Morphology and ontogeny of directly differentiating shoot buds and somatic embryos in Sant

Micro-linguistics: phonology; morphology; syntax; semantics; Pragmatics;Phonetics Macro-linguistics:Psycholinguistics;Sociolinguistics;Anthropologicallinguistics;Computational linguistics;Historical linguistics;corpus linguistics;Some other applicationLinguistics：is the scientific study of language.（Linguistics is a subject which studies language in general systematically and scientifically）Language：language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Morphology:one of the branches of micro-linguistics which studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.Syntax is branch of micro-linguistics which mainly studies how words are combined to form sentences.Semantics is one of the branches of micro-linguistics which mainly studies meaning of words, phrases and sentences.Arbitrary:There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.Duality:Human language is a system which consists of two sets of structures/ levels: lower level and higher level.Displacement: Most animals can only communicate about things in the immediate situation, but human beings can talk about things that are absent, in the past, present or future as easily as about things that are present.Cultural transmission: Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. This showed that language is culturally transmitted, not by instinct, but by passing on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning.Phonetics:It is one of the branches of micro-linguistics which mainly studies human speech sounds.Phonology:It is a branch of micro-linguistics which mainly studies how sounds are organized to form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey in natural languages. It is concerned with the systematic organization of sounds in languages. Pragmatics: the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.Culture is a historically shared system of symbolic resources through which we make our world meaningful.Culture shock is a psychological phenomenon that is experienced most often by those who, whether voluntarily or involuntarily, in the process of adjusting themselves to a new culture. It is the anxiety when people are isolated in an alien culture. Reverse culture shock :It is the term for re-entry responses experienced when one tries to readjust to one’s own culture .Speech act theory:Speech act is a term derived from the work of the philosopher J. L. Austin (1962) and now used to refer to a theory which analyzes the role of utterances in relation to the behavior of the speaker and the hearer in interpersonalcommunication.Language and culture relationship :Language and culture, intrinsically dependent on each other, have evolved together through the history. Where there is a language, there is its distinctive culture.In a word, language expresses cultural reality.Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis is the ideas about language–thought relationship, put forward by Sapir and Whorf. The main ideas are: one’s thinking is determined by his native language because one can not but perceive the world through his language. That is language determinism.Low-Context Communication:Language is precise –the message is in the words: say what you mean and mean what you say.High-Context Communication : Language is not the only means of communication: gesture, facial expression, silence, setting.Synonymy (同义现象): the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. Synonyms may be different in dialect, style, emotion and collocation. 同义关系(synonymy):英语中绝对同义词是很少的,但在一定的上下文之中,一个词可以用另外的词来代替而使意义不变,这样的同义现象很普遍。

英语语言学概论》重、难点提示整理人:宁强县第一中学陈宁第一章语言的性质语言的定义:语言的基本特征(任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性;语言的功能(寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为;语言的起源(神授说,人造说,进化说等。

第二章语言学语言学定义;研究语言的四大原则(穷尽、一致、简洁、客观;语言学的基本概念(口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为;普通语言学的分支(语音、音位、语法、句法、语义;;语言学的应用(语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学等。

第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称;英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法;语音学的定义;发音语音学;听觉语音学;声学语音学;元音及辅音的分类;严式与宽式标音等。

第四章音位学音位理论;最小对立体;自由变异;互补分布;语音的相似性;区别性特征;超语段音位学;音节;重音(词重音、句子重音、音高和语调等。

第五章词法学词法的定义;曲折词与派生词;构词法(合成与派生;词素的定义;词素变体;自由词素;粘着词素(词根,词缀和词干等。

第六章词汇学词的定义;语法词与词汇词;变词与不变词;封闭词与开放词;词的辨认;习语与搭配。

第七章句法句法的定义;句法关系;结构;成分;直接成分分析法;并列结构与从属结构;句子成分;范畴(性,数,格;一致;短语,从句,句子扩展等。

第八章语义学语义的定义;语义的有关理论;意义种类(传统、功能、语用;里奇的语义分类;词汇意义关系(同义、反义、下义;句子语义关系。

第九章语言变化语言的发展变化(词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化;第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义;萨丕尔-沃夫假说;语言与思维的关系;语言与文化的关系;中西文化的异同。

第十一章语用学语用学的定义;语义学与语用学的区别;语境与意义;言语行为理论(言内行为、言外行为和言后行为;合作原则。

词汇学课堂笔记及课后答案Chapter 1Lexicology and Word1.1 IntroductionThe term lexicology:the concept of word, word classes, the features of word, and the concept of semantic fields.1.2 what is lexicology?Lexicology : is the study of the vocabulary or lexicon of a given language.Lexicology is closely related to morphology, semantic, etymonogy,and lexicogranphy,because these fields also deal with words.1.2.1 morphology and semanticsMorphology (形态学)is the study of the forms of words and their components.Morphemes are considered as the smallest meaningful units which may constitute words or parts of the words.Semantics is often defined as the study of meaning. 1.2.2Etymology and LexicographyEtymology is the study of the whole history of words.Lexicography is closely related to the words in a given language.1.3 What is a word?1.3.1Diffenrenties in the Definition of the WordDefine as a fundamental unit of speech and minimum free form ,with a unit of sound and meaning (both lexical and grammatical meaning) capable of performing a given syntactic.Many people tend to think of the word in visual terms,that is ,as a meaningful group of letters printed or written down in a piece of paper.As a thought unit of a psychological unit.We shall consider the word as a uninterruptible unit of structure consisting of one or more morphemes. 1.3.2 Major Features of Words1,A word is a sound or combination of sound2, A word is symbolic and is used to stand for something else.3,The word is an uninterruptible unit.4.A word has to do with its social function.5.A word may consist of one or more morphemes.6.Words are parts of the large communication systemwe call language.7.A word occurs typically in the structure of phrases.1.4 Words in Linguistic Analysis.1.5Word Classes(a) closed classes: preposition, pronoun, determiner ,conjunction , auxiliary verb.。

Chapter 3 Morphology(形态学)1.What is morphology（形态学）?Morphology, as a branch of linguistics , is the study of the internal structure, forms and classes of words.eg. Unfriendly → un + friend + ly2.Morphemes(词素、语素)A morpheme is a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function.eg. Maps→(2 units)→map + s3.Types of morphemes:free morphemes(自由语素) and bound morphemes(黏着语素)1>Free morphemes(自由语素)A.Some morphemes can stand alone as words, such morphemes are called freemorphemes.B．Rooot(词根) & Stem(词干)❶Root：a root is the based form of a word which cannot be further analyzed . It may be a free morpheme(as black in blackbird, blackboard, blacksmith) as well as a bound morpheme( -ceive in perceive认识，deceive欺骗，receive).❷Stem: a stem is any morpheme or combination of morpheme to which an inflectional affix can be added (friend in friends, friendship in friendships are both stem).C . Free Morphemes can be divided into two categories. They are:Closed Class & Opened Class(封闭词类和开放性词类)❶Closed Class（functional morphemes）: a closed class is one whose membership is principle fixed or limited. (封闭类：连介代冠conjunctions, preposition, pronouns, articles)❷Open Class( lexical morphemes): an open class is one whose membership is principle indefinite or unlimited. (包括：名动形副数叹noun, verbs, adjectives)2>Bound Morphemes(黏着语素)A.Some morphemes cannot normally stand alone, but function only as parts of words.Such morphemes are called bound morphemes.Bound morphemes are actually affixes(词缀)—>prefix(前缀), suffix(后缀), infix(中缀).eg. dis- , un- , -ity, -al, -sB. Two Categories of Bound Morphemes:Derivational Morphemes(派生语素) & Inflectional Morphemes(屈折语素)❶Derivational Morphemes(派生语素): ~~ are used to make new words in the language and are often used to make words of a different grammatical category from the stem.eg. nouns→ verbs/ adj. verbs→ nouns/ adj.friend→ unfriend解除朋友关系( noun→ verb)❷Inflectional Morphemes(屈折语素):~~ are not used to produce new words, but rather to show aspects of the grammatical function of a word.①plurality(复数): - s, - es, - ies……②tense(时态): - s, - ing, - en, - ed……③possessive case(所有格): ’s④comparative/ superlative degree(比较级/最高级): -er, - esteg. dislikes → dis + +3> free morphemes(自由语素) & bound morphemes(黏着语素)❶All monomorphemic(单词素/单语素) words are free morphemes;❷These polymorphemic words are either compounds( combination of two or more free morphemes) or derivatives(words derived from free morphemes).4.Morphs(形素) and Allomorphs（语素变体）Morphs: the phonological and orthographic forms which realize morphemes are termed ― morphs‖.(语素的语音及对应拼写法的体现叫形素)Most morphemesSome morphemesAllomorphs: an allomorph is any of the different form of the same morpheme( 语素变体是同一个语素的不同形式).eg. plurality ―- s‖: map→ maps; dog→ dogs; class→ classed; mouse→ mice; sheep→ sheep Complementary distribution(互补分布)：allomorph is a member of a set of morph;allomorph can’ t occur in the same environment .5> Types of Word Formation(构词法)❶Compounding(合成法)Words are formed by putting two words together, this way of building new words is called compounding.❷Derivation(派生法)Derivation is done by adding affixes to other words or morphemes.❸Conversion(转换法)Many words have more than one part of speech. A noun can become a verb easily and a verb can be used as a noun.❹Backformation(逆向构词法)As we have editor, we get edit by dropping – or . This process is called ~~❺Clipping(截短法)This process by cutting off part of word is called ~~❻Blending(混合法)A single new word can also be formed by combining two separate forms, this process iscalled ~~~❼Acronymization(缩略法)。

Chapter 3 Morphology 形态学1.Definition 定义Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.形态学是语法学的一个分支，它研究的是单词的内在结构及单词的构成规则。

The aim of morphology is to find out these rules.形态学的任务就是要找出这些规则（单词构成的规则）。

Morphology is divided into two sub-branches: inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology. The former studies the inflections and the latter the study of word-formation.形态学可以划分两个分支：屈折形态学和词汇形态学（也叫派生形态学）。

前者研究的是单词的屈折变化，后者研究的是构词法。

2.Morpheme 词素Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit of language 词素：语言中最小的意义单位Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic unit in the study of morphology.正如音位是音系学研究中的基本单位一样，词素是形态学研究中的基本单位。

Monomorphemic words 单词素单词Types of morphemes 词素的类型Free morphemes 自由词素The morphemes that are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves are called free morphemes. Such as help, table,room, mate, quick, able.这些词素是独立的、可以自由使用的意义单位，所以它们就被称作自由词素。

P a rt T wo E xe rc is e s fo r Mo r p ho lo g yE xe rc is e sI. Fill in the blanks.1. Take is the ______ of taking, taken and took.2. Bound morphemes are classified into two types; ______and ______ root.3. An ______ is pronounced letter by letter, while an ______ is pronounced as a word.4. Lexicon, in most cases, is synonymous with______.5. Orthographically, compounds are written in three ways: ______ , ______ and ______6. All words may be said to contain a root______.7. A snail set of conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns belongs to______, class, while the largest part of nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs belongs to______ class.8.______ is a reverse process of derivation, and therefore is a process of ______shortening.9.______ is extremely productive, because English had lost most of its inflectional endings by the end of Middle English period, which facilitated the use of words interchangeably as verbs or nouns, verbs or adjectives, and vice versa.10. Words are divided into simple, compound and derived words on the ______ level.11. A word formed by derivation is called a______ , and a word formed by compounding is called a______ . (derivative; compound)12..II. Choose the best answer.13. Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified as ______.A. lexical wordsB. grammatical wordsC. function wordsD. form words14. Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case are called ______ morpheme.A. inflectionalB. freeC. boundD. derivational15. There are ______ morphemes in the word denationalization?A. threeB. fourC. fiveD. six16. In English -ise and -tion are called ______.A. prefixesB. suffixesC. infixesD. free morphemes17. Morphology is generally divided into two fields: the study of word-formation and______.A. affixationB. etymology •(46) •C. inflectionD. root18．The three subtypes of affixes are: prefix, suffix and _________.A. derivational affixB. inflectional affixC. infixD. back-formation19. _________ is a way in which new words may be formed from already existing words by subtracting an affix which is thought to be part of the old word.A. AffixationB. back-formationC. InsertionD. Addition20. The word TB is formed in the way of _________ .A. acronymyB. clipping D mationC. imitialismD. acronymy21. There are different types of affixes or morphemes. The affix word "learned" is known as a(n) _________ .A. derivational morphemeB. free morphemeC. inflectional morphemeD. free form22. The words like comsat and sitcom are formed by _______.A. blendingB. clippingC. backformationD. acronymy23. The.stem of disagreements is _________ .A. agreementB. agreeC. disagreeD. disagreement24. All of them are meaningful except for _______.A. lexemeB. phonemeC. morphemeD. allomorphF. Decide whether the following statements are true[T] or false [ F ] . –______ 25. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress._______ 26. Fore as in foretell is both a prefix and a bound morpheme._______ 27. Base refers to the part of word that remains when all inflectional affixes are removed._______28. In most cases, prefixes change the meaning of the base whereas suffixes change the word-class of the base._______29. Conversion from noun to verb is the most productive process of conversion._______30. Reduplicative compound is formed by repeating the same morpheme of a word. _______31. The word; whimper, whisper and whistle are formed in the way ofonomatop-(eia)._______32. In most cases, the number of syllables of a word corresponds to the number of morphemes._______ 33: Backformation is a productive way of forming nouns in Modern English._______ 34. Inflection is a particular way of word-formations._______ 35. We can always tell by the words a compound contains what it means because the meaning of a compound is always the sum of the meanings of its parts._______ 36. All roots are free and all affixes are bound.IV . Explain the following term.37. Morphophonology 38. Allomorph39. Bound morpheme 40. Back clipping41. Derivation 42. Morphological rule43. Closed-class word 44. Analogy45. Full conversion 46. Blending47. Base 48. HybridV . Answ er the following questions.49. Of all the word-formations, which involve the process. of addition? Which the process of subtraction? And which the process of transition?50. Illustrate the axiom, “The actual grammatical classification of any word is dependent upon its use.”。

Chapter Five Morphology1. Define the following terms.1) Morpheme, allomorph and morph2) free morpheme vs bound morpheme3) affix4) acronymy5) abbreviation vs clipping6) IC analysis7) stem,base and root 8) inflection9) compounding 10) conversion11）inflectional morpheme 12) morphology13）backformation14) blending15) inflectional affix vs derivational affix2. Multiple Choices1) The word “hospitalize” is an example of ______.A. compoundB. derivationC. inflectionD. blending2) ____refers to the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which wordsare formed.A. MorphologyB. SyntaxC. SemanticsD. Phonology3)_____ doesn’t belong to the most productive means of word-formation.A. AffixationB. CompoundingC. ConversionD. Blending4)Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified as __________.A. lexical wordsB. grammatical wordsC. function wordsD. form words5) Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case are called ________morphemes.A. inflectionalB. freeC. boundD. derivational6)There are ________ morphemes in the word denationalization?A. threeB. fourC. fiveD. six7)In English -ise and -tion are called ________.A. prefixesB. suffixesC. infixesD. free morphemes8)Morphology is generally divided into two fields: the study of word-formation and________.A. affixationB. etymologyC. inflectionD. root9)The three subtypes of affixes are: prefix, suffix and _______.A.derivational affixB. inflectional affixC. infixD. back-formation10)________ is a way in which new words may be formed from already existing words bysubtracting an affix which is thought to be part of the word.A. AffixationB. Back-formationC. InsertionD. Addition11)The word TB is formed in the way of ________.A. acronymyB. clippingC. initialismD. blending12)There are different types of affixes or morphemes. The affix “ed” in the word “learned”is known as a(n) ________.A. derivational morphemeB. free morphemeC. inflectional morphemeD. free form13)The words like comsat and sitcom are formed by ________.A. blendingB. clippingC. backformafionD. Acronymy14)The stem of disagreements is ________.A. agreementB. agreeC. disagreeD. disagreement15)All of the following are meaningful except _________.A. lexemeB. phonemeC. morphemeD. allomorphA. phonemesB. MorphsC. morphemesD. allomorphsA. phoneticsB. syntaxC. phonologyD. morphologycombined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.A. FreeB. BoundC. RootD. Affixational19)modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech ofthe original word.A. PrefixesB. SuffixesC. RootsD. Affixesa new word.A. rootB. affixC. stemD. word21)Compound words consist of ________ morphemes.A. boundB. freeC. both bound and free22) Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are _________.A. grammatical wordsB. lexical wordsC. neither grammatical nor lexical words23) “Radar” is a / an __________.A. acronymB. blendingC. coinageD. clipping24)The words “take” and “table” are called __________ because they can occur unattached.A. form wordsB. bound morphemesC. free morphemesD. inflectional morphemes25) A __________ is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectionalaffix can be added.A. stemB. rootC. allomorphD. lexeme26)__________ is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has aheavily modified headword.A. BlendingB. AcronymyC. AbbreviationD. Invention27)The expansion of vocabulary in modern English depends chiefly on _________.A. BorrowingB. word-formationC. conversionD. the number of the people speaking English28)________ is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displayingsuch contrasts as masculine / feminine, animate/inanimate, etc.A. CaseB. GenderC. NumberD. Category29)The relation between words “rose” and “flower” is that of __________.A. synonymyB. antonymyC. homonymyD. hyponymy30)The adjective word “uniform” has __________ morphemes.A. oneB. threeC. twoD. zero31)Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or________ to stems.A. affixesB. suffixesC. inflectional affixesD. derivational affixes32)Prefixes do not generally change the _________of the stem but only modify its meaning.A. word-classB. meaningC. formD. structure33)The primary function of suffixes is to ________.A. change the word-class of rootsB change the meaning of stemsC change the grammatical function of stems]D change the structure of roots34)Conversion is a method __________.A. of turning words of one part of speech to those of a different part of speechB. of converting words of one meaning into different meaningC. of deriving words through grammatical meansD. of changing words in morphological structure3.Fill in the blanks with appropriate words.1)Combining two parts of two already existing words is called _______ in word-formation.2) Take is the ______ of taking, taken and took.3)Bound morphemes are classified into two types: ________ and ________.4)An ________ is pronounced letter by letter, while an __________ is pronounced as aword.5)Lexicon, in most cases, is synonymous with ________.6)Orthographically, compounds are written in three ways: __________, __________ and__________.7)All words may be said to contain a root ________.8)________ is a reverse process of derivation, and therefore is a process of shortening.9)__________ is extremely productive, because English had lost most of itsinflectional endings by the end of Middle English period, which facilitated the use ofwords interchangeably as verbs or nouns, verbs or adjectives, and vice versa.10)Words are divided into simple, compound and derived words on the ______ level.11) A word formed by derivation is called a ____________, and a word formed bycompounding is called a __________.12)The poor is an example of ______ conversion.13)__________ is the smallest meaningful unit of language.14)The affix “-es” conveys a __________ meaning.15)morphemes are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all bythemselves.16)affixes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories suchas number, degree, and case.17)The affixes occurring at the beginning of a word are called p .18)The combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words incalled .19)Semantically, the meaning of a c__________ is often idiomatic, not always being thesum total of the meanings of its components.20)__________ morphology studies word-formation.21)__________ can never stand by itself although if bears clear,definite meaning.22)__________ are added fo the end of stems.4. Make a judgment on the following statements decide whether they are true or not.1)Morphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words areformed.2)Inflectional morphology is one of the two sub-branches of morphology.3)The structure of words is not governed by rules.4) A morpheme is the basic unit in the study of morphology.5)Free morphemes are the same as bound morphemes.6)Sometimes bound morphemes can be used by themselves.7)There is only one type of affixes in the English language.8)Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.9)Compounding is the addition of affixes to stems to form new words.10)Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while thesecond element receives secondary stress.11)Morphemes are regarded as abstract constructs in the system.12)We can always tell by the words a compound contains what it means because themeaning of a compound is always the sum of the meanings of its parts.13)All roots are free and all affixes are bound.14)Chinese language is heavily inflectional.15) A morpheme is a minimal unit of meaning, which means that a morpheme has a lexicalmeaning.16)Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while thesecond element receives secondary stress.17)Fore as in foretell is both a prefix and a bound morpheme.18)Base refers to the part of word that remains when all inflectional affixes are removed.19)In most cases, prefixes change the meaning of the base whereas suffixeS change theword-class of the base.20)Conversion from noun to verb is the most productive process of conversion.21)Reduplicative compound is formed by repeating the same morpheme of a Word.22)The words whimper, whisper and whistle are formed in the way of onomatopoeia.23)In most cases, the number of syllables of a word corresponds to the number ofmorphemes.24)Backformation is a productive way of forming nouns in Modern English.25)Inflection is a parficnlar way of word-formations.5.Tell the root, stem and base of the following words.1) desirable; 2) undesirable3) undesirables;4) desired6.Short Answer questions1) What does morphology study?2)What is a morpheme? Dissect the following words into morphemes:description underdeveloped photosyntheticanatomy radiation geographyphilharmonic defrosted refreshmentdemobilized conducting suppressioncircumspect dialogue deformedcombination3)Describe with examples various types of morpheme used in English.4)What are the main inflectional affixes in English? What grammatical meaning do theyconvey?5)Try to find out the meaning of the following roots in English and give two or threewords that contain each of them:hydro chron demo duragr kilo nym pedrupt gress poly syn6)State the morphological rules that govern the use of the given derivational affixes.Example: -er The suffix -er is added to a verb to form a noun indicating the agentthat carries out the action, e.g., write – writer-ant -ment sub- -enen--ee -ful -some-wise un-7)What are the main features of the English compounds?8)Explain the formation and meaning of the following compounds:Example: nightcap Nightcap is a noun formed by combining two nouns, mean- inga drink one takes before going to bed.Cat’s paw tablecloth green-eyed green hornupdate jet lag bootleg built-incockpit good-for-nothingKey to Chapter Five1.Define the following terms.1)Morpheme, allomorph and morphMorpheme is the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expressions and content, unit cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. A morpheme is the minimal unit of meaning. It is not like the sound patterns or syllables, which can be further divided into segments. Words may consist of one morpheme or more than one morpheme.A!lomorph is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds. Allomorphs are the realizations of a particular morpheme. Morphemes are more abstract than their allomorphs.Morphs are the realizations of morphemes in general and are the actual forms used to realize morphemes.2)free morpheme vs bound morphemeMorphemes can be classified into two types in terms of their capacity of occurring alone.Those which may occur alone, or which may constitute words by themselves, are free morphemes, such as bee, tree, sing, and dance. In contrast, those which may appear with at least one other morpheme and cannot stand by themselves are called bound morphemes, such as “-s” in dogs, “-al” in national, “dis-” in disclose, and so on.3)affixAffixes are morphemes that lexically depend on roots and do not convey the fundamental meaning of words. For example, the morpheme ful in careful and less in careless are two affixes. And the first part in each of the words irregular, disappear and enrich (i.e. ir, dis and en) is an affix. Afixes are a type of bound morphemes. They are limited in number in a language, and can be further classified in terms of either of the two criteria: position and function. Along the dimension of their position with reference to the root or stem of the word, affixes are generally classified into three types: prefixes, suffixesand infixes. Those which are added to the beginning of roots (i.e. occur before roots) are called prefixes, e.g. dis- in dislike and re- in rebuild. The affixes which follow roots (i.e. appear after roots) are called suffixes, e.g. -ness in carelessness and -ful in careful. The affixes which interrupt roots (i.e. appear within roots) are called infixes.4)acronymyAcronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of several words together. Words created in this way are of two sorts: acronyms and initialisms. Acronyms are those which are pronounced as a single word rather than as a sequence of letters. Initials are those which are pronounced as a series of letters (i.e. pronounced letter by letter).5) abbreviation vs clippingAbbreviation, which sometimes is used in the sense of acronymy. For example, the words like USA, NATO, AIDS, etc. are the results of the word formation of abbreviation. And sometimes, abbreviation equals to clipping. For instance, the words like Prof. (from Professor), telly (from television), etc. are considered as examples of abbreviation as well.Clipping refers to the process of word-formation in which a word (usually a noun) is shortened by deleting one or more syllables without any change in the meaning or in the part of speech. However, clipping usually results in a stylistic change: from formal to informal style.6) IC analysisImmediate Constituent Analysis (IC Analysis for short) is a method used to analyze the hierarchical order of morphemes. By IC Analysis, we mean that we divide the morphemes of a word (or the words of a sentence) into two groups, and then divide each of them into sub-groups, and so on, until we reach the irreducible constituents, i.e. the morphemes in the case of the analysis of a word, or the words in the case of the analysis of a sentence, which is to be discussed in the next chapter.7) stem,base and rootA root is the basic part of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. In other words, a “root” is that part of the word left when all the affixes are removed. “Internationalism” is a four-morpheme derivative which keeps its free morphemes “nation” as its root when “inter-”,”-al” and “-ism” are taken away.Different from the term root, both of the terms base and stem are used to talk about such a form to which an affix will be attached. If we are going to attach an derivational affix, we will call the form a base. But if we are going to attach an inflectional affix, we call the form a stem.However, we have to see that the term base is a more general term. It can be a form that is a root and it can be a form that contains some affix already. Just take agree and disagree for example. Either of them can be a base if we are going to attach a derivational affix -ment to it. Similarly, the term stem is also more covering. It can be a form that is a root or it can be a form that contains some affix already. For example, either open or reopen can be a stem if we are going to attach an inflectional morpheme -ed to it. In fact, a stem can be any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. It may be the same as, and in other cases, different from, a root. For example, in the word friends, friend is both the root and the stem, but in the word friendships, friendshipis its stem, while friend is its root. Some words like compounds have more than one root,e.g., mailman, girlfriend, etc.8) inflectionInflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.9) compoundingCompounding refers to a process of word-formation, in which two or more free morphemes are combined to form a new word, such as forget-me-not, waterbed, sleepwalk, etc. Words formed in this way are called compound words or compounds. Like derivation, compounding is also a very productive way to produce new words. There are three types of compounds: 1) hyphenated compounds; 2) solid compounds; and 3) open compounds.10) conversionConversion is a term used in the study of word formation to refer to the derivational process whereby an item comes to belong to a new word class without the addition of an affix. The conversion process is particularly productive in modern English, with new uses occurring frequently. Conversion is also known as functional shift or zero-derivation.11）inflectional morphemeInflectional morphemes are also called inflectional affix. They manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case. In English, all inflectional morphemes are suffixes, e.g. -(e)s (indicating plurality of nouns or third person singular, present tense), -lng ( indicating progressive aspect), -(e)d, (indicating past tense for all three, persons), -est (indicating superlative degree of adjectives and adverbS).12) morphologyMorphology is the branch of grammar that studies the internal structure of words, and of the rules by which words are formed. Morphology is generally divided into two fields: the study of inflections (also called inflectional morphology), and of word-formation (often referred to as lexical or derivational morphology).13）backformationBackformation refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language. Take televise for example, the word television predated the occurrence of the word- televise. The first part of the word television was pulled out and analyzed as a root, even though no such root occurs elsewhere in the English language. Instead of taking out part of a word as a root, backformation allows us to take a word of a given category and form a new homophonous word of a different category.14) blendingBlending is a relatively complex form:of word compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words. For example: transfer + resister→transistor, smoke + fog smog, boat + hotel --- boatel.15) inflectional affix vs derivational affixIf we classify affixes with reference to their function, we have the following two types:inflectional affixes and derivational affixes.In all languages, there are many derivational affixes, but only a small number of inflectional affixes. Inflectional affixes serve to indicate grammatical relations, such as number, gender, tense, aspect, case and degree. For example, -s in books, -e in fiancée, -ed in (he) studied, -ing in (he is) working, -’s in Gloria’s, and -er in faster are all inflectional affixes.Inflectional affixes have different grammatical functions. However, when they are conjoined with other morphemes, they never produce new words. Nor do they cause any change in grammatical class. And, usually, no two inflectional affixes can coexist in the same word at the same time with the exception of the combination of plural number marker and possessive case marker (e.g. students’ reading room, teachers’ job). In contrast, derivational affixes can create new words. Derivational affixes often, but not always, change the grammatical classes of words.2.Multiple choice1) – 5): BADAA 6) – 10): CBCBB 11) – 15): CCADB16) – 20): CDBAC 21) – 25): BBACA 26) – 30): BBBDC31) – 34): DACA3.Fill in the blanks with appropriate words1) blending 2) lexeme 3) affix, bound, root4) initialism, acronym 5) vocabulary 6) solid, hypenated, open7) morpheme 8) Backformation9) Conversion10) morphemic 11) derivative, compound12) partial13)moepheme14) grammatical15) Free16) Inflectional17) prefixes18) derivation19) compound 20) Derivational21) root22) Suffixes4. Make a judgment on the following statements decide whether they are true or not.1) – 5): TTFTF 6) – 10): FFTFT 11) – 15): TFFFT16) – 20): FTFTT 21) – 25): FTFFF5.Tell the root, stem and base of the following words.1) Desirable: desire is the root or base; but there is no stem for it.2) Undesirable: desire is the root; desirable is the base; there is no stem for it.3) Undesirables: desire is the root; undes/rab/e is the stem or base.4) Desired: desire is the root, stem or base.6.Short Answer questions.1)The internal structure of words and the rules that govern their formation.2)The smallest unit of meaning.de-scrip-tion under-develop-ed photo-synthe-ticana-tomy radia-tion geo-graph-yphil-harmon-ic de-frost-ed re-fresh-mentde-mobil-iz-ed con-duct-ing sup-press-ioncircum-spect dia-logue de-form-edcom-bina-tion3)Free morphemes: mate, sun, fame, likeBound morphemes: roots and affixesRoots: ter-, fin-, spect- , -cide, -wiseAffixes: inflectional and dcrivationalDerivational: prefix and suffixInflectional affixes: -ing, -ed, -(e)sPrefixes: un-, dis-, de-, en-Suffixes: -ly, -less, -tion, -ize4.4)(e)s: plural number(c)s: third-person singular present tense(e)d: past tense-ing: progressive aspect-er: comparative degree-est: superlative degree-s: possessive case5)hydro (water), e.g., hydraulic, dehydratechro (time), e.g., chronological, chronicledemo (people), e.g., democracy, demographydur (lasting), e.g., during, durableagr (farming), e.g., agriculture, agrariankilo (one thousand), e.g., kilometer, kilogramnym (name), e.g., pseudonym, antonymped (foot), e.g., centipede, impederupt (breaking), e.g., rupture, abruptgress (movement), e.g., progress, digresspoly (various), e.g., polygon, polyglotsyn (identical), e. g., synchronic, synonym6)-ant: suffix added to a verb to form a noun indicating the agent, e.g., assistant-ment: suffix added to a verb to form its corresponding noun, e.g., developmentsub-: prefix added to an adjective to form another adjective to indicate a lesser degree,e.g., substandard-cn: suffix added to an adjective to form a verb to indicate the acquisition of the quality denoted by the adjective, e.g., darkenen-: prefix added to an adjective to form a verb to indicate the acquisition of the quality denoted by the adjective, e.g., enrich-ee: suffix added to a verb to form a noun indicating the recipient of the action denoted by the verb, e. g.,employee-ful: suffix added to a noun to form an adjective indicating the quality denoted by the noun, e.g., plentiful-some: suffix added to a noun to form an adjective indicating the quality denoted by the noun, e.g., quarrelsome-wise: suffix added to a noun to form an adverb meaning “with regard to the area indicating by the noun”, e.g., carecrwiseun-: prefix added to an adjective to indicate the absence of the quality indicated by the adjective, e.g., unemployed7)Orthographically a compound can be written as one word,two separate words with or without a hyphen in between.Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element.Semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calculable from the meanings of all its components.Phonetically, the word stress of a compound usually falls on the first element.。