law in electrical engineering?答案：Ohm's Law is fundamental in electrical engineering asit relates the voltage (V), current (I), and resistance (R) in a simple electrical circuit, expressed as V = IR, allowing for calculations of these quantities.13. Describe the role of a generator in an electric power system.答案：A generator is a device that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy, serving as the primary source of power in an electric power system.14. What are the functions of a capacitor in an electrical circuit?答案：A capacitor in an electrical circuit can store energy, filter signals, and block direct current while allowing alternating current to pass.四、计算题（每题5分，共20分）15. Calculate the total resistance in a circuit with two resistors in parallel, where R1 = 100 ohms and R2 = 200 ohms.答案：\( R_{total} = \frac{R1 \times R2}{R1 + R2} = \frac{100 \times 200}{300} = \frac{20000}{300} = 66.67 \) ohms16. If a 12-volt battery is connected to a 3-ohm resistor, what is the current flowing through the resistor?答案：\( I = \frac{V}{R} = \frac{12}{3} = 4 \) amperes17. What is the power consumed by a 5-ohm resistor with a current of 2 amperes flowing through it?答案：\( P = I^2 \times R = 2^2 \times 5 = 4 \times 5 = 20 \) watts18. If a 240-volt AC motor draws a current of 5 amperes, what is the apparent power?答案：\( S = V \times I = 240 \times 5 = 1200 \) volt-amperes五、论述题（每题10分，共20分）19. Discuss the importance of energy efficiency in power systems and how it can be achieved.答案：Energy efficiency is crucial in power systems as it reduces energy consumption, lowers operational costs, and decreases environmental impact. It can be achieved through various means such as using high-efficiency equipment, optimizing system operations, and implementing demand-side management strategies.20. Explain the concept of smart grids and their advantages over traditional power systems.答案：Smart grids are advanced power systems that use digital technology and automation to improve the efficiency, reliability, and sustainability of electricity production anddistribution. They offer numerous advantages over traditional systems, including better demand response, enhanced grid stability, and the ability to integrate renewable energy sources more effectively.。