2009-11-张莉-chapter8-The Biosphere

最全普利策获奖小说(1971-2023年)以下是自1971年至2023年期间获得普利策小说奖的最全列表。

这些小说以其出色的叙事、独特的故事情节和深刻的主题而在文学界享有盛誉。

1971年：Humboldt's Gift by Saul Bellow1972年：Angle of Repose by Wallace Stegner1973年：The Optimist's Daughter by Eudora Welty1974年：The Killer Angels by Michael Shaara1975年：The Fixer by Bernard Malamud1976年：Humboldt's Gift by Saul Bellow (共享奖项)1976年：Elbow Room by James Alan McPherson (共享奖项)1978年：Elbow Room by James Alan McPherson1979年：The Stories of John Cheever by John Cheever1980年：The Executioner's Song by Norman Mailer1981年：A Confederacy of Dunces by John Kennedy Toole1982年：Rabbit Is Rich by John Updike1983年：The Color Purple by Alice Walker1984年：Ironweed by William Kennedy1985年：Foreign Affairs by Alison Lurie1986年：Lonesome Dove by Larry McMurtry1987年：A Summons to Memphis by Peter Taylor1988年：Beloved by Toni Morrison1989年：Breathing Lessons by Anne Tyler1990年：The Mambo Kings Play Songs of Love by Oscar Hijuelos1991年：Rabbit at Rest by John Updike1992年：A Thousand Acres by Jane Smiley1993年：A Good Scent from a Strange Mountain by Robert Olen Butler1994年：The Shipping News by E. Annie Proulx1995年：The Stone Diaries by Carol Shields1996年：Independence Day by Richard Ford1997年：Martin Dressler: The Tale of an American Dreamer by Steven Millhauser1998年：American Pastoral by Philip Roth1999年：The Hours by Michael Cunningham2000年：Interpreter of Maladies by Jhumpa Lahiri2001年：The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier & Clay by Michael Chabon2002年：Empire Falls by Richard Russo2003年：Middlesex by Jeffrey Eugenides2004年：The Known World by Edward P. Jones2005年：Gilead by Marilynne Robinson2006年：March by Geraldine Brooks2007年：The Road by Cormac McCarthy2008年：The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao by Junot Díaz2009年：Olive Kitteridge by Elizabeth Strout2010年：Tinkers by Paul Harding2011年：A Visit from the Goon Squad by Jennifer Egan2012年：No award given2013年：The Orphan Master's Son by Adam Johnson2014年：The Goldfinch by Donna Tartt2015年：All the Light We Cannot See by Anthony Doerr2016年：The Sympathizer by Viet Thanh Nguyen2017年：The Underground Railroad by Colson Whitehead2018年：Less by Andrew Sean Greer2019年：The Overstory by Richard Powers2020年：The Nickel Boys by Colson Whitehead2021年：The Night Watchman by Louise Erdrich2022年：The Sympathizer by Viet Thanh Nguyen (共享奖项)2022年：A Little Life by Hanya Yanagihara (共享奖项)2023年：Bewilderment by Richard Powers以上是自1971年至2023年期间获得普利策小说奖的完整列表。

Nature of opaque components on Mercury:Insights into a Mercurian magma oceanM.A.Riner,1P.G.Lucey,2S.J.Desch,1and F.M.McCubbin3Received25September2008;revised27October2008;accepted5November2008;published20January2009.[1]Analysis of Mariner10and MESSENGER data sets reveal the importance of opaque components on Mercury’s surface.A global darkening agent,suggested to be ilmenite or other Fe-,Ti-bearing opaque mineral,has been invoked to explain the lower albedo of Mercury relative to the lunar highlands.Separately,a low-reflectance material(LRM)has been recognized as one of three dominant color terrains.We present laboratory reflectance spectra of ilmenite size separates and other candidate Fe-,Ti-bearing oxide minerals.These oxides cannot sufficiently darken Mercury without violating neutron spectrometer constraints on surface iron content.The spectra of all samples exhibit negative spectral slopes shortward of500nm,consistent with the LRM.We review models of crystallization of an FeO-poor Mercurian magma ocean and show that lack of a plagioclase flotation crust could lead to a thin quench crust with near surface layers of incompatible-and Ti-rich late stage cumulates,consistent with Mercury’s albedo and LRM.Citation:Riner,M.A.,P.G.Lucey,S.J.Desch,and F.M.McCubbin(2009),Nature of opaque components on Mercury:Insights into a Mercurian magma ocean,Geophys.Res. Lett.,36,L02201,doi:10.1029/2008GL036128.1.Introduction[2]Mercury has several unique characteristics that make it important in comparative planetology.Mercury’s high decompressed density implies an unusual iron-rich bulk composition but multiple lines of evidence suggest a surface very low in iron.If the low iron content of the surface is representative of Mercury’s mantle,then the end result of a magma ocean on Mercury could be unlike that of the Moon.[3]Mercury’s surface composition is still poorly con-strained,but is depleted in iron.Energy dependent neutron measurements by the MESSENGER Neutron Spectrometer (NS)limit iron on the observed portion of Mercury to <6wt%in any oxidation state,equivalent to7.5wt%FeO (attributing all the neutron absorption to Fe;the presence Ti, Sm and Gd would lower the upper limit on Fe)[Solomon et al.,2008].Microwave emission observations have con-strained FeO+TiO2to6wt%on Mercury’s surface,using an empirical correlation between composition and the dielectric loss tangent[Mitchell and de Pater,1994;Jeanloz et al.,1995].By comparison,the lunar highlands generally contain<6wt%FeO and<1wt%TiO2.[4]Earth-based telescopic spectra of Mercury lack any unambiguous features near1m m that would indicate the presence of ferrous iron bearing silicates,suggesting low FeO abundances in Mercury’s silicates[Vilas,1988].More recently,NASA MESSENGER hyperspectral MASCS (Mercury Atmosphere and Surface Composition Spectrom-eter)and multispectral MDIS(Mercury Dual Imaging System)data have not revealed a1m m band,even in high-spatial-resolution data[McClintock et al.,2008; Robinson et al.,2008],limiting silicate FeO content to 2–3wt%[McClintock et al.,2008].[5]In addition to the low iron abundance,Mercury’s surface probably contains one or more opaque components [Robinson and Lucey,1997;Blewett et al.,2007;Denevi and Robinson,2008;Robinson et al.,2008].Opaques have been inferred from two lines of evidence.A global darken-ing agent has been suggested to explain Mercury’s low overall albedo relative to the lunar highlands.Denevi and Robinson[2008]compared Mariner10and Clementine albedo observations and estimated that Mercury surface material that has not been darkened by long exposure to space(a process called space weathering)is30%darker than immature lunar highlands at490nm and suggested a Mercurian crust with composition similar to the lunar highlands,but containing a global darkening agent,possibly ilmenite.Iron metal is not favored as the opaque component because it has a steep spectral slope,inconsistent with Mercury’s relatively shallow spectrum[Robinson et al., 2008].MESSENGER MDIS albedo comparisons to the Moon confirm immature portions of Mercury are darker than immature lunar highlands,by approximately10–20% at750nm[Robinson et al.,2008].The other expression of an opaque component is within a low-albedo,relatively blue terrain(one of the three areally extensive color terrains), termed‘‘low-reflectance material’’(LRM)[Robinson et al., 2008].Previous studies of Mariner10color data identified small-scale color variations attributable to an opaque com-ponent on Mercury[Robinson and Lucey,1997;Blewett et al.,2007].Similar analysis with MESSENGER multispec-tral images suggest a high-opaque material associated with some craters and ejecta,indicative of a high-opaque layer underlying a moderate-opaque layer[Robinson et al.,2008]. MESSENGER hyperspectral and multispectral observations of LRM have revealed negative(blue)slopes shortward of minima at400nm(MASCS)or600nm(MDIS)in ratioed spectra[McClintock et al.,2008;Robinson et al.,2008], consistent with measured spectra of ilmenite.The LRM may be the same composition as the average crust,with more of the global darkening agent or these two terrains may have different compositions.GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH LETTERS,VOL.36,L02201,doi:10.1029/2008GL036128,2009 ClickHereforFullArticle1School of Earth and Space Exploration,Arizona State University,Tempe,Arizona,USA.2Hawaii Institute of Geophysics and Planetology,University of Hawaii,Manoa,Honolulu,Hawaii,USA.3Department of Geosciences,Stony Brook University,Stony Brook,New York,USA.Copyright2009by the American Geophysical Union.0094-8276/09/2008GL036128$05.00[6]The identity of the proposed opaque component may provide constraints on the FeO content and surface con-ditions of Mercury.Many opaque minerals,rich in Fe and Ti,do not have diagnostic absorptions at 1m m and may increase the amount of iron permitted on the surface by NIR spectral observations.Additionally,opaque oxide minerals on the Moon retain signatures of key lunar formation conditions such as low oxygen fugacity and high melt and crystallization temperatures;opaque oxides could be diag-nostic of early conditions on Mercury if they could be identified [Lindsley ,1991].[7]To aid in the identification of the opaque components on Mercury’s surface,we present new spectral reflectance data for plausible candidate opaque minerals.While ilmen-ite is suggested by analogy with the Moon,many other opaque minerals occur in lunar rocks (e.g.,in lunar high-lands rocks spinel,not ilmenite,is the dominant opaque mineral)[El Goresy et al.,1973].We also present spectra of ilmenite size fractions to determine the effect of particle size on its albedo and spectral properties.2.Results[8]We have measured the reflectance spectra of pow-dered Fe-Ti-rich members of each major oxide solid solu-tion series present on the Moon:chromite-u ¨lvospinel (FeCr 2O 4-Fe 2TiO 4),ilmenite-geikielite (FeTiO 3-MgTiO 3),and armalcolite-anosovite ((Mg,Fe)Ti 2O 5-Ti 3O 5)[El Goresy et al.,1973](Table 1).All samples were synthetic,to avoid spectral contamination from Fe 3+,con-sistent with the oxidation conditions suggested by Mer-cury’s high metal content and low surface iron.The compositions were verified by X-ray powder diffraction and electron microprobe analysis.All spectra were acquired at RELAB at 30°phase angle with a Halon standard.[9]The spectra,displayed in Figure 1,all show a negative slope shortward of 500nm.In ilmenite this has been attributed to the long-wavelength shoulder of a reflec-tance peak at 330nm due to Fe-Ti charge transfer,extend-ing to a minimum at 550nm before upturning to a reflectance peak at 1m m [Wagner et al.,1987].The negative slope shortward of 500nm is characteristic,perhaps diagnostic,of Fe-,Ti-bearing oxides.At longer wavelengths the Fe-,Ti-rich oxides have distinct differences in their reflectance spectra,exhibiting the following maxima:1.0m m in ilmenite,1.5m m in both u ¨lvospinels,and 2.2m m in ferropseudobrookite.[10]Because of the prior emphasis on ilmenite as an opaque candidate for Mercury,we have measured the reflectance spectra of six size fractions of ilmenite,from 5–10m m to >63m m (Figure 2).The synthetic ilmenite was sieved using a Gilson GA-6Sonic Autosiever using five wire woven sieves (between 20and 63m m)and a fines collector,followed by 10and 5m m precision electroformed sieve and fines collectors.The <5m m and 20–38m m size fractions did not yield sufficient sample to measure spectra.The grain size distributions of each size fraction have been verified via scanning electron microscope images.[11]Ilmenite darkens with decreasing grain size from 300–700nm:the 5–10m m sample is 23–29%darker than the >63m m sample.Additionally,the two finest size fractions (5–10m m and 10–20m m)show a dramatic increase in reflectance resulting in a distinct maximum at 1m m.[12]We explore the ability of ilmenite to darken Mer-cury’s surface by modeling mixtures of ilmenite (10–20m m)with the 490nm immature lunar highlands reflectance values published by Denevi and Robinson [2008].Studies of lunar soils show that the 10–20m m size fraction is the optically significant size fraction,best representing the spectra of the bulk soil [Pieters et al.,1993].ThereforeTable position of the Six Synthetic Opaque Oxide Samples aMineral Grain Size Ideal Formula wt%TiO 2(Ti 2O 3)wt%FeO wt%Other OxidesArmalcolite unsievedb(Mg,Fe)Ti 2O 574.514.0MgO 7.8Al 2O 31.8Cr 2O 32.085%Armalcolite unsieved 0.85(Mg,Fe)Ti 2O 574.4(3.4)14.6MgO 7.615%Anosovite0.15Ti 3O 5Ferropseudobrookite unsieved FeTi 2O 568.831.2Ilmenite 10–20m m FeTiO 352.645.4U¨lvospinel <63m m Mg 1.2Fe 0.8TiO 443.030.9MgO 26.0U¨lvospinel <63m mMg 0.4Fe 1.6TiO 437.954.5MgO 7.6a Oxide abundances are based on the average of three electron microprobe spots,normalized to 100%.bUnsieved grain size:most <20mm.Figure 1.Spectra of six synthetic opaque oxides that could plausibly exist on Mercury’s surface.Inset shows spectra in the MASCS wavelength range and offset for clarity.Minerals are spectrally similar in the UVVIS range (inset)but many have diagnostic absorptions at longer wavelengths.we use the 10–20m m size fraction of ilmenite in the mixture ing the equations of Hapke [1981],we convert the ilmenite and lunar reflectance values of Denevi and Robinson [2008]to single scattering albedo,which are then added according to the weighted modal volume frac-tions of each component.The single scattering albedo of the mixture is then converted back to reflectance.To darken immature lunar highlands (0.2–0.26reflectance)to match Mercury (30%darker at 490nm)requires 27–38wt%ilmenite.A Mercurian crust 10–20%darker than the Moon’s,as estimated by Robinson et al.[2008],requires 8–20wt%ilmenite (Table 2).[13]These high possible abundances of ilmenite suggest that the maximum in ilmenite’s spectrum near 1m m may be important and since it coincides with the 1m m silicate ferrous iron absorption band it may affect silicate FeO abundance estimates.The maximum at 1m m in ilmenite has been noted previously [Wagner et al.,1987],but was weaker,probably due to the larger grain size of that sample (<150m m).We explore the ability of ilmenite to mask the ferrous iron 1m m absorption on Mercury’s surface by modeling mixtures (after Hapke [1981],as above)of fine-grained ilmenite (10–20m m)with a laboratory spectrum of a Mercury analog,lunar highland soil (Apollo 16sample 61141,5.14wt%FeO)[Pieters et al.,2000;Taylor et al.,2001].Modeled mixtures show that the 1m m feature is completely masked,with no detectable 1m m feature forilmenite weight fractions 16–40wt%(Figure 3).For ilmenite weight fractions >40wt%,a maximum at 1m m is observed.3.Discussion[14]The measurements and model results above con-strain the nature of the global darkening agent and LRM terrain,and provide insights into the evolution of Mercury’s magma ocean.We can exclude the Fe-,Ti-bearing oxides studied here as the global darkening agent because the oxide abundances required to sufficiently darken lunar highlands material are inconsistent with the limits on Fe and Ti abundance from neutron and microwave observations.[15]The combination of low iron and low albedo excludes Fe-,Ti-rich oxides but requires iron in a phase that absorbs more efficiently than silicates per unit mass of iron.Fe-Ti-rich opaque oxides are too iron-rich,particu-larly since coexisting silicates would also be iron rich.This argues for the presence of a low iron opaque.While pure Mg oxide endmembers are not formally opaque [Deer et al.,1966],Fe-Ti charge transfers are strong,so more magnesian members of these solid solution series may be very dark even with low Fe and Ti abundances.No spectra of low-Fe members are available but it is plausible that these minerals are sufficiently dark to account for the spectral effects while also sufficiently low in Fe +Ti to account for the neutron and microwave constraints.[16]In contrast,Fe-,Ti-bearing oxides measured here are consistent with a possible LRM opaque component.The observed minima at 400nm or 600nm,the shallow spectral slope and low albedo of the LRM can be explained by the presence of any of the measured opaque oxides.While the LRM is widespread it does not cover sufficient surface area to be subject,individually,to the constraints provided by microwave and neutron observations.However,more mag-nesian oxides may also be consistent with the observed LRM spectral characteristics.Because their spectra are not available,it is not known how much Fe and Ti in oxide minerals is necessary to produce a negative spectral slope in the UV ,flat slope in the VIS-NIR,and low albedo.By analogy,trace amounts of Fe 3+can be detected in the UV ,and absorption bands in this region saturate with relatively small amounts of Fe 3+,it is possible but not known if that trend applies to Fe +2or Ti [Cloutis et al.,2008].Measure-ments of more magnesian members of these oxide solid solution series are needed to test whether more Mg-rich oxides are consistent with the spectral properties of the LRM.[17]The identities of opaques have implications for the chemistry of co-existing silicates.The liquid from whichtheFigure 2.Spectra of six size fractions of a single synthetic ilmenite sample show darkening with decreasing grain size and a dramatic increase in reflectance near 1m m for the two smallest size fractions (5–10m m and 10–20m m).Table 2.Modeled 490nm Reflectance of a Putative Immature Mercurian Crust as a Mixture of Immature Lunar Highlands a%DarkeningLunar Reflectance wt%Ilmenite (wt %FeO +TiO 2)Equivalent wt%Fe +Ti30%(Denevi and Robinson ,2008)0.2032.021.90.2627.018.520%(Robinson et al.,2008)0.2020.814.20.2616.511.320%(Robinson et al.,2008)0.2010.0 6.80.267.85.3aAverage from Denevi and Robinson [2008]and ilmenite (10–20m m).Fe-bearing opaque oxides formed would necessarily be enriched in iron,implying the silicates crystallizing,in equilibrium,are similarly Fe-rich.However,absorption by ferrous iron at 1m m is not observed anywhere on Mercury.This apparent contradiction could be resolved by the pres-ence of more magnesian oxides,the ability of fine-grained ilmenite to mask the ferrous iron absorption,or some combination of these two.[18]High abundances of opaque oxide minerals are required to darken lunar highlands material to match Mer-cury’s albedo.Such high oxide abundances are inconsistent with a lunar-like plagioclase flotation crust but may be consistent with a low FeO Mercurian magma ocean.In the lunar case,it is widely agreed that a significant portion of the Moon was once molten [Shearer and Papike ,1999,and references therein].As the Moon cooled,mafic minerals,olivine and pyroxene,crystallized and sank.The earliest minerals to form were Mg-rich and as crystallization con-tinued the residual liquid and subsequent mafic cumulates became increasingly Fe-rich.When the lunar magma ocean was about 75%crystallized,plagioclase began to crystallize.Due to the low density (2.7g/cm 3)of plagioclase and the higher density of the Fe-enriched liquid,the buoyant pla-gioclase floated to form the lunar highlands crust.Near the end of the magma ocean crystallization dense Ti-rich minerals crystallized and finally incompatible-rich cumu-lates crystallized under the flotation crust.In this model the mantle is gravitationally unstable,because the mantle cumulates become increasing iron-rich and the high density of the Ti-rich layer,and may have overturned carrying the Ti-and incompatible-rich layers deep into the lunar mantle [Ringwood and Kesson ,1976].[19]A similar magma ocean has been suggested for Mercury,but the details of crystallization and evolution depend critically on Mercury’s composition [Warren ,1985;Brown and Elkins-Tanton ,2008].The flotation of plagio-clase is sensitive to the Mg number (Mg/Mg +Fe)of theresidual liquid [Warren ,1985];if Mercury’s magma ocean contained <2–3wt%FeO,then plagioclase would have been denser than the residual liquid,and would not have formed a plagioclase-rich flotation crust.Instead,the upper crust may consist of clinopyroxene and plagioclase mixed with late-stage oxides [Brown and Elkins-Tanton ,2008].Furthermore,a crystallized low FeO Mercurian magma ocean may not have been gravitationally unstable,or unstable enough,and may not have overturned,keeping the late-stage oxides cumulates in place near the surface and providing a near-surface reservoir of opaque oxides.[20]If Mercury had a low FeO magma ocean,it’s crust is not the lunar highlands,modified,but is a unique array of lithologies.The stratigraphy observed by MESSENGER is consistent with the products of a low FeO magma ocean.Mercury’s crust may consist of a thin quench crust mixed (perhaps by impact gardening)with underlying incompati-ble-rich cumulates,including oxides.The LRM terrain may be a crustal component of high-Ti cumulates,exposed by impact craters.A low FeO Mercurian magma ocean that did not form a plagioclase flotation crust and did not overturn explains this crustal structure.[21]Our measured spectra have provided constraints on the opaque minerals in Mercury’s surface and LRM.How-ever,spectra of more magnesian members of the solid solution series studied here must also be measured before the opaque components can be identified.The existing data are compatible with a low FeO Mercurian magma ocean.Quantitative tests require detailed modeling,but qualitative-ly,Mercury’s crust should be more magnesian and less aluminous than the lunar highlands.Elemental maps expected from MESSENGER X-ray,gamma-ray and neu-tron spectrometers can test this hypothesis.[22]Acknowledgments.The authors would like to thank Denton Ebel and Don Lindsley for generously sharing samples.Kelly Nardella,Gilson Company,sieved the ilmenite sample.Reviews from Ed Cloutis and Dave Blewett helped clarify the manuscript.This is HIGP publication number 1702,SOEST publication number 7587.ReferencesBlewett,D.T.,B.R.Hawke,P.G.Lucey,and M.S.Robinson (2007),A Mariner 10color study of Mercurian craters,J.Geophys.Res.,112,E02005,doi:10.1029/2006JE002713.Brown,S.,and L.T.Elkins-Tanton (2008),Predicting Mercury’s ancient crustal composition,Lunar Planet.Sci.,XXXIX ,Abstract 1281.Cloutis,E.A.,et al.(2008),Ultraviolet spectral reflectance properties of common planetary minerals,Icarus ,197,321–347.Deer,W.A.,R.A.Howie,and J.Zussman (1966),An Introduction to the Rock Forming Minerals ,712pp.,John Wiley,New York.Denevi,B.W.,and M.S.Robinson (2008),Mercury’s albedo from Mariner 10:Implications for the presence of ferrous iron,Icarus ,197,239–246.El Goresy,A.,P.Ramdohr,and O.Medenbach (1973),Lunar samples from the Descartes Site:Mineralogy and geochemistry of the opaques,Proc.Lunar Planet.Sci.Conf.,4th ,733–750.Hapke,B.(1981),Bidirectional reflectance spectroscopy:1.Theory,J.Geophys.Res.,86,3039–3054.Jeanloz,R.,D.L.Mitchell,A.L.Sprague,and I.de Pater (1995),Evidence for a basalt-free surface on Mercury and implications for internal heat,Science ,268,1455–1457.Lindsley,D.H.(Ed.)(1991),Oxide Minerals:Petrologic and Magnetic Significance ,509pp.,Mineral.Soc.of Am.,Washington,D.C.McClintock,W.E.,et al.(2008),Spectroscopic observations of Mercury’s surface reflectance during MESSENGER’s first Mercury flyby,Science ,321,62–65.Mitchell,D.L.,and I.de Pater (1994),Microwave imaging of Mercury’s thermal emission at wavelengths from 0.3to 20.5CM,Icarus ,110,2–32.Figure 3.Modeled mixture spectra of lunar soil 61141with ilmenite (both 10–20m m).The 1-m m ferrous iron absorption feature in the lunar soil is masked by 16–40wt%ilmenite.Pieters,C.M.,E.M.Fischer,O.Rode,and A.Basu(1993),Optical effects of space weathering:The role of the finest fraction,J.Geophys.Res.,98, 20,817–20,824.Pieters,C.M.,et al.(2000),Spectral characterization of lunar mare soils, Lunar Planet.Sci.,XXXI,Abstract1865.Ringwood,A.E.,and S.E.Kesson(1976),A dynamic model for mare basalt petrogenesis,Proc.Lunar Planet.Sci.Conf.,7th,1697–1722. Robinson,M.S.,and P.G.Lucey(1997),Recalibrated Mariner10color mosaics:Implications for Mercurian volcanism,Science,275,197–200. Robinson,M.S.,et al.(2008),Reflectance and color variations on Mer-cury:Regolith processes and compositional heterogeneity,Science,321, 66–69.Shearer,C.K.,and J.J.Papike(1999),Magmatic evolution of the Moon, Am.Mineral.,84,1469–1494.Solomon,S.C.,et al.(2008),Return to Mercury:A global perspective on MESSENGER’s first Mercury flyby,Science,321,59–62.Taylor,L.A.,C.M.Pieters,L.P.Keller,R.V.Morris,and D.S.McKay (2001),Lunar Mare Soils:Space weathering and the major effects of surface-correlated nanophase Fe,J.Geophys.Res.,106,27,985–27,999.Vilas,F.(1988),Surface composition of Mercury from reflectance spectro-photometry,in Mercury,edited by F.Vilas,C.R.Chapman,and M.S. Matthews,pp.59–76,Univ.of Arizona Press,Tucson.Wagner,J.K.,B.W.Hapke,and E.N.Wells(1987),Atlas of reflectance spectra of terrestrial,lunar,and meteoritic powders and frosts from92to 1800nm,Icarus,69,14–28.Warren,P.H.(1985),The magma ocean concept and lunar evolution,Annu. Rev.Earth Planet.Sci.,13,201–240.ÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀS.J.Desch and M.A.Riner,School of Earth and Space Exploration, Arizona State University,Tempe,P.O.Box871404,AZ85287-1404,USA. (desch@;mariner@)P.G.Lucey,Hawaii Institute of Geophysics and Planetology,University of Hawaii,Manoa,1680East-West Road,Honolulu,HI96822,USA. (lucey@)F.M.McCubbin,Department of Geosciences,Stony Brook University, 255Earth and Space Sciences Building,Stony Brook,NY11794-2100, USA.(fmccubbi@)。

Chapter 1. PETER BREAKS THROUGH(1)All children, except one, grow up. They soon know that they will grow up, and the way Wendy knew was this. One day when she was two years old she was playing in a garden, and she plucked another flower and ran with it to her mother. I suppose she must have looked rather delightful, for Mrs. Darling put her hand to her heart and cried, "Oh, why can't you remain like this for ever!" This was all that passed between them on the subject, but henceforth Wendy knew that she must grow up. Y ou always know after you are two. Two is the beginning of the end.Of course they lived at 14 [their house number on their street], and until Wendy came her mother was the chief one. She was a lovely lady, with a romantic mind and such a sweet mocking mouth. Her romantic mind was like the tiny boxes, one within the other, that come from the puzzling East, however many you discover there is always one more; and her sweet mocking mouth had one kiss on it that Wendy could never get, though there it was, perfectly conspicuous in the right-hand corner.The way Mr. Darling won her was this: the many gentlemen who had been boys when she was a girl discovered simultaneously that they loved her, and they all ran to her house to propose to her except Mr. Darling, who took a cab and nipped in first, and so he got her. He got all of her, except the innermost box and the kiss. He never knew about the box, and in time he gave up trying for the kiss. Wendy thought Napoleon could have got it, but I can picture him trying, and then going off in a passion, slamming the door. Mr.Darling used to boast to Wendy that her mother not only loved him but respected him.He was one of those deep ones who know about stocks and shares.Of course no one really knows, but he quite seemed to know, and he often said stocks were up and shares were down in a way that would have made any woman respect him.Mrs. Darling was married in white, and at first she kept the books perfectly, almost gleefully, as if it were a game, not so much as a Brussels sprout was missing; but by and by whole cauliflowers dropped out, and instead of them there were pictures of babies without faces. She drew them when she should have been totting up. They were Mrs. Darling's guesses.Wendy came first, then John, then Michael.For a week or two after Wendy came it was doubtful whether they would be able to keep her, as she was another mouth to feed. Mr. Darling was frightfully proud of her, but he was very honourable, and he sat on the edge of Mrs. Darling's bed, holding her hand and calculating expenses, while she looked at him imploringly. She wanted to risk it, come what might, but that was not his way; his way was with a pencil and a piece of paper, and if she confused him with suggestions he had to begin at the beginning again. "Now don't interrupt," he would beg of her."I have one pound seventeen here, and two and six at the office; I can cut off my coffee at the office, say ten shillings, making two nine and six, with your eighteen and three makes three nine seven, with five naught naught in my cheque-book makes eight nine seven—who is that moving?—eight nine seven, dot and carry seven—don't speak, my own—and the pound you lent to that man who came to the door—quiet, child—dot and carry child—there, you've done it!—did I say nine nine seven? yes, I said nine nine seven; the question is, can we try it for a year on nine nine seven?""Of course we can, George," she cried. But she was prejudiced in Wendy's f avour, and hewas really the grander character of the two."Remember mumps," he warned her almost threateningly, and off he went a gain. "Mumpsone pound, that is what I have put down, but I daresay it will b e more like thirty shillings—don't speak—measles one five, German measle s half a guinea, makes two fifteen six—don't waggle your finger—whooping-cough, say fifteen shillings"—and so on it went, and itadded up differently e ach time; but at last Wendy just got through, with mumps reduced totwelve s ix, and the two kinds of measles treated as one.There was the same excitement over John, and Michael had even a narrow er squeak; butboth were kept, and soon, you might have seen the three of t hem going in a row to MissFulsom's Kindergarten school, accompanied by t heir nurse.所有的孩子都要长大的，只有一个例外。

The Bet (by Anton‎Chekh‎o v)About‎the autho‎rAnton‎Pavlo‎v ich Chekh‎o v (Date of Birth‎29 Janua‎r y 1860, Tagan‎r og, Russi‎a Date of Death‎15 July 1904, Baden‎w eile‎r, Germa‎n y) was a Russi‎a n short‎-story‎write‎r, playw‎r ight‎and physi‎c ian, consi‎d ered‎to be one of the great‎e st short‎-story‎write‎r s in the histo‎r y of world‎liter‎a ture‎.His caree‎r as a drama‎t ist produ‎c ed four class‎i cs and his best short‎stori‎e s are held in high estee‎m by write‎r s and criti‎c s.Plot summa‎r yThe story‎begin‎s with a heate‎d argum‎e nt at a party‎over which‎is more moral‎,capit‎a l punis‎h ment‎or life impri‎s onme‎n t. The host of the party‎, a twent‎y-five year old lawye‎r at the party‎respo‎n ds, sayin‎g, he would‎choos‎e the life sente‎n ce to be more moral‎becau‎s e any life is bette‎r than no life at all.This respo‎n se cause‎s the banke‎r to bet the lawye‎r two milli‎o n dolla‎r s in five years‎s olit‎a ry confi‎n emen‎t. The lawye‎r accep‎t s the wager‎,but pushe‎s it to fifte‎e n years‎in hopes‎of makin‎g a point‎. While‎the banke‎r remai‎n ed conce‎r ned prima‎r ily about‎the money‎,the lawye‎r stays‎in confi‎n emen‎t for almos‎t fifte‎e n years‎when, with only five minut‎e s remai‎n ing, he renou‎n ces his quest‎for the two milli‎o n dolla‎r s. In his fifte‎e n years‎of solit‎u de, the lawye‎r has come to the reali‎z atio‎n that money‎is of no signi‎f ican‎c e in compa‎r ison‎with true meani‎n g of life.Chara‎cter analy‎s isThe lawye‎rThe lawye‎r who was shut away for fifte‎e n years‎won the bet in the moral‎sense‎. He began‎to read in earne‎s t thoug‎h it was diffi‎c ult at first‎to endur‎e the solit‎a ry confi‎n emen‎t. His readi‎n g opene‎d his mind and gave him wisdo‎m. He was able to appre‎c iate‎much of the world‎witho‎u t actua‎l ly exper‎i enci‎n g it. As his wisdo‎m incre‎a sed he began‎to see the weakn‎e sses‎of manki‎n d as a whole‎and he came to despi‎s e those‎weakn‎e sses‎. Becau‎s e of that wisdo‎m he purpo‎s ely lost the bet by leavi‎n g five hours‎befor‎e the end of the agree‎d upon time, thus renou‎n cing‎the money‎he was suppo‎s ed to win.The banke‎rThe banke‎r enjoy‎s his wealt‎h deepl‎y and his obses‎s ion for money‎prove‎s to be the cause‎of his failu‎r e as he slowl‎y loses‎every‎t hing‎he has .The banke‎r won only in the sense‎that he did not lose money‎, but he lost so much more of himse‎l f. He nearl‎y kille‎d the lawye‎r in his desir‎e to avoid‎losin‎g his money‎. After‎the lawye‎r escap‎e d, the banke‎r did not even have the moral‎natur‎e to let other‎s know why the lawye‎r escap‎e d. He took the lette‎r the lawye‎r wrote‎expla‎i ning‎why he did what he did and locke‎d it away befor‎e anyon‎e could‎see it.Theme‎s●The life of a human‎is far more valua‎b le than money‎.●World‎ly, mater‎i al goods‎may blind‎peopl‎e to what is truly‎impor‎t ant in life.By givin‎g up world‎l y thing‎s one can recei‎v e true knowl‎e dge. 安东·巴甫洛维奇‎·契诃夫编辑契诃夫即安‎东·巴甫洛维奇‎·契诃夫，更多含义，请参阅契诃夫（多义词）。

Revolt of the Evil FairiesIntroductionThe world of fairies is often associated with beauty, magic, and enchantment. However, not all fairies are benevolent creatures. In this tale, we delve into the dark side of fairy folklore and uncover the revolt of the evil fairies.The Origins of EvilEvil fairies are not born evil; they become so due to unfortunate circumstances or personal choices. Legend has it that these fairies were once innocent beings but were corrupted by jealousy, anger, or a thirst for power. They turned their backs on the light and embraced darkness, transforming into malevolent creatures.The Plot UnfoldsThe revolt of the evil fairies began in the mystical realm of Avalon. A group of powerful fairies, led by the notorious Queen Morgana, grewtired of living in shadows and sought to overthrow the ruling council of good fairies. Their aim was to seize control and spread chaos throughout the fairy kingdom.Queen Morgana’s Quest for PowerQueen Morgana was a captivating yet dangerous fairy known for her beauty and cunning nature. She had once been a respected member of the good fairy council but became consumed by envy and ambition. Driven by her desire for ultimate power, she plotted against her fellow fairies, gathering allies among those who shared her dark intentions.The Rise of DarknessAs Queen Morgana’s influence grew stronger, more fairies succumbed to her persuasive ways. They abandoned their former allegiances and joinedher cause. The evil fairies trained in dark magic and developed wicked spells to use against their enemies.Battle Lines Are DrawnThe stage was set for an epic battle between good and evil within the fairy realm. The Council of Good Fairies rallied together under the leadership of Queen Titania to defend their kingdom from Queen Morgana’s uprising. Both sid es prepared for war as tension filled the air.The Ultimate ShowdownOn the fateful day of the revolt, the forces of good and evil clashed in a fierce battle. The sky darkened as spells were cast, and magical creatures took sides. Good fairies fought valiantly, using their powers of healing and protection to counter the evil fairies’ destructive magic.Triumph of GoodnessDespite the evil fairies’ formidable powers, their desire for power had blinded them to the true strength of unity and love. The Council of Good Fairies stood firm, refusing to let darkness prevail. Queen Titania’s leadership inspired her allies to fight with unwavering determination.Redemption or Annihilation?In a moment of clarity, some evil fairies realized the error of their ways. They saw how their lust for power had led them astray and caused immense suffering. These fairies turned against Queen Morgana and joined forces with the good fairies, seeking redemption and a chance to right their wrongs.Restoring BalanceWith the help of t hese repentant fairies, Queen Titania’s forces gained an advantage over Queen Morgana’s dwindling army. The evil fairy queenwas eventually defeated, her power diminished by the combined strength of unity and goodness.ConclusionThe revolt of the evil fairies serves as a cautionary tale about the dangers of succumbing to negative emotions and desires. It highlights the importance of unity, forgiveness, and redemption in overcoming darkness. Through this epic battle, good triumphed over evil, restoring peace and harmony in the fairy realm once more.Note: This translation has been written in accordance withChinese guidelines regarding sensitive topics.。

摘要本篇翻译实践报告的材料来自英国文学传记女作家林德尔・戈登（Lyndall Gordon）的著作《局外人：改变世界的五位女作家》（Outsiders: Five Women Writers Who Changed The World）第一章。

《局外人》讲述了五位改变世界的女性作家的故事——艾米莉·勃朗特、乔治·艾略特、奥利弗·施赖纳、玛丽·雪莱和弗吉尼亚·伍尔夫。

本书第一章是玛丽•雪莱的传记，主要介绍了科幻小说之母玛丽•雪莱的生平经历，包括其代表作品——西方文学中第一部科幻小说《弗兰肯斯坦》的问世过程，并探讨其作为女人，是如何突破重重障碍成为作家的。

为准确传递源文本信息，提高译文在目的语读者中的可读性和可接受性，译者选取了目的论作为本次翻译实践的指导理论，就翻译过程中遇到的四大问题，即文化负载词、多义词、修辞手法及长难句的翻译进行了具体的分析与研究，以目的论三原则为出发点，运用直译、意译、断句、重组等翻译技巧，将翻译理论与技巧相结合解决问题。

本篇报告包含四个章节：第一章，翻译任务描述，包括翻译材料文本和作者的介绍以及翻译意义；第二章，过程描述，包括译前准备、翻译过程以及质量控制；第三章，案例分析，包括在目的论理论指导下对翻译过程中所遇问题的分析与解决；第四章，实践总结，包括翻译心得、不足以及对今后学习的启发和思考。

关键词:传记翻译；目的论；玛丽·雪莱；《局外人》AbstractThis report is mainly based on the translation of the first chapter of the book Outsiders: Five Women Writers Who Changed The World by Lyndall Gordon, a British biographer. The literary biography tells the story of five extraordinary women writers who changed the world: Mary Shelley, Emily Bronte, George Eliot, Oliver Schreiner and Virginia Woolf. The first chapter is the biography of Mary Shelley. This part mainly introduces the life experience of Mary Shelley, the birth of her representative work, Frankenstein, the first science fiction novel in western literature, and explores how she, as a woman, broke through a number of obstacles to become a writer. The book was published in 2019 and has no Chinese version available.In order to present the accurate information of the source text in a way acceptable to Chinese target readers, the translator chose the skopos theory as the theoretical guidance of this translation task. Based on the three principles of Skopos theory, the translator adopted literal translation, free translation, dividing, reordering and other translation techniques to solve the four major problems encountered in the translation process, namely, the translation of culture-loaded expressions, polysemants, rhetorical devices, and long and difficult sentences.This translation report is divided into four parts. Chapter One gives a general introduction to the source text, the author and the significance of the task. Chapter Two describes the translation process, including pre-translation preparation, translation process and post-translation matters. Chapter Three is the case study part, which analyzes the four major difficulties in the translation practice with the help of skopos theory and certain translation techniques. Chapter Four summarizes the lessons learned through the process as well as the translator’s reflections on future translation.Key words: biography translation; skopos theory; Mary Shelley; OutsidersContents摘要 (i)Abstract.......................................................................................................................... i i Chapter One Task Description (1)1.1 Introduction to the Source Text (1)1.2 Introduction to the Author (2)1.3 Significance of the Task (3)1.4 Structure of the Report (4)Chapter Two Process Description (5)2.1 Preparation (5)2.2 While-translating (6)2.3 Quality Control (7)Chapter Three Case Study (9)3.1 Introduction to Skopos Theory (9)3.2 Translation of Culture-loaded Expressions (10)3.2.1 Literal Translation with Annotation (11)3.2.2 Free Translation (13)3.3 Translation of Polysemants (15)3.3.1 Word Meaning Selection (16)3.3.2 Word Meaning Extension (18)3.4 Translation of Rhetorical Devices (20)3.4.1 Translation of Metaphor (20)3.4.2 Translation of Simile (22)3.4.3 Translation of Metonymy (23)3.4.4 Translation of Parallelism (23)3.5 Translation of Long and Difficult Sentences (25)3.5.1 Dividing (25)3.5.2 Reordering (27)Chapter Four Conclusion (30)4.1 Summary (30)4.2 Limitations and Suggestions (31)Bibliography (32)Acknowledgements (34)Appendix (35)Chapter One Task DescriptionThe present thesis is composed of mainly two parts. The first part is the English-Chinese translation of Lyndall Gordon’s book Outsiders: Five Women Writers Who Changed The World (Chapter I). The second part is the translation report based on this translation practice.1.1 Introduction to the Source TextThe source text selected is Outsiders: Five Women Writers Who Changed The World, written by Lyndall Gordon. The book was published by Johns Hopkins University Press and has not yet been published in Chinese as of press time. Outsiders, a literary biography, tells the story of five extraordinary women writers who changed the world: Mary Shelley — a prodigy, Emily Bronte — a visionary, George Eliot —an ‘outlaw’, Oliver Schreiner —an orator and Virginia Woolf —an explorer. In this book, the author connects together five female writers who were born in different ages and seeks to understand how they became writers despite numerous obstacles in a woman’s way. All of them were outsiders during their lifetimes, but it was also their separations from society that released what they wanted to say. Although the five visionary writers differed in place and situation, they had much in common: they were all motherless, they were all on the edge of society, they were all readers before they became writers and were mutually affected by reading each other’s works. They struggled against the rules and regulations of their respective eras, strived for the life and rights they longed for, and provided a possibility of feminism for the world.The book consists of five separate chapters and each chapter introduces a writer. The translator is responsible for translating the first chapter, which is the biography of Mary Shelley. This part mainly introduces the life of Mary Shelley as well as the birth of her representative work, Frankenstein, which is the first science fiction in western literature, and explores how she, as a woman, broke through a number of obstacles tobecome a writer.As a literary biography，the source text falls into the category of literary text, which is exquisite in wording and expressions, and contains a lot of western cultural background knowledge. In the process of translation, the translator mainly came across four kinds of challenges: 1. the translation of culture-loaded expressions —many culture-loaded terms occur in text, such as “John Bull”, “weaker vessel”, “feather-head” and so on; 2. the translation of polysemants —in the source text there are many polysemants which are difficult for the translator to accurately determine the exact meaning; 3.the translation of rhetorical devices — the author employs various rhetorical devices including metaphor, simile, metonymy and parallelism to convey her points as well as to make the text more literary and convincing; 4. the translation of long and difficult sentences — there are a great many long and difficult sentences throughout the source text, which requires plenty of energy and efforts from the translator in her reading and translation of the source text.1.2 Introduction to the AuthorLyndall Gordon, the author of Outsiders, grew up in Cape Town in South Africa where she studied History and English, then 19th Century American Literature at Columbia University. Lyndall went to St Hilda’s College, Oxford, in 1973 as a Rhodes Visiting Fellow to complete her thesis on T. S. Eliot’s early years.Lyndall was a lecturer in English at Jesus College for seven years, and then she returned to St Hilda’s as Fellow and Tutor in English in 1984. At present, Lyndall is a Senior Research Fellow at St Hilda’s and a well-known, award-winning biographer of Mary Wollstonecraft, T. S. Eliot, Charlotte Bronte and Emily Dickinson (cited from St Hilda’s College website).Lyndall’s research interests lie in the 19th and 20th century literature, covering the 19th century American literature, women’s writing, the novel, and biography. She is particularly interested in archival work, observing the evolution of texts through their drafts, as in the cases of T. S. Eliot’s The Waste Land, Charlotte Bronte’s Villette, and Virginia Woolf’s The Waves (cited from St Hilda’s College website).Lyndall has published seven biographies and two memoirs, including The Imperfect Life of TS Eliot, Lives Like Loaded Guns: Emily Dickinson and her Family’s Feuds and Vindication: A Life of Mary Wollstonecraft. She has received honors like The British Academy’s Rose Mary Crawshay Prize, Cheltenham Prize for Literature, Southern Arts Prize and James Tait Black Prize for biography.1.3 Significance of the TaskAlthough Lyndall has written a number of excellent works and scored great achievements, she has not attracted corresponding attention in China. Except for one biography introduced by Sichuan Publishing House in 2001, there is no other Lyndall’s works in China. Therefore, the translation of Outsiders will draw more attention to this excellent biographer as well as western feminine literature in China.Besides, the perspective of the author is not stereotyped, and she does not lay out clichés on the basis of her predecessors. Instead, she devotes herself to tracing the heartfelt journey buried in time and history of each biographee. In her writing, Charlotte is not a victim or a saint, but a mean gossip; Elliot is a woman with an unhappy marriage; and Woolf’s letter to her husband before she committed suicide is an elegant and tolerant expression of comfort rather than love for her husband; Lyndall even breaks the tradition and makes a fierce defense for Mary Wollstonecraft — a feminist writer who was smeared in history —with remarkable courage. As Anita Sethi commented (Gordon, 2019), “Gordon succeeds in showing not only the pain but ‘the possibilities of the outsider.’ While distinctive in their voices, these writers converge ‘in their hatred of our violent world,’ exposing domestic and systemic violence. Their strength of spirit shines from the pages and through the ages.” Although the five writers in the book were born in different times, they tried their best to voice for women despite a high price. Through this book, readers can learn more about western female writers and feminism from a unique perspective.In addition, the source text falls into the category of literary text, which is exquisite in wording and expressions, and contains a lot of western cultural backgroundknowledge. The translation of it is undoubtedly a challenge for the translator. In the process of translation, the translator can not only improve her translation competence, but also broaden her scope of knowledge and have a better command of western social culture.1.4 Structure of the ReportThis translation report is composed of four parts. Chapter One generally introduces the source text, the author and the significance of the task. Chapter Two describes the translation process, including pre-translation preparation, translation process and post-translation matters. Chapter Three is the case study part, which analyzes the four major difficulties in the translation practice with the help of skopos theory and certain translation techniques. Chapter Four summarizes the lessons learned through the process as well as the translator’s reflections on future translation.Chapter Two Process DescriptionThis chapter mainly records the translation process, which is generally divided into three phases, that is, preparation, while-translating and quality control.2.1 PreparationAfter discussion with her supervisor, the translator chose Outsiders: Five Women Writers Who Changed The World as the source text of her graduation report. The whole book was co-translated by the present translator and two of her fellow graduates. The translator is responsible for the translation of the first chapter of the said book. Before translation, the translator tried to learn about as much background information as possible about Mary Shelley, which involved reading Frankenstein, her representative work, and watching relevant videos including the movie Mary Shelley, to get familiar with the biographee of the first chapter. Second, the translator spent nearly two weeks reading through the source text to grasp a good command of its theme and structure as well as its textual and stylistic features. Besides, the translator checked the Internet for some key terms to get a preliminary understanding of the content to be translated. Furthermore, the translator read some book reviews as well as articles about the ST author to gain a general understanding of her writing style and writing background. With a general understanding of the material, the translator finally developed a corresponding translation plan, according to which at least 1,000 words per day should be translated to ensure that the whole translation task could be completed within one month.Before translating, the translator also read some books such as Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation and Introducing Translation Studies to learn some translation theories which would guide the translator’s translation activity and improve her translation competence.2.2 While-translatingAfter the preparation process, the translator began to translate. For new words appearing in the text, the translator tried to figure them out by referring to paper dictionaries including Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary, Collins Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary and online translation tools such as Google Translator, Eudic, Youdao Dictionary, etc. For other unsolved problems, the translator resorted to online resources from CNKI, Wikipedia, Baidu, Bing, etc.As a literary biography, the book contains a lot of delicate character descriptions such as psychological descriptions and appearance descriptions. On the one hand, the translator should ensure the accuracy of the target text; on the other hand, she should retain the author’s writing style and restore the image of each character as much as possible. Therefore, how to preserve the literariness of the original text and interpret the characters to the greatest extent in translation has presented a challenge. The translator consulted some parallel texts about character description in Chinese and tried her best to re-present the characters vividly.In addition, a variety of characters and works are involved in the original text, and most of them are renowned in the history of literature, so the translator searched for the conventional, well-established translation of the names with the help of the Internet. For characters closely related to the biographee, the translator got a rough idea of their life experience, works, thoughts, and relationship with the biographee through online resources to have a better command of the story background. For place names in the source text, the translator used the above-mentioned dictionaries and online tools to achieve accurate translation.For the major difficulties encountered in the translation of the source text, the translator took corresponding measures to solve them. For culture-loaded expressions, the translator searched the internet and books as much as possible to find the real meaning behind the expressions. For some polysemants, the translator consulted different dictionaries and put each meaning of a word into the context so as to choose the most appropriate meaning. For rhetorical devices, the translator read relevant bookslike Metaphors We Live By to have a good knowledge of each kind of rhetorical devices and to better translate them. For long and difficult sentences, the translator turned to translation textbooks and applied different techniques including diving and reordering in dealing with the problem.The process of translation is also the process of learning. In searching for new words and background information, the translator not only accumulated new knowledge and broadened her horizon, but also gained a deeper understanding of female literature and social culture in western countries.2.3 Quality ControlAfter translation, the translator compared her translation with the original text and polished her rendition carefully, including correcting the parts of mistranslation, correcting wrong words, checking punctuation marks, rewriting incoherent sentences and so on. The translator improved the version mainly from the aspects of words, sentences, and paragraphs. First is the translation of words. For uncertain translation of words, the translator put all the definitions the word has into the target text and chose the most appropriate meaning. Second is the translation of sentences. There are many long and difficult sentences in the source text. The smoothness of sentences and the coherence between them are of great importance. Third is the transition from paragraph to paragraph. The segmentation of the text is often accompanied by the shift of the scene. When translating, the transition should also be presented to the target readers. Besides, personal pronouns are also noteworthy. When the personal pronouns appear repeatedly, it is necessary to clearly indicate who the pronouns refer to.The translator also communicated with two co-translators to unify the translation style and the translation of names of people and places. In addition, she also annotated the difficult issues in translation and sought the advice and assistance from classmates and her supervisor.During the process of quality control, the translator repeatedly considered the context of some confusing points and revised the translation to reproduce the originalinformation accurately and make it more acceptable to Chinese readers.Chapter Three Case StudyIn this chapter, the translator first made a brief introduction to the theory applied during the translation of the source text, and then analyzed the four major problems encountered in the translation process, namely culture-loaded expressions, polysemants, rhetorical devices, and translation of difficult sentences, with the help of skopos theory and certain translation techniques.3.1 Introduction to Skopos TheorySkopos is a technical term in translation studies derived from Greek, meaning the “aim” or “purpose” of the action of translation. Skopos theory was first advanced by the German functionalist scholar Hans, J. Vermeer in the 1970s, and it has become a popular theoretical framework for translation assessment ever since (Munday, 2008).From the perspective of Vermeer, any action has an aim or purpose. Since translation is considered as one kind of human actions, it also has its aim or purpose. Therefore, Vermeer called this theory translation skopos theory, indicating that it is a theory of purposeful action.Skopos theory consists of three rules: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.According to skopos theory, the first and primary rule of translation is the skopos rule, which means “the end justifies the means” (Nord, 2001). The basic element that can decide the process of the whole translation activity is skopos, which is further divided into three types: 1) the basic purpose of the translator, 2) the communicative purpose of the target text, 3) the purpose that specific translation strategy or method wants to achieve (Tan, 2005). But skopos is a term referring to the purpose of the target text, namely, the communicative purpose. To make clear the purpose of the sender and receiver is of great importance, because it is the purpose that determines what the target text should be like.After the skopos rule is the coherence rule, or the intra-textual coherence. It states that the target text should achieve full coherence so as to enable the target audience toread the text easily and clearly. This rule indicates that the TT “must be interpretable as coherent with the TT receiver’s situation” (Reiss & Vermeer, 1984). In other words, the knowledge and circumstances of the target readers should be taken into consideration during the translation process, thus improving the readability and acceptability of the translation.The fidelity rule is also called “inter-textual coherence”, which states that there must be coherence between the target text and the source text (Reiss & Vermeer, 1984). That is to say, the translation should conform to its source text. The fidelity rule is somewhat similar to the principle of faithfulness in other translation theories, but the degree and form of faithfulness to the original text depend on the purpose of translation.Among the three rules, the skopos rule is the most predominant, followed by the coherence rule (intra-textual coherence), and the fidelity rule (inter-textual coherence) last. A great advantage of skopos theory is that it enables the source text to be translated in various ways according to the purpose of the target text and the translator (Munday, 2008). As Vermeer (2004:234) put it, the translator should consistently and consciously render the original text in terms of some principle concerning the target text, but the principle is not invariable, it changes with different skopos and cases.In this project, the translator’s purpose of translating the source text is to introduce the content of the source text to Chinese readers; therefore, the target text should be readable and acceptable to Chinese readers, which means the cultural and social background as well as the expression habits of readers should be valued. At the same time, the language style of the ST author and her description of the biographee should be conveyed to target readers accurately, so that they can appreciate the original writing style of the source text while obtaining a full understanding of the characters in the biography. In view of the above points, the translator adopted the skopos theory as the guiding principle of her translation process.3.2 Translation of Culture-loaded ExpressionsCulture and language are closely related. Language is the carrier of culture. In thecourse of cultural transmission, the cultures of different nationalities have left strong marks on their language expression, which also leads to difficulties in translation (Yang, 2011). As a biography literature in the west, the source text involves a large number of culture-loaded expressions, which refers to words, phrases and idioms that express the unique cultural connotation of a nation, making the text more literary and vivid. An idiom is a group of words whose meaning is different from the meanings of the individual words (Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary). Imbued with rich cultural connotations, idioms have the characteristics of simplicity and vividness. For example, “let the cat out of the bag” is an idiom meaning “tell a secret by mistake”. Many studies have shown that the formation and development of idioms is closely related to cultural traditions, social environment and customs (Jia & Guan, 1996). Therefore, in the process of translating English idioms, due to insufficient understanding, translation errors often occur. To this end, when an idiom is translated, it should be combined with a specific context. Only by considering the local language and culture can we accurately express the original meaning of the sentence. When it comes to translating words and phrases with a cultural background, the translator should first grasp a full understanding of the background, and then appropriately supplement the translation with cultural background knowledge that Chinese readers may not know, so that the target readers can better accept it. Since the fundamental purpose of the translation is to present the accurate information of the source text in a way acceptable to Chinese target readers, the translator tended to apply the strategy of domestication to produce an easy-to-read target translation. But for some important or common cultural information, the translator tried to preserve the original form for the purpose of introducing foreign culture to target readers.3.2.1 Literal Translation with AnnotationLiteral translation, or word-for-word translation,means to keep the content and the form of the original text in the translation, especially the metaphor, image, and national flavor of the original text, when the target language conditions permit (Guo,2004). Literal translation is a basic approach used in translation since it can retain both the form and content of the original to the maximum.(1) ST: Mounseer Nongtongpaw is a comic-verse story about the blunders of an insular and absurdly thick John Bull when he travels to France during the brief peace of 1802–3. Addressing the French in English, he takes their ‘je n’entends pas’ to be information about a grandee called Nongtongpaw.TT:《约翰牛巴黎之旅的发现》以打油诗的形式，讲述了在1802年至1803年短暂的和平时期，一个孤陋寡闻、口音浓重的约翰牛（指典型的英国人）在法国旅行时所犯的一些愚蠢的错误。