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英语国家概况经济篇%1.自然资源英国:Compare with many other countries,Britain has comsiderable reserves of coal.Today British coal mining is called a "sick" industry.Natural gas and oil was discovered in 1965 and oil in 1970 under the North Sea.Britain was the first nation to build a large iron and steel industry.Rich deposits of iron ore were found in central England.As with the coal industry,Britain's steel industry is declining.美国:Fertile soil is one of the most important natural resouces in the United States.America's forest resources are among the world's largest.Another natural resource that contributes to the welfare of the country is water.America is the leaders in production of Coal,iron ore,cpper,oil,sulfur,lead and zine.But short for tin,manganese,and nikel.爱尔兰Ireland is now the largest producer of lead and zinc concentrates in Europe.While Ireland lacks sizeable oil deposits,it has a valuable energy source in the peat,or turt,bogs that cover extensive areas of the country.力口拿大:Water is one of the most important natural resources in Canada.Almost half of the land area of Canada is covered by forests. Canada ranks third,in the production of lumber and other forest products in the world.The largest producer of newsprint in the world.Canada is a primary world producer of nickle,zine and asbestoes,and comes second in potash,third in gold and fourth in copper.Canada is a major world supplier of uranium.Experts believe that the cold fields of Canada may be among the largest in the world.A great deposit of petroleum was discovered south of Edmonton in Alberta. About two thurdsof Canada's petroleum and about four fifths of its natural gas come from Alberta.澳大利亚:Australia is one of the world's biggest producers of minerals and metals.It has major deposits of bauxite,mineral sands,diamonds,and black and brown coal,and large reserves of ores containing gold,lead,zinc,iron,copper,nikel,manganese and uranium. It is the world largest exporter of coal,and a major exporter of uranium.新西兰:There is an increasingly large share of energy comes from local resources:natural gas,crude oil,hydroelectricity and geothermal steam. Coal is of growing importance.Solar energy,vegetable oils and ethylalcohol from fermentation make small contributions.%1.农业英国:The Britain were pioneers in modern agriculture and were among the first to bring science and machinery to farming.The new farming has been called "agribusiness" .There are mainly six farming types in Britain.They are arable farning,dairy fariming, stock farming,mixed farming,hill farming and market gardening.Because of the cool climate,apples,pears and plums grwo very well in Britain.The North Sea has very good fishing grounds.美国:Yet the United States grows nearly one fourth of the world's grain and supplies a half of all the exports of grain in the world.It ranks first,second,or third in the production and export of corn, wheat, rice, soybeans, oranges, meat,milk, apples,oats,cotton,tobaoo, peanuts,and edible vegetable oil.（具体的在什么地方种什么东西可以参照书上P289-291）爱尔兰:Agriculture generates anestimated 11% of the Ireland GNRemploys 17% of the labour force and produces 25% of total exports.The most signigicant recent development in Irish agriculture has been membership in the European Community.加拿大:The land used for agriculture makes up only 7 % in Canada. Canada farms specialize in producing wheat,food crops for animals dairy products,and fruit.Fishing and mining are quiteimportant.The Canada Prairie is the centre of a rich wheat belt.Eastern Canada is noted for a variety of farm products.Dairying is in the lowlands of Quebec and Ontario.Fruits are grown in Western Nova Scotia.澳大利亚:Today,agriculture is the nation's largest and most diverse industry. Australia is one of the world's leading producers of food and natural fibres. Australia is the world's largest exporter of wool,the second largest exporter of meat,the third largest exporter of wheat and a major international supplier of sugar,dairy products,fruits,cotton and rice.Australia's agriculture importance has declined in recent years.新西兰:Vineyards produce international award-winning red and white wines.%1.制造业，工业英国:The textile is one of Britain's oldest.Textiles were on of the country's most vauluable exports.Britain became a world leader in shipbuilding during the middle of the 19th century.The two main centres for shipbuilding were on the River Tyne near Newcastle,England and on the Clyde near Glasgow in Scotland.The Britain motor industry now dominated by four firms(Ford,the RoverGroup,GM-Vauxhall,and Peugeot)There are three areas in Britain which have seen some high-tech industrial growth. Scotland has Europe's largest collection of foreign-owned chip factories.Over 90% of the companies are from the U.S. A.,Japan,the Netherlands and germany.美国:The untied States ranks first,second,third or fourth in the world in the production of crude steel,passenger cars,commercial vehicles,chemi cals,radio sets,television sets,and other manufacturing goods.Manufacturing accounts for about one quarter of theGDRabout one quarter of the national income,and over one fifth of the work force.The industrial regions are the Midwest(the nations's leading centre of heavy industry) round the Great Lakes,the Middle Atlantic states,the South,and the Pacific Coast.爱尔兰:Since the 1961 s,manufactuing has become the mainstay of the Irish economy.Of industrial employment,66% are employed in manufacting.力口拿大:Manufacturing is the mst important economic activity in Canada.Food processing is the leading industry. The manufacture of transportation equipment ranks second. The production of paper and paper related products ranks third, metal products are also important.澳大利亚:The mining industry in Australia has faced new problems in recent years.Australia's service sector is the fastest-growing sector of industry.lt has been growing in importance in recent years.新西兰:There are two steel comanies:New Zealand Steel which uses iron sands from the west coast of North Island,and Pacific Steel which reuses scrap iron.New Zealand is a world leader in the CNA(compressed natural gas) industry.Garments,fabrics and carpets are exported.The fishing industry has expanded greatly and is now the 4th largest export earner.%1.对外贸易英国:Britain is the fifth largest trading country in the world.Napoleon called it a "nation of shopkeepers".Britain's foreign trade is mainly with other developed countries.which accounts for 79% of exports and 85% of imports. About half with EC.Traditionally,Britain has had a deficit on visible trade and a surplus on invisible trade.美国:Currenty U.S. exports are about 15% of the world's total.The Unites States imports about 13% of all world imports.Canada is the largest single source og goods imported by the U.S.‘accounting for nearly 30% of the total. Outside of North America,Europe is the largest source of imports with about 30%,Asia provides about 18%,with smaller percentages from Latin America,Africa,and Australia.爱尔兰:Successive Irish governments have adopted a consistent and postive approoach toward attracting overseas investment.The new foreign firms now account for over 70% of manufactured exports.Ireland is new an industrial exporter.Manufactured goods account for about two-thirds of total wxports.力口拿大:A total about four fifths of all foreign investments in Canada are American.澳大利亚:Australia is a middle-level trading nation.The main feature of Australia's trade is that it has always involved the exchange of raw materials for finished products.Australia's trade relations with China have been developing rapidly in recent years. China accouts for about 3% of Australian total exports.新西兰:Trade is New Zealand's linelihood.Foreign investment is increasing and financial markets are active.Western Europe and particularly Britain have traditionally been New Zealand's major export market.The main imports are industrial raw materials,capital equipment and consumer goods.New Zealand is the world's largest exporter of lamb and mutton as well as dairy products.%1.当今面临的问题英国:Britain is the oldest industrial country in the world.The term "Britain disease" is noew often used to characterise Britain's economic decline.The Evolution of the Britain Economy since the War: 1.Steady development in the 50s and 60s.2.Economic recession in the 70s.3.Economic recovery in the 80s.这里有一部分是撒切尔的宏，微观措施比较重要(P91-92)Irel and FiannaFail,TheSenate,美国:The Untied States has a free-market economy with a dominant private sector. So the economy system of the United States is principally privately owned.But today,many of American people still live under the poverty line.Unemployment,inflation,finacial deficit,and trade deficit are the troubles that always face the United States.爱尔兰:The value of imports generally exceeds that of exports. That's why Ireland has a chronic negative balance of trade.Continuing dependence on imported oil is one of the reasons for the high import bill.力口拿大:In the past few years ho we ver,C anada' s unemployment rate has been high.But what is worth nothing is that the cost for manufacturing has increased while the productivity per worker has decreased as compared with the United States or with its ten trading partners.While Canada has one of the world's highest standards of living,not all regions of the country have enjoyed the same degree of prosperity.Some measures have been taken by the Federal government to help those slow grownth regions. 澳大利亚:Problems of Australia economy: 1 .Over-reliance on commodityexports.2.Failure to share in the expansion of international trade.3.The decline of manufaturing industries and the effects of tariffs.Country Party system HousesBritain The conservative Party, The House of Commons The Labour Party The House of Lorbs The U.S. The Democrats, The Senate,The Republic The House of RepresentativesFine Gael The House of RepresentativesAustralia The Labour Party, The Senate,the Liberal and National Party The House of RepresentativesNew Zealand The National Party,The Labour Party The House of RepresentativesCanada The Liberal Party, The Senate,the Progressive Conservative Party The House of Representatives考试前注意事项考前准备：一、欲善其事，必先利其器。
第六章英国经济英国是世界上最老的工业国，工业革命首先发生在英国。
一个世纪前英国被称为"世界工广"。
英国生产出许多商品然后销往世界各地。
那时的英国经济属世界强国之林，生活水平远远高于欧洲邻国。
但是今非昔比。
二战后不久，英国不仅失去经济霸权，而且其工业领导地位也丢失大部分。
其人均国民生产总值在1900年被美国超过，1950年被法国和德国超过，1960年被意大利超过。
1950年至1973年间，英国的国民生产总值平均年增产率为3.0%，低于其大多数贸易伙伴。
经济发展受阻于长期收支差额赤字。
一个国家的收支差额是指出口所挣的货币与进口所花货币之间的差额。
当一个国家花在进口上的总货币量超过它在出口上得到的总货币量时，这个国家就遭受收支差额的赤字。
几十年来英国一直存在收支差额赤字。
在增长率上英国再也不能与其他工业国匹敌。
现在常用"英国病"这个词来概括英国经济衰退的特征。
I.二战后英国经济的演变二战后英国经济的发展有三个阶段:1.15年代和60年代的稳定发展二战蹂躏了欧洲。
战争使英国经济遭受巨大损失，但它所受的直接战争损失比其他欧洲国家和日本要小。
美国的援助使英国经济很快恢复。
被战争抑制的消费需求很快成了促进经济发展的重要因素。
到1947年底英国经济已恢复到战前水平。
1950年英国的国民生产总值及外贸列世界第二位(仅次于美国)，人均收入列世界第三位。
这一时期英国经济的特点是发展缓慢但很稳定，失业少，物质的极度繁荣伴随着消费水平的提高。
像所有西方国家一样，英国把充分就业问题看作是战后经济的突出问题，它所奉行的经济政策以约翰·凯恩斯理论为基础。
他提出，政府在利用物价和收入政策从根本上抑制通货膨胀的同时，应该利用财政和货币政策来微调社会的总需求，以达到充分就业的目的。
这种以高消费和低投资为特点的政策也产生了一些问题，其中之一是劳动力费用昂贵，这反过来又导致英国在国际市场上竞争力低下。
英语国家概况知识点（绝对全）第一部分英国第一章英国地理1. The official name of the United Kingdom is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.2. There are three political divisions on the islands of Great Britain: England, Scotland and Wales.3. About a hund red years ago, Britain ruled an empire that had one fourth of the world’s people and one fourth of the world’s land area.4. The Britain Empire was replaced by the Britain commonwealth in 1931,which is a free association of independent counties that were once colonies of Britain.5. Britain is separated from the rest of Europe by the English Channel in the south and the North Sea in the east.6. Britain has, for centuries, been tilting with the northwest slowly rising, and the southeast slowly sinking. The north and west of Britain are mainly highlands. The southeast and east are mainly lowlands.7. The pennies, a range of hills running from north midlands to Scottish border, are the principal mountain chain.8. Ben Nevis in Scotland is the highest mountain in Britain, and the Lough Neagh in Northern Ireland is the largest lake in Britain.9. There are three natural zones in Scotland: the highlands in the north, the central lowlands, and the southern uplands. The lowlands in the center comprise mostly the forth and Clyde valleys.10. Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast are the capitals of Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland.11. Scotland has about 800 islands, including the Orkney, Shetlands and Hebrides.苏格兰有800座岛屿，包括奥克内群岛，谢特兰群岛和赫不里德群岛。
Chapt e r 1 The Land and Histo r y英国全称大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国，由英格兰、苏格兰、威尔士及北爱尔兰构成，位于大西洋东部的不列颠群岛，是个岛屿国家，由大不列颠岛，爱尔兰岛北部和众多小岛组成。
面积约24.40万平方公里，人口超过6400万(2013年)。
英国属于温带海洋气候，常年温和多雨，气候多变。
受高纬度因素的影响，有类似极昼极夜的现象，冬季日短夜长，夏季日长夜短。
公元前3000年左右，伊比亚人最先到达大不列颠岛。
随后，比克利人、凯尔特人相继来到不列颠。
公元前1世纪到公元5世纪，罗马入侵。
罗马人撤离后，欧洲北部的盎格鲁撒克逊人和以丹麦人为主体的斯堪的纳维亚先后入侵。
到了1066年，诺曼底公爵威廉征服了英格兰，英国的封建制度正式形成。
1215年，国王约翰被迫签订了大宪章。
不久，议会制度形成，从此英国的王权被不断削弱和限制。
1688年，―光荣革命‖爆发，确立了君主立宪制。
18世纪后期到19世纪前期，英国成为世界上第一个开始并完成工业革命的国家。
19世纪是英国发展的鼎盛时期，分别建立了第一大英帝国和第二大英帝国。
到二战前夕，英国统治了世界约1/4的土地。
第一次世界大战以及第二次世界大战的爆发，导致英国的政治、经济势力大为削弱，失去了霸权地位。
随着其殖民地的相继独立，20世纪60年代，大英帝国彻底瓦解。
I. Gener a l Intro d ucti o n1. Locat i on and the Four Natio n s The full name of the UK is the Unite d Kingd o m of Great Brita i n and North e rn Irela n d. It is made up of four natio n s: Engla n d, Scotl a nd, North e rn Irela n d, and Wales . It is locat e d to the north w est of conti n enta l Europ e , separ a ted by the Engli s h Chann e l. Geogr a phic a lly, it is an islan d count r y, cover i ng an area of about 244,019 km 2, and consi s ts of Great Brita i n and north e aste r n part of Irela n d, toget h er with many small islan d s of Briti s h Isles . Great Brita i n accou n ts for over 90% of the count r y’stotal landm a ss. It is the large s t islan d off the north w este r n coast of mainl a nd Europ e with Engla n d, Scotl a nd and Wales on it. Irela n d is the secon d large s t islan d of Briti s h Isles locat e d to the north w est of Great Brita i n. It is divid e d into two parts : North e rn Irela n d and the Repub l ic of Irela n d (an indep e nden t count r y).Engla n d is the large s t part of the UK and occup i es most of the south e rn two third s of Great Brita i n. The total area of Engla n d is 130,410 km 2 with a popul a tion of aroun d 53.9 milli o n (Mid-2013 estim a ted), which cover s morethan 84% of the total UK popul a tion . It is the most popul o us and highl y urban i zed part of the UK . Londo n , the capit a l of the UK and Engla n d, as well as the seat of gover n ment , is locat e d in its south e aste rn part.Map of Briti s h Isles Scotla nd is the second larges t and most mounta inous part of the UK in the northof GreatBritai n. Compar ed with that of Englan d, the popula tiondensit y is quitelow. Thereare only 5.3 millio n people with an area of 78,789 km2. Edinbu rgh, its larges t city, is the capita l of Scotla nd. Scotla nd is famous for its beauti ful natura l scener y, such as Scotti s h Highla nds1and Loch Ness2, as well as many histor icalplaces, like the Edinbu rgh Castle s.Walesis on the wester n side of centra l southe rn GreatBritai n. The totalarea of Walesis 20,779 km2, whichaccoun ts for 1/4 partsof the UK. It is also a mounta inous part of GreatBritai n, partic ularl y in the northand centra l region s. The southe ast region is the most builtup region of Wales, and the majori ty of its popula tionlive thereand a largepropor tionof its indust ry is basedthere. Its capita l city, Cardif f, is also in this region.Northe rn Irelan d lies in the northe ast of the island of Irelan d, coveri ng14,139 km2, whichconsti tutes 1/6 of the island. It is the smalle st part amongthe four nation s of the UK, as well as the second sparse ly popula ted part afterScotla nd. The capita l is Belfas t, the larges t city in Northe rn Irelan d both in popula tionand in area. It is the center for govern ment,econom ic, arts, higher educat ion, busine ss, law of Northe rn Irelan d. Additi onall y, it is the birthp laceof Titani c, and votedone of the world’stopdestin ation s.2. Climat eThe overal l climat e in the UK is temper ate mariti me, whichmeansthat it is mild with temper ature s neithe r much lowerthan 0℃ in winter nor much higher 32℃ in summer. Genera lly, the UK has warm summer s and cool winter s, with July and August as the warmes t month, and Januar y and Februa ry as the coldes t. Howeve r, due to the influe nce of Gulf Stream3, the summer s are cooler than thosein contin ent whilethe winter s are milder. Normal ly, the temper ature in summer is around20℃，with the high rarely goingabove30℃. The averag e temper ature in winter is around 0℃ and seldom go below-10℃ even in the most northe rn part of the countr y.Meanwh ile, sinceBritai n is an island countr y and surrou ndedby the sea, the climat e is consid erabl y change ablecompar ed with othercountr ies. Sincethe variab le climat e changi ng day to day, it is hard for people to predic t what the weathe r will be like the next day. Additi onall y, the unique geogra phica l positi on is also the reason for the dampne ss of the climat e. The rainfa ll is fairly distri buted throug houtthe year. Althou gh it does not rain everyday, it is always advisa ble for people to bringan umbrel la or waterp roofclothi ng everyday.II. Histor y1. The Foundi ng of the NationThe record ed histor y of the UK begins with the Romaninvasi on in 55BC. In 55 and 54BC, Britai n was twiceinvade d by Julius Caesar and his Romantroops. Howeve r, it was not until43AD that the Romanled by Claudi us I finall y succes sfull y invade d and Britai n became part of the RomanEmpire. The native Celtic were driven to the mounta in region s of Scotla nd and Wales, whichremain ed unconq uered by the Romans.The Romans have greatimpact on many aspect s of the Britis h cultur e. The Romancivili zatio n was introd ucedto the Britai n during this period. For exampl e, Romanstylebathsand temple s were built, cities like London and townswere constr ucted, and the system of govern mentwas also introd uced. With the declin e of the RomanEmpire, when the German ic troops attack ed Rome in 410 A.D., the Romans had to withdr aw in orderto protec t theirown nation, whichled to the end of Romanoccupa tion.Afterthe leaveof the Romans, threegroups of German ic tribes called the Jutes, the Angles and the Saxons came to Britai n from the Europe an contin ent in the mid-4th centur y. They conque red differ ent region s of Britai n:1Scotti sh Highla nds：苏格兰高地，是对苏格兰高地边界断层以西和以北的山地的称，被认为是欧洲风景最优美的地区。
英语国家概况精讲：第六章英国经济Chapter 6：The Economy 英国经济I. The Evolution of the British Economy since the WarThe evolution of the British economy since WWII falls into three periods:二战后英国经济发展可分为三个阶段：(1) Steady development in the 50s and 60s: The British economy in this period is c haracterized by slow but steady growth, low unemployment and great material prosperity with rising standards of consumption.（1）战后50-60年代平稳发展时期。
其主要特点是经济缓慢而持续增长，失业率低，物质丰富，人民消费水平不断增长。
(2) Economic recession in the 70s: In the 1970s among the developed countries, Brit ain maintained the lowest growth rate and the highest inflation rate, and the high record o f trade deficits.（2）70年代经济滞胀。
在70年代，英国在所有的发达资本主义国家中，始终保持最低经济增长率，最高的通货膨胀率，和最高的贸易赤字纪录。
(3) Economic recovery in the 80s: An outstanding feature of the economic recovery i n the 80s was its length, lasting seven years. Another was the improved financial position of the government, with stronger current account of the balance of payments.（3）80年代经济复苏。
英语国家概况精讲：第六章英国经济Chapter 6：The Economy 英国经济I. The Evolution of the British Economy since the WarThe evolution of the British economy since WWII falls into three periods:二战后英国经济发展可分为三个阶段：(1) Steady development in the 50s and 60s: The British economy in this period is characterized by slow but steady growth, low unemploy ment and great material prosperity with rising standards of consumptio n.（1）战后50-60年代平稳发展时期。
其主要特点是经济缓慢而持续增长，失业率低，物质丰富，人民消费水平不断增长。
(2) Economic recession in the 70s: In the 1970s among the develop ed countries, Britain maintained the lowest growth rate and the highest inflation rate, and the high record of trade deficits.（2）70年代经济滞胀。
在70年代，英国在所有的发达资本主义国家中，始终保持最低经济增长率，最高的通货膨胀率，和最高的贸易赤字纪录。
(3) Economic recovery in the 80s: An outstanding feature of the ec onomic recovery in the 80s was its length, lasting seven years. Another was the improved financial position of the government, with stronger current account of the balance of payments.（3）80年代经济复苏。
一个显著特点是时间长，复苏持续了7年。
另一个特点是国际收支大大盈余，政府金融地位最高。
Measures taken by Mrs. Thatcher''s government to improve the ec onomyMrs. Thatcher''s government took numerous measures to improve t he efficiency of the economy during the past decade, using both macroe conomic and microeconomic policies.撒切尔政府运用宏观经济政策和微观经济政策，采取许多措施提高经济效益。
(1) Macroeconomic measures were directed towards bringing down the rate of inflation and achieving price stability.宏观经济政策直接针对降低通货膨胀率和维持物价稳定。
(2) Microeconomic policies were aimed at working with the grain of market forces by encouraging enterprise, efficiency and flexibility.微观经济政策旨在通过鼓励实业，效率和灵活性共同努力提高市场竞争力。
Reasons for the British coal mining is called a “sick” industry tod ay.Reasons for the British coal mining is called a “sick” industry tod ay.英国煤矿被称为“生病”工业的原因。
Today the coal industry in Britain is on the decline，the number o f miners, collieries and the total output have been falling.如今的英国煤矿业衰退，从而导致矿工、煤矿的数量和总产量都大大下降。
The reasons for the decline are as follows: exhaustion of old mines, costly operations of extraction, poor old equipment, little investment, f all in demand due to imports of cleaner, cheaper and more efficient fu els, etc.煤工业衰退的原因包括：老煤矿的枯竭，昂贵的提炼费用，破旧的设备，极少的投资，由于进口更干净、更便宜、更高效的燃料导致的需求下降等等。
Britain’s oil and natural gas英国的石油和天然气Natural gas was discovered in 1965 and oil in 1970 under the Nor th Sea. Today Britain is not only self-sufficient in oil but also has a su rplus for export. The transport and domestic heating systems mostly de pend on oil. So does the food supply, because most agriculture is highl y mechanized. Modern farming requires things which are all oil-based.在1965年及1970年在北海发现天然气和石油。
今天英国的石油不仅能自给自足，还有盈余供出口。
交通和家庭供热系统主要依靠石油，因为大部分农业的高度机械化，食品供应也靠石油。
Main problems associated with Britain’s iron and steel industry tod ay.如今英国钢铁工业的主要问题。
British iron and steel industry is declining for the following reason s:英国钢铁工业衰退的原因如下：1. Local supplies of iron ore have become exhausted;当地贮备枯竭；2. Old fashioned furnaces for making coke cannot recover valuable by-products;他们生产焦炭的老式炉不能提取有价值的副产品，3. Blast furnaces, steelworks, and rolling mills are often separated from each other and thus cannot perform as well as more compact ope ration;高炉、钢铁厂和轧钢厂经常分开，导致不如更紧凑的企业出效益；4. Many steelworks have to be closed down, causing major unempl oyment in an area.许多钢铁厂倒闭，导致该地区的大批人失业。
The main textile producing regions of Britain are the East Midlan ds, Yorkshire, Humberside, and Northern Ireland.New IndustriesNew industries include microprocessors and computers, biotechnolog y and other high-tech industries. There are three areas in Britain which have seen some high-tech industrial growth: (1).the area between Lon don and South Wales, (2).the Cambridge area of East Anglia and (3).th e area between Glasgow and Edinburgh in Scotland. The third area is the most spectacular of the three and is now often referred to as the “Silicon Glen”. By the end of 1985 half of Britain’s microchip output was estimated to have come from Scotland.英国主要纺织基地是现在的中东部，约克郡和汉伯塞德郡及北爱尔兰。
The reasons behind the decline of Britain''s textile industry are:英国纺织业的衰退原蛉缦拢?br>(1) Exports of textiles have not com peted well with those of other foreign producers who have managed to produce cheaper goods.纺织品出口不能很好地与设法生产出更便宜商品的国外产家竞争。
(2) There has been a rise in cheaper imports of textiles to Britain from foreign producers.英国增加了从外国产家进口更廉价纺织品。
(3) Poor and outdated management decisions have caused problem.薄弱及过时的管理决策导致许多问题。
