Development of Christianity in the Middle Ages

一、Greek and Roman CultureChapter 1古希腊特洛伊战争的背景：Its Origin:1. The Marriage of Peleus (a mortal) and Thetis (a sea nymph).* Prometheus foretold that Thetis' son would be greater than his father, so Jupiter decreed that Thetis should marry a mortal.a. All the gods and goddesses were invited except Eris (or Discord).b. Angered the Goddess (Eris) threw a golden apple among the guests, with the inscription: "For the Fairest".c. Juno, Venus, and Minerva all claimed the apple.* Not willing to make a decision, Jupiter sent them to Mount Ida where Paris, the son of Priam, king of Troy, was tending his flocks for a decision.2. The Judgment of Paris:a. Each goddess makes a promise:Hera: power and riches.Athena: glory and renown in war.Aphrodite: the fairest of women for his wife.b. Paris decided in favor of Venus, thus making the other two goddesses his enemies.3. Under the protection of Aphrodite, Paris traveled to Greece where he was received by Menelaus, the king of Sparta, whose wife Helen wasdestined to be his prize.* Helen had been sought by numerous suitors who at the suggestion of Ulysses, son of Laertes, King of Ithaca, had taken an oath to accept her decision and to avenge any wrong done to her4. Paris made love to Helen and, aided by Aphrodite, persuaded her to leave with him for Troy.5. Menelaus sent out a call to all the Greek chieftains to aid him in recovering his wife.2、典故：An apple of discord：a reference to the Golden Apple of Discord, which, according to Greek mythology, the goddess Eris tossed in the midst of the feast of the gods at the wedding of Peleus and Thetis as a prize of beauty, thus sparking a vanity-fueled dispute among Hera, Athena, and Aphrodite that eventually led to the Trojan War. Thus, "apple of discord" is used to signify the core, kernel, or crux of an argument, or a small matter that could lead to a bigger dispute.Achilles' heel: is a weakness in spite of overall strength, which can actually or potentially lead to downfall. While the mythological origin refers to a physical vulnerability, idiomatic references to other attributes or qualities that can lead to downfall are common. In Greek mythology, when Achilles was a baby, it was foretold that he would die young. Toprevent his death, his mother Thetis took Achilles to the River Styx, which was supposed to offer powers of invulnerability, and dipped his body into the water. But as Thetis held Achilles by the heel, his heel was not washed over by the water of the magical river. Achilles grew up to be a man of war who survived many great battles. But one day, a poisonous arrow shot at him was lodged in his heel, killing him shortly afterwards.The Trojan Horse: a tale from the Trojan War about the subterfuge that the Greeks used to enter the city of Troy and win the war. In the canonical version, after a fruitless 10-year siege, the Greeks constructed a huge wooden horse, and hid a select force of men inside. The Greeks pretended to sail away, and the Trojans pulled the horse into their city as a victory trophy. That night the Greek force crept out of the horse and opened the gates for the rest of the Greek army, which had sailed back under cover of night. The Greeks entered and destroyed the city of Troy, decisively ending the war.Metaphorically a "Trojan Horse" has come to mean any trick or stratagem that causes a target to invite a foe into a securely protected bastion or place.3、Homer:is best known as the author of the Iliad and the Odyssey. He was believed by the ancient Greeks to have been the first and greatest ofthe epic poets. Author of the first known literature of Europe, he is central to the Western canon. When he lived, as well as whether he lived at all, is unknown.4、Iliad（《伊利亚特》）: 1) It is one of the two great ancient Greek epics by Homer. 2) It deals with the alliance of the states of the southern mainland of Greece, led by Agamemnon in their war against the city of Troy probably in the period 1200-1100 B. C. 3) The heroes are Hector on the Trojan side and Achilles and Odysseus on the Greek.4) In the final battle, Hector was killed by Achilles and Troy was sacked and burned by the Greeks.Homer Epics : The epics in ancient Greece usually referred to two long narrative poems written supposed by Homer, a blind poet who probably around 700 BC. The first is Iliad, describes the alliance of the states of southern Greece, led by Agamemon in the war against Troy. The second is Odyssey, which tells of the return of Odysseus to his home island after the Trojan War.Socrates（苏格拉底）: 1) He was the philosopher of ancient Greece in the 5BC to 4BC 2) He was considered one of the three greatest names inEuropean philosophy. 3) He holds that philosophy took the aim to reach the conclusion of oneself；Virtue was knowledge；all vice is the result of ignorance; no person is willingly bad; those who know the right will act rightly . 4) His thoughts were recorded in Dialogues by Plato.5) He devised the dialectical method.Plato(柏拉图)：1) hewas a philosopher in Classical Greece and the founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world.2)His theory involved knowledge, ethic, psychology, state, art. 3)his major political work is The Republic. His ideal state was composed of 3 classes. He divided the human soul into three parts: the rational part, the will, and the appetites.Aristotle(亚里士多德)：hewas a Greek philosopher and polymath, and the student of PlatoEpicurus(伊利鸠鲁341-270BC):1)an ancient Greek philosopher as well as the founder of the school of philosophy called Epicureanism.2)pleasure is the greatest good; the way to attain pleasure was to live modestly and to gain knowledge of the workings of the world and the limits of one’s desires; all good and bad from the sensations of pleasure and pain; against overindulgence because it often leads to pain;death was not to be feared.Greek Drama:First , the three ancient Greek Tragedians Aeschylus(埃斯库拉斯)：The Persians波斯人，Seven against Thebes七勇士远征底比斯, The suppliants起源人，The Oresteia奥瑞斯提亚,Agamemnon, The Libation Bearers, Prometheus Bound.Sophocles: Oedipus the KingEuripides: Medea梅迪亚Chapter23.Caesar: He was a Roman general and statesman and distinguished writer of Latin prose. He led to the end of the Roman Republic and the creation of the Roman Empire.He was also deemed to be one of the greatest military commanders of history.4.The Rise of Christianity(基督教诞生的背景)①Augustus directed a program of religious revivalism and reform.②In the early 4th century,Constantine the Great became the first emperor to convert to Christianity.③In 391,Christianity became the official sate church of theRoman Empire.5.Stoicism(主要观点)1)Destructive emotions resulted from errors in judgment 2) it is virtuous to maintain a will that is in accord with nature. 3)They advocated the brotherhood of humanity and the natural equality of all human beings(cosmopolitanism大同主义).The Middle AgesChapter 1 Christianity1.The origin and development of Christianity1)Christianity began as a Jewish sect in the mid-1st century，originating in the Levant region of the Middle East.2) By the end of 4c,it had become the official sate church of the Roman Empire.3)During the middle ages,most of remainder of Europe wasChristianized.4)Following the Age of Discovery, Christianity spread to Americas,Australasia, sub-Saharan Africa, and the rest of the world.5)As of 21c,theChristianity has approximately 2.2billion adherents.Three largest groups(3大基督教群):the Roman Catholic Church天主教,the Eastern Orthodox church东正教,the various denominations of Protestantism新教（16C从天主教中分裂得来）.Doctrines of Christianity1)Jesus is the son of God and the savior of humanity.2)Christians believe Jesus is the Messiah prophesied in the HebrewBible.3)Jesus was conceived by the Holy Spirit and born from the Virgin Mary.Trinity(三位一体):1）God is three consubstantial persons or hypostases—the Father, the Son (Jesus Christ), and the Holy Spirit—as "one God in three Divine Persons".2）The three persons are distinct.Story from Old TestamentNoah’s Ark（挪亚方舟）:1) the family of man multiplied and spread over the earth, but they became more and more corrupt 2) Thus God decided to destroy all life on earth in a great flood. 3) God spoke to him about His intention and told him to build an ark to protect him and his kin from the waters.4) Noah followed God’s instructions. 5) For 40 days it rained, the whole earth was covered with water, those sheltered in the ark being the only survivals.Chapter 2 Byzantium2.Byzantium(拜占庭历史背景)1)In 330 AD, Constantine the Great Transferred the ancient imperialcapital from Rome to the city of Byzantium.2)Christianity replaced the gods of antiquity as the official religion.Chapter 3 The Middle AgeFeudalism:1)Feudalism in Europe was mainly a system of land holding —asystem of holding land in exchange for military service.2)The relationship of lord, vassal(诸侯),serf（农奴）.The Crusades1)The Crusades were a series of religiously sanctioned militarycampaigns waged by much of Latin Christian Europe.2)The aim is to restore Christian control of Holy Land.3)The Crusades were fought mainly by Roman Catholic foces againstMuslims.共9次东征影响：The main results of the Crusades included cultural diffusion and an increase in trade.Modern TimesChapter 1 RenaissanceRenaissance：1)a cultural movement beginning in Italy by artists and thinkers to recover and apply the ancient learning and standards of Greece and Rome.2)humanist method shows an increasing concern for wildly life and self-conscious.Background:承前1)onthe economic level, commerce and industry expanded greatly, andcapitalism largely replaced medieval forms of economic organization.2)On the political level, central government grew stronger at expense offeudalism.3)On religious level, the rise of Protestantism fragmented the unity ofChristendom.4)On the social level, middle-class townspeople increased in numberand wealth.5)On the cultural level, the clergy lost its monopoly over learning. Main idea: Renaissance humanism1)in culture, valuing ancient classics for its clear and graceful style andfor its insights into human nature.2)In education, emphasizing practical, pre-professional and scientificstudies.3)In philosophy, saw man as a rational and sentient being, and saw manas inherently good by nature.Influence启后: 1) it affected European intellectual life in the earlymodern period. 2)it is regarded as the rebirth after the darkness of the Middle Age. It affected every area of human activity and knowledge, from art to zoology. It transformed Europe and the rest of the wold.表现：LiteratureItalian:Francesco Petrarch比特拉克：Father of Renaissance/humanism Individualism, Canzoniere(songbook)《歌集》Giovanni Boccaccio薄伽丘：introduce new literary form(pastoral田园诗) to Italy. The Decameron《十日谈》French: Montaigne’ Essays(蒙田的散文集)Spanish:Miguel de Cervantes—Don Quixote(塞万提斯《堂吉诃德》regarded as the first modern novel)English：英国文学四大奠基人：Geoffrey Chaucer 乔叟,WilliamShakespeare, Edmund Spenser斯宾塞, JohnMilton弥尔顿伊丽莎白时代的戏剧特点：Revenge报复, Sensationalism追求轰动效应, Melodrama情景剧and Vengeance复仇.PhilosophyScholasticism and humanismP143Neo-PlatonismReligious ReformationP144Machiavellianism(the Prince)P1441.Art（shifting attention from heaven to the natural world and to the human）文艺复兴三杰：1)Leonardo da vinci----The Moan Lisa、The last Supper, Vitruvian Man.3)Michelangelo---David, Moses, The Dying Slave4)Raphael Santi拉斐尔---Madonna of the Meadow草地上的圣母, Theschool of Athens雅典学院Chapter 2 Europe of the seventeencentury（1566-1648）Baroque style:1）painting: rich and deep color, and intense light and dark shadow. 2）Architecture and sculpture: light and shadow and dramatic intensity.1.Philosophy(p183)Locke,Hobbes,Descartes,Spinoza,LeibnizChapter 2 The Age of Enlightenment(1685-1815)1.什么是启蒙运动？1)It was a progressive intellectual movement,which began in the 17c peaked in the 18th .2)It was an expression of the bourgeoisie资产阶级against feudalism with a goal of “liberty,fraternity互助and equality”.2.主要理念①It advocated freedom of politics and learning and “enlightenment”or “education”is considered to be the chief means for the betterment of society.②It also believed in the power of reason,which was considered as a yardstick for the measurement of all human activities and social relations.③Reforming society uses reason and advancing knowledge through science.3.Philosophy during the Enlightenment Era(profound faith in the power of reason and rational thought)French:1）Voltaire伏尔泰：reason; each race had separate origins2）Montesquieu孟德斯鸠:三类（the monarchy, the aristocracy, the commons）三权分立（the executive, the legislative, the judicial）Persian Letters《波斯人信札》The spirit of Law《论法律精神》3）Rousseau卢梭: natural human自然人；the Social Contract社会契约论English:Adam Smith(P208)German:Kant,Hegel,Marx4.The French Revolution：the crowning event of the Enlightenment era.(p219)5.与新文化运动的对比Similarities:1)Background:They are all the result of the development of capitalist.2)Theme: They are all against feudalism and pursuit the democracy,freedom, and equality. They are all against the restrain of religion.3)Leaders: They are all launched by capitalist class.4)Nature: They are all the ideological emancipation movement ofcapitalist class.Difference:1)European Enlightenment thinkers focused on challenging political andreligious autocracy. But modern Chinese thinkers focused on reshaping moral values of individuals.2)The Enlightenment period in Europe occurred almost at the sametime as the Industrial Revolution and the formation of nation states.It came on the heels of other important philosophical trends like the Renaissance, the Reformation and the Scientific Revolution that had a profound impact on European society. But the feudal system in China,which survived till the early 20th century, had not been disrupted by similar ideological shifts.3)There is a distinction in range of influence. The Enlightenmentpromotes the French Revolution and the is the foundation of capitalist Revolution. However, the New Culture Movement propagates Marxism and motivates the May Fourth Movement.Romanticism1.什么是浪漫主义运动？1)It was an artistic, literary,and intellectual movement that originated inWestern Europe,and gained strength during the Industrial Revolution.2.开始、结束的标志It began in 1798,the year of the first edition of Lyrical Ballads抒情诗集by Wordsworth and Coleridge and of the composition of Hymns to the Night夜之赞歌by Novalis, and ended in 1832,the year which marked the deaths of both Sir Walter Scott and Goethe.3.主要理念（强调人的感受，回归大自然）1)A return to nature and to belief in the goodness of humanity2)The rediscovery of the artist as a supremely individual creator3)The development of the nationalistic pride4)The exaltation of the senses and emotions over reason and intellect5)A philosophical revolt against rationalismRealism1.什么是现实主义（对浪漫主义的反对）It was an artistic movement begun in 19c France.artists and writers strove for detailed realistic and factual description. They tried to represent events and social conditions as they actually are, without idealization.2.CharacteristicAccuracy,honesty,Independence,ordinariness,difficulties3.Literature（作家，作品）British:Charles Dickens狄更斯: David Copperfield, “the spokesman of the poor”Thomas Hardy哈迪: tragic novelist. Tess of the D’urbervilles Thackeray萨克雷: Vanity Fair名利场Evans伊万斯: The mill on the FlossFrench:巴尔扎克，福楼拜，莫泊桑America: Stowe, Whitman, Mark Twain, James4.Modernism:1)the radical shift in aesthetic and cultural sensibilities event in art and literature of post-World War One period.2)rejecting 19C optimism and presenting a profoundly pessimistic picture of a culture in disarray.Literature:1)symbolism: T. S. Eliot, Yeats, Edgar Allan Poe, Ezra Pound2)Expressionism: Eugene O’Neill, Franz Kaflka3)Stream of consciousness: James Joyce, Viginia Woolf, WilliamFaulkner4)Existentialism: Camus, Sartre,Painting1)impressionism2)expressionism: Vincent van Gogh, EdvardMounch3)Cubism: Picasso。

英语属于西日耳曼语支，起源于盎格鲁-弗里西亚方言，是在日耳曼人入侵时被引入不列颠的。

English is a West Germanic language that originated from theAnglo-Frisian dialects, broughtto Britain by Germanic invaders最初的古英语由多种方言组成，晚期西撒克逊语最终成为了统一英语的语言。

现代人所认识的英语，很大程度上和公元1400年的书面中古英语相似。

这种转变是由历史上两的入侵，他们在公元八、九世纪征服并使部分不列颠岛成为他们的殖民地。

第二次是十一世纪时来自诺曼人的入侵，他们讲的古诺曼语最终发展为英语的一种变体，称为盎格鲁-诺曼语。

Middle English differed from Old English because of two invasions which occurred during the Middle Ages. The 1st invasion was by peoples who spoke North Germanic languages. They conquered and colonized parts of Britain during the 8th and 9th centuries A.D. The 2nd invasion was by the Normans of the 11th century, who spoke Old Norman and eventually developed an English form thereofcalled Anglo-Norman.Proto-English英语诞生于日耳曼人的语言，主要包括盎格鲁语，撒克逊语，弗里西语，朱特语。

这其中还可能含有法兰克语，之后又融合了拉丁语。

The languages of Germanic peoples gave rise to the English language( the best known are the Angles, Saxons, Frisii, Jutes and possibly some Franks,) . Latin loan wordsentered the vocabulary.Old English – from the mid-5th century to the mid-11th century人们现在所讲的古英语是长期以来多个殖民部落的方言融合而形成的。

The invention of the printing press is arguably one of the most significant milestones in the history of human communication and knowledge dissemination.This transformative technology,pioneered by Johannes Gutenberg in the mid15th century,revolutionized the way information was shared and preserved,leading to profound cultural, intellectual,and social changes that continue to resonate today.The printing presss impact on society was multifaceted.Prior to its invention,books were painstakingly copied by hand,a laborious process that limited the number of texts available and made them prohibitively expensive for all but the wealthiest individuals.The printing press democratized access to knowledge,making books more affordable and widely available.This accessibility fostered a surge in literacy rates and education,as more people could read and learn from a diverse array of sources.One of the most immediate effects of the printing press was the acceleration of the spread of ideas.The Gutenberg Bible,one of the first major works to be printed using movable type,exemplified the presss potential to reproduce texts with remarkable speed and accuracy.This allowed for the rapid dissemination of religious texts,legal documents, and scholarly works,which in turn facilitated the exchange of ideas and the development of new intellectual movements.The Protestant Reformation is a prime example of how the printing press influenced religious and social change.Martin Luthers95Theses,which criticized the Catholic Churchs practices,were printed and widelycirculated,sparking a movement that led to significant religious and political transformations across Europe.The press played a crucial role in enabling the rapid spread of reformist ideas,challenging the authority of the Church and contributing to the fragmentation of Christianity into various denominations.Moreover,the printing press had a profound impact on the scientific revolution.As texts on various scientific disciplines became more accessible,researchers could build upon the work of their predecessors more easily.The sharing of discoveries and theories through printed works accelerated the pace of scientific inquiry and innovation,leading to advancements in fields such as astronomy,physics,and biology.The press also contributed to the development of national languages and cultures.As books were printed in local languages rather than Latin,the vernacular became more prominent,strengthening the sense of national identity and cultural pride.This linguistic standardization facilitated communication within and among nations,fostering a shared cultural heritage and promoting the exchange of ideas across borders.The economic implications of the printing press were equally significant. The increased demand for books and printed materials created new industries and job opportunities,from typesetting and printing to bookbinding and distribution.This helped to spur economic growth and development,particularly in urban centers where printing businesses often thrived.It is also important to consider the social implications of the printing press. The ability to reproduce texts in large quantities meant that information was no longer controlled by a select few.This democratization of information contributed to the rise of public opinion and the development of civil society,as individuals could access diverse perspectives and engage in informed debate.In conclusion,the invention of the printing press was a pivotal moment in human history,with farreaching implications that continue to shape our world today.It democratized access to knowledge,accelerated the spread of ideas,and contributed to significant cultural,intellectual,and social changes.The presss impact on literacy,education,religion,science, language,economics,and society is a testament to its transformative power and enduring legacy.。

四大发明之一印刷术英语作文300字Printing, one of the Four Great Inventions of China, has revolutionized the way information is disseminated and knowledge is acquired. It has played a pivotal role in shaping human history and fostering cultural advancements. Invented during the Tang Dynasty (618-907 AD), printing technology underwent significant developments throughout the Song Dynasty (960-1279 AD) and beyond.The earliest form of printing in China involved woodblock printing, where characters or images were carved onto wooden blocks and then inked and pressed onto paper. This method, known as xylography, allowed for the mass production of texts, making books and educational materials more widely available. However, it was a laborious andtime-consuming process, limiting the scale of printing operations.In the 11th century, Chinese inventor Bi Sheng developed movable type printing, a groundbreakinginnovation that greatly enhanced the efficiency and versatility of printing. Movable type involved creating individual characters, or typefaces, from ceramic or metal, which could be arranged and rearranged to compose text. This allowed for the rapid printing of large quantities of text, making books and other printed materials more affordable and accessible.Movable type printing spread from China to Korea and Japan, and eventually to Europe in the 15th century. Johannes Gutenberg's printing press, developed in the mid-15th century, further refined and standardized the movable type printing process, leading to the mass production of books and the dissemination of knowledge during the Renaissance and beyond.The invention of printing had a profound impact on various aspects of society. It facilitated the spread of education and literacy, as printed books became widely available to scholars, students, and the general public. This contributed to the growth of intellectualism and the exchange of ideas, fostering cultural exchange and thedevelopment of new knowledge.Moreover, printing played a crucial role in the dissemination of religious texts, such as the Bible, which became more accessible to the masses. This had significant implications for the spread of Christianity and other religions, shaping religious beliefs and practices.In addition to books, printing technology was used to produce a wide range of printed materials, including newspapers, maps, and government documents. Thisfacilitated the sharing of news, information, and official proclamations, fostering greater transparency and communication within society.The invention of printing not only revolutionized the way information was disseminated but also contributed to the development of new technologies and industries. It laid the foundation for the development of modern printing presses, lithography, and other printing techniques, which have continued to evolve and shape the way we communicate and access information.In conclusion, the invention of printing in China was a transformative event that had a profound impact on human civilization. It facilitated the mass production of books and other printed materials, making knowledge more widely available and accessible. This led to the spread of education, the dissemination of religious texts, and the development of new technologies. Printing remains an indispensable tool for communication, education, and the preservation and dissemination of knowledge, continuing to play a vital role in shaping human society and cultural advancements.。

English Lexicology(英语词汇学)1.English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.英语词汇学意在调查和研究英语单词和单词旳等价物旳形态构造,其语义构造、关系、历史发展、形成和使用方法。

2.English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学), semantics(语义学), etymology(词源学),stylistics（文体论）and lexicography(词典学) Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabulary1.Word（词旳定义）: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentence词语是语言最小旳自由形式，拥有固定旳声音和意义以及句法作用。

2.Sound and meaning（声音与意义）: almost arbitrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”3.Sound and form（读音和形式）:不统一旳四个原因（1）the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other （2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years（3）some of the difference were created by the early scribes（4）the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary （5）printing、standardization、dictionary—Old English,The speech of the time was represented very much more faithfully in writing than itis today. 古代英语中旳口语比今天更忠实旳代表书面语—The written form of English is an imperfect representation of the spoken form。

Chapter 3 the Development of the English Vocabulary In the study of words, it is of great importance to know something about the origin and growth of the vocabulary. The English language is not the language of the early inhabitants of the British Isles. Then where does it come from? In what way is English related to other languages? A synchronic overview of the Indo-European Language Family will answer these questions.3.1 The Indo-European Language FamilyThe world has 3,000 (some put it 5,000) languages, which can be grouped into roughly 300 language families on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar.The Indo-European, one of these, is made up of most languages of Europe, the Near East and India. Most of the Indo-European languages are dead. The surviving Indo-European languages fall into ten principal groups, which fall into an Eastern set: Balto-Slavic, Indo-Iranian, Armenian and Albanian; a Western set: Celtic, Italic, Hellenic, Germanic, Hittite, and Tocharian.The Germanic family, which is our chief concern as English and its nearest relations are all members of this family. First, we have the four Northern European Languages: Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, which are generally known as Scandinavian languages. Then come German, Dutch, Flemish and English.3.2 Three Phases of the Historical Development of EnglishEnglish has been the language of England for a comparatively short period. Since its introduction into the island about the middle of the fifth century it has had a career extending through only fifteen hundred years. The first peoples known to inhabit the land were Celts. Their languages Celtic were dialects of still another branch of the Indo-European language family. The second major language known in England was the Latin of the Roman Legions.葡萄牙语 Potuguese 古法语 Old French 罗马尼亚语 Romanian 诺曼法语 Norman French 现代法语 Modern French 印欧语系 Indo-European （消亡） 意大利语族 Italic 奥斯干语支 Oscan 拉丁语支 Iatin 温布利安语支 Umbrian （消亡） 凯尔特语族 Celtic 盖尔语 Gallic 不列颠语支 Brittanic 盖尔语支 Gaelic 古爱尔兰语 Old Irish 古威尔士语 Old Welsh 哥特语 Gothic 东部语支 East 西部语支 West 日耳曼语族 Germanic 北部语支 North 东部语支 East 古诺尔斯语 Old Norse 冰岛语 Icelandic 挪威语 Norwegi 皮克特语 Pictish 威尔士语 Welsh 布列特尼语 Breton 科尼什语 Cornish 西部语支 West 德语 German 低地德语 Low German 高地德语 High German 现代标准德语 Modern German 荷兰语 Dutch 佛兰芒语 Flemish 古撒克逊语 Old Saxon 古低地弗兰克尼语 Old Low Franconian 肯特方言 Kentish 诺森布里亚方言 Northumbrian 默西亚方言 Mercian 西撒克逊方言 West Saxon 现代英语Modern English南部方言 Southern Dialect (盎格鲁人) Angles北部方言 Northern Dialect 中部方言Midland Dialect 东中部方言East Midland Dialect早期现代英语Early Modern English瑞典语 Swedish 丹麦语Danish 苏格兰盖尔语 Scottish Gaelic 爱尔兰盖尔语 Irish Gaelic 曼克斯语 Manx 古英语 Old English 西班牙语 Spanish 意大利语 Italian 盎格鲁·弗里西亚语Anglo-Frisian 古弗里西亚语 Old Frisian3.2.1 Old English (450-1150)The withdrawal of Roman troops virtually invited the invasion of the rich lowlands by the Picts and Scots from the North. The Celts appealed to Germanic warriors from across the North Sea for assistance in defending their land. Soon these German tribes, called Angles, Saxons and Jutes, came in great numbers and became their conquerors.The Germanic speakers took permanent control of the land that was later to be called England (the land of Angles). Their language, historically known as Anglo-Saxon, dominated and almost totally blotted out the Celtic.Though the Saxons were numerically superior to the Angles, the latter were influential enough to impose their name on the whole. That is why the country was called England, and the language English. It is from this language that our present-day English is derived.Old English (the Anglo-Saxon) has a vocabulary of about 50, 000 to 60,000 words, which are almost monogeneous and entirely Germanic with only a few borrowings from Latin and Scandinavian.Old English was a highly inflected language, which differ greatly from the language that we use today.3.2.2 Middle English (1150-1500)The Danish rule continued from 1016 to 1042. Then the Saxon Dynasty was restored and Edward the Confessor, who had no children, came to the English throne and reigned over a united England until 1066. At his death, Harold succeeded him as king of the country. As he was not in the direct line of succession, his rule was opposed by William, Duke of Normandy, first cousin of Edward, for William considered himself the rightful heir to the throne. The English nobles disagreed, so William invaded the island. At the battle of Hastings (1066), the power of Harold was crushed and William became master of England. This event was known in history as the Norman Conquest. However, the influx of French words into English did not occur until after 1300. Norman French became the polite speech. The native tongue was a despised language which was left to the use of boors and serfs.In the next hundred years or so, with the separation of the two nations, the nobility of England still spoke French, but bit by bit English came back into the schools, the law courts and government and regained social status. It made the final step back to a position of importance when it emerged once again as a respected literary medium with the Wycliff translation of the Bible and the writings of Chaucer, Langland and others. Norman French was a class language, never the speech of England.The Middle English period was one of great changes, changes more extensive and fundamental than those that had taken place at any time before and since. The single most significant fact of this period was the steady erosion of the Old English inflectional systems. If we say that the Old English was a period of full endings, the Middle English was a period of leveled endings. Another significant point is the French influence on English vocabulary. The number of French words that poured into English was unbelievably great and covered every realm of culture and society.3.2.3 Modern English (1500-up to the present )Modern English dates from the Caxton and the establishment of printing in England. It may be subdivided into Early Modern English (1500-1700) and Late Modern English (1700- up to the present).In the early period of Modern English, enormous numbers of Latin words became English words because of the Renaissance. These contributed to the decidedly Latinate flavour of Modern English. Now the rapidly expanding use of printing and the needs of the schools began to set standard spellings for most words.Since the mid-seventeenth century, England experienced the Bourgeois Revolution followed by the Industrial Revolution and rose to be a great economic power, thus enabling English to absorb words from all major languages of the world.Since the beginning of 20th century, particularly after World War II, thousands and thousands of new words have been created to express new ideas, inventions and scientific achievements.3.3 General Characteristics of English3.3.1 Receptivity, Adaptability and HeterogeneityEnglish has taken to itself material from all other languages and has made the new elements its own. Having received all kinds of foreign elements, the English vocabulary is copious and heterogeneous.3.3.2 Simplicity of InflectionOld English was characterized by ‘full endings’, Middle English by ‘leveled endings’ and Modern English by ‘lost endings’.3.3.3 Relatively Fixed Word-orderIn an analytic language like Modern English, the word order is required to be relatively fixed. The semantic relation is closely connected to the positions of the words. The change of word-order may result in a change of meaning.3.4 Foreign Elements in the English VocabularyOf all the foreign languages from which words have been borrowed into English, Latin, Greek, French and Scandinavian stand out as the major contributors, which have had great influence on the English language vocabulary.3.4.1 LatinFor 2,000 years Modern English vocabulary has borrowed so heavily and complexly from Latin.1) The Pre-Anglo-Saxon PeriodDuring the Pre-Anglo-Saxon Period the words borrowed naturally reflected the new conceptions and experience in war and agriculture, e.g. battle, banner, cheese, pepper, butter, etc.2) The Old English PeriodBorrowings of this period came in the wake of the introduction of Christianity into Britain in 597. In the four hundred years or more up to the Norman Conquest, a variety of additional Latin words were adopted. Among the church terms are altar, candle, creed, disciple, nun, etc.3) The Middle English PeriodThe Norman Conquest marked the beginning of the third period of borrowingfrom Latin, though many of them made their way through French. The lexical settlers of Latin via French are generally more popular than those borrowed directly from Latin. The fourteenth and fifteenth centuries were especially prolific in Latin borrowings under the influence of Renaissance. The following is a list of direct Latin borrowings in this period: gesture, history, include, incredible, individual, innumerable, necessary, nervous, picture, polite, popular, prevent, private, solar, temporal, etc. It is noticeable that some of the Latin suffixes, -able, -ible, -al, -ous, -ive and others now become common in English.4) The Modern English PeriodWords borrowed since 1,500 are late ones, which are mostly of abstract and scientific character. These words generally retain their Latin forms: focus, status, circus, apparatus, genius, esteem, minimum, maximum, via, criteria, species, series, protest, enterprise, etc.Many of the frequently used abbreviations are from Latin:i.e. (id est) = that is to saye.g. (exempli gratia) = for examplea.m. (ante meridiem) = before noonetc. (et cetera) = and so onp.m. (post meridiem) = after nooncf. (confer) = compareibid. (ibidem) = in the same place3.4.2 GreekThe influx of Greek words into English began with the revival of learning from Greek classics. Here is a selection of such borrowings, which, even if through Latin and French, remain identifiably Greek in form, e.g. democracy, politics, logic, philosophy, atom, geography, mathematics, clinic, diagnosis, alphabet, drama, grammar, idiom, poem, poet, rhythm, athlete, marathon, architect, hero, idiot, method, music, mystery, etc.The greatest influence of Greek perhaps lies in its loan of word-building elements into English. The Greek and Latin elements are assimilated with native elements in such a way that they can be mixed to form new words, known as hybrids. For example, anti- and hyper-, which are Greek prefixes, meaning ‘against’and ‘beyond’ respectively, can be added to English root as in anti-British and to Latin root as in hypersensitive. The Greek verb suffix –ize can be fixed at the end of words of any origin to form verbs, e.g. popularize, westernize, etc.3.4.3 FrenchIt is estimated that about one fourth of modern English vocabulary has come from French. Until the Norman Conquest, the exchange of words between English and French had been minimal. But when William the Conqueror ascended the English throne, French suddenly became the language of government. Almost overnight English had become a second class language in its native land. In the one and the half centuries immediately after the Conquest, a number of probably fewer than 1,00 French words were absorbed into the permanent vocabulary of English.The supremacy of French began to recede in the mid-13th century, when theacculturated descendants of the invaders at last began to think of themselves more as Englishmen than French and with it Norman French gave way to English. Borrowing from French now was free. Between 1250 and 1500 an approximate 9,000 words of French origin poured into the language, of which at least 75 percent are still in use today, e.g. govern, crown, country, power, council, people, nation, prince, duke, judge, jury, court, angel, sacrifice, miracle, preach, virtue, duty, conscience, war, battle, captain, soldier, beef, mutton, pork, bacon, roast, soup, supper, feast, tower, castle, fashion, dress, coat, fur, joy, pleasure, leisure, sport, etc.Although the rate of foreign borrowings tapered off to a certain extent during the 15th century, it sharply revived in the 16th and the English Renaissance. Nevertheless, new French borrowings during this period tended to be supplementary rather than central to the English vocabulary as there was a resistance that grew on the part of the English to borrowing of any kind. In the 150 years between 1650 and 1800, less than half as many French words were brought into English as had been added in the preceding years of the same length of time. Such words as ballet, dentist, cartoon, publicity, ridicule, routine are representatives of the hundreds of words absorbed in the period under discussion.Contemporary French influence on English since 1800 is difficult to define. But one thing is certain that the rate at which we have borrowed has increased considerably over that of the 18th century though the rate is still a fraction of what it was in the Middle Ages.3.4.4 ScandinavianThe Scandinavian languages: Norwegian, Swedish, Danish and Icelandic, constitute the northern branch of the Germanic group. The earliest recorded form of Scandinavian is Old Norse. The Vikings, who were first to raid Britain in A.D. 787, were a Germanic people closely related to the Anglo-Saxons, who had originally lived just south of them on the Continent. Their languages known as Old Norse were very similar to Old English. Sharing a stock of basic words, the two peoples could understand each other quite well. In the 200 years that followed from the Norsemen invasion, Norsemen swarmed into the British Isles and occupied the greater part of the land, which remained bilingual. However, the English element eventually prevailed and the descendants of the Norsemen gradually forgot Norse and spoke English. The English then was the result of the fusion of the two peoples and cultures. Accordingly, hundreds of words were permanently absorbed into the English vocabulary. Many of these were basic and everyday words, often displacing original English ones such as skill, husband, sister, bag, bank, club, both, they, them, get, take, die, hit, happy, low, tight, ugly, wrong, etc.Numerically, the Scandinavian words in the English vocabulary are not many as compared with those of French.3.4.5 Other Foreign ElementsAs we have mentioned above, English is a heavy borrower, which has absorbed words from all the major languages of the world with which it has had contact. Apart from Latin, Greek, French and Scandinavian, the other elements are much less important. Even among the minor languages, Italian, German, Dutch and Spanishhave made considerable contributions to the English vocabulary. All the others are felt to be superficial.1)ItalianSome of the Italian words borrowed into English are: corridor, balcony, design, sonnet, model, picturesque, piano, violin, concert, opera, spaghetti, macaroni, broccoli, campaign, cannon, attitude, casino, influenza, jeans, umbrella, volcano, etc.2) GermanThe number of German borrowings is limited, some of them are nickel, Fahrenheit, ecology, hamburger, noodle, dollar, kindergarten, semester.3)DutchDutch is closely related to English. As the Dutch were leaders in the sea and the seafaring as well as industry, and transportation, especially in the golden ages in the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries, three quarters of the Dutch borrowings occurred during this period: yacht, sledge, stove, landscape, sketch, skate, boss, Santa Claus, etc.4)Spanish and PortugueseWords from Portuguese are mainly associated with slave culture. The more recent loanwords coming directly from Portuguese include Negro, potato, cafeteria, zebra, apricot, banana, etc.5)CelticCeltic is the language spoken by the earliest people in the British Isles, but unfortunately it has hardly had any influence on English vocabulary. Only a meager handful of Celtic words are left in English: dun, slough etc. the Celtic element is also found largely in place names such as rivers (Thames, Avon) and city names (York, London, Kent).There are some other loan words borrowed from other languages.Arabic: alcohol, coffee, cotton, magazine, muslin, sofa etc.Indian: candy, pajamas, shampoo etc.Russian: czar, vodka etc.Czech: robot.Bulgarian: coachPersian: bazaar, orange, check, lilac etc.Turkish: turkey, yoghurt etc.Malay: bamboo, caddy etc.Polynesian: taboo, tattooJapanese: kimono, karate, judo, tatami, etc.Australian aboriginal dialect: kangaroo, koalaAmerican Indian: moose, raccoon etcMexican: chocolate, tomato etc.Caribbean: barbecue, canoe, hurricane, maize etc.African: lion, paper, sack etc.Chinese: typhoon, tea, china, chopsticks, tofu, yin-yang, zongzi, etc.In earlier times, borrowing was a very important means of vocabulary development. While in modern times, the role of borrowing is diminishing and can hardly compare with some of the means of word-creation such as affixation,compounding and conversion.。

第2章国家的起源2.1 复习笔记Ⅰ. Early Settlers (5000 BC—55 BC)1. The Iberians2. The Beaker Folk3. The CeltsⅡ. Roman Britain (55 BC—AD 410)Ⅲ. The Anglo-Saxons (446—871)Ⅳ. The Viking and Danish InvasionsⅤ. The Norman Conquest (1066)Ⅰ. Early Settlers (5000 BC—55 BC)1. The IberiansThe first known settlers of Britain were the Iberians. At about 3000 BC during the New Stone Age, the Iberians came to Britain, probably from the Iberian Peninsula.2. The Beaker FolkAt about 2000 BC the Beaker Folk arrived from the areas now known as Holland and the Rhineland.3. The CeltsThe Celts began to arrive about 700 BC. They came to Britain in three main waves. Ⅰ. 早期的定居者(5000 BC—55 BC)1. 伊比利亚人英国最早的定居者是伊比利亚人。

大约公元前3000年，新石器时期，来自伊比利亚半岛的伊比利亚人来到了英国。

2. 宽口陶器人大约公元前2000年，宽口陶器人来到现在的荷兰和莱茵兰地区。

3. 凯尔特人公元前700年，凯尔特人来到英国。

他们分三批来到这里。

Ⅱ. Roman Britain (55 BC—AD 410)1. Julius Caesar, the great Roman general, invaded Britain for the first time in 55 BC. For nearly 400 years Britain was under the Roman occupation.2. The Romans also brought the new religion, Christianity, to Britain.3. The Romans had no impact on the language or culture of ordinary Britons.Ⅱ. 罗马统治时期(55 BC—AD 410)1. 尤里乌斯·凯撒，罗马将领，在公元前55年入侵英国。

中国人过圣诞节英文作文The History of Christmas in ChinaChristmas is not a traditional Chinese holiday, as Christianity is not the dominant religion in China. However, over the years, Christmas has gained recognition and popularity among the Chinese population, especially in urban areas. The celebration of Christmas in China can be attributed to the increasing influence of Western culture and globalization.The introduction of Christianity to China can be traced back to the 7th century when Nestorian missionaries arrived in China. However, Christianity did not gain significant popularity until the arrival of European missionaries in the 16th century. The spread of Christianity was further hindered during the Cultural Revolution in the mid-20th century, when religious practices were suppressed.Since the late 1970s, with the economic reforms and opening up of China, Christianity has seen a revival, and Christmas has become more widely celebrated. Today, there are an estimated 100 million Christians in China, although the exact number is difficult to determine due to the underground nature of some Christian communities.Celebrating Christmas in ChinaAlthough Christmas is not a public holiday in China, it is still widely celebrated, particularly in urban areas. The celebration of Christmas in China is largely influenced by the commercial aspects of the holiday, associated with gift-giving, Santa Claus, and Christmas decorations.In major cities like Beijing, Shanghai, and Guangzhou, shopping malls and department stores are adorned with Christmas decorations, and Santa Claus can be found taking photos with children. Many businesses and companies also decorate their offices or stores with Christmas trees, lights, and ornaments.One of the most significant aspects of Christmas in China is gift-giving. Similar to Western traditions, Chinese people exchange gifts with their family, friends, and colleagues during the holiday season. Popular gifts include chocolates, wine, and other Western goods, as well as traditional Chinese gifts such as tea and mooncakes.In recent years, Christmas has also become a popular time for couples to express their love. Similar to Valentine's Day, couples exchange gifts, go out for romantic dinners, or spend time together. In major cities, there are often special promotions and events organized for couples during the Christmas season.Interestingly, in China, Christmas Eve is often considered more important than Christmas Day itself. Many people celebrate with a special dinner, similar to Western traditions. Some families also attend midnight Mass at churches, even if they are not Christian themselves. Christmas in Chinese Schools and UniversitiesApart from celebrations in the community and amongst families, Christmas is also celebrated in Chinese schools and universities. English teachers often incorporate Christmas-themed lessons, with activities such as making Christmas cards or singing Christmas carols.Chinese students may also participate in Christmas performances, where they showcase their talents through singing, dancing, or acting. This provides students with a unique opportunity to learn about Western culture and traditions.Christmas and Chinese CuisineFood plays a significant role in Chinese celebrations, and Christmas is no exception. While Western holiday foods like turkey and ham are not commonly eaten in China, there have been some adaptations to suit the local palate.For example, in recent years, roasted chicken has become a popular substitute for turkey. Many restaurants offer special Christmas menus, featuring dishes that fuse Western and Chinese flavors. For dessert, traditional Chinese sweets like mooncakes may be served alongside Christmas cookies and cakes.Christmas in China and Chinese TraditionsDespite the growing popularity of Christmas in China, many Chinese people still maintain their own cultural traditions during the holiday season. For instance, some families celebrate the Winter Solstice Festival, which falls around the same time as Christmas.During the Winter Solstice Festival, families gather to make and eat Tangyuan, a traditional Chinese dessert made of glutinous rice flour. This festival is seen as an opportunity to celebrate family unity and to mark the arrival of winter.Another tradition that is unique to China during the Christmas season is the lighting of paper lanterns. In some cities, people release paper lanterns into the sky, symbolizing the release of troubles and the welcoming of a new beginning.ConclusionWhile Christmas is not a traditional Chinese holiday, it has gained popularity over the years, thanks to the influence of Western culture and globalization. Chinese people have adapted and integrated Christmas celebrations with their own cultural traditions, creating a unique blend of holiday festivities.Christmas in China is characterized by the commercial aspects of the holiday, such as gift-giving, Santa Claus, and Christmas decorations. It is also a time for couples to express their love and for families to come together for special dinners. Christmas is celebrated in schools and universities, allowing students to learn about Western culture and traditions.Despite the influence of Christmas, Chinese people still maintain their own cultural practices during the holiday season, such as celebrating the Winter Solstice Festival and lighting paper lanterns. The celebration of Christmas in China demonstrates the country's ability to embrace and adapt elements of different cultures while preserving their own traditions.。

中国文化和西方文化的不同英语作文全文共5篇示例，供读者参考篇1Differences Between Chinese and Western CulturesHi everyone! My name is Xiaoming and I'm a student in the 5th grade. Today, I want to share with you some interesting things I've learned about the differences between Chinese and Western cultures. It's a really cool topic!First of all, we have to understand that culture is a big word that includes many things like traditions, values, customs, arts, food, and way of living. Different cultures have developed in different parts of the world over thousands of years, so it's natural that they are quite different from each other.One of the biggest differences I've noticed is in the way people greet each other. In China, we often bow slightly or nod our heads to show respect when meeting someone, especially elders or teachers. But in Western countries like the USA or UK, people usually shake hands or sometimes even hug! I think that's really interesting.Another major difference is in our foods. Chinese cuisine is known for its delicious flavors and use of ingredients like rice, noodles, soy sauce, and tea. We also love to eat with chopsticks! On the other hand, Western foods are often based on bread, meat, cheese, and wine. Their eating utensils are usually forks, knives, and spoons.Family values are also quite different. In Chinese culture, we have a strong emphasis on respecting and taking care of our elders, like grandparents. Children are expected to obey their parents and work hard in school to bring honor to the family. But in many Western cultures, children are encouraged to be more independent and make their own choices from a young age.Speaking of school, the education systems are quite different too! In China, we have strict discipline and a lot of emphasis on exams and scores. Students often stay late after school for extra classes or tutoring. But in Western schools, there is more focus on creativity, group projects, and overall development of the child.Holidays and festivals are another area where cultures differ a lot. In China, we celebrate events like Chinese New Year,Mid-Autumn Festival, and Dragon Boat Festival. These involve traditions like setting off firecrackers, eating mooncakes, anddragon boat racing. Western holidays like Christmas, Easter, and Thanksgiving have their own unique customs like decorating Christmas trees, egg hunting, and having big turkey dinners.I also find the differences in arts and crafts really fascinating. Chinese arts like calligraphy, paper cutting, and painting with ink brushes have been practiced for centuries. In contrast, Western arts are more focused on things like oil paintings, sculpting, and modern abstract art.Of course, these are just some of the many differences between our cultures. But I think it's amazing how diverse the world is, with so many rich traditions and ways of life. Learning about different cultures helps us appreciate and respect each other better.Even though we may do things differently, I believe all cultures have something valuable to offer. We should keep an open mind, be curious to learn from each other, and focus on the things that bring us together as human beings.I hope you found my essay interesting and informative. Let me know if you have any other thoughts or questions! Thanks for reading.篇2Hi,大家好!我是小明,今天我要给大家写一篇关于中国文化和西方文化不同的英语作文。