语言学练习 Exercises for chapter 1

《英美文学简史及名篇选读》课后练习参考答案《英美文学简史及名篇选读》单元练参考答案Exercises of Chapter II. XXX.1. Angles；Saxons; Jutes2.Beowulf3.French；Latin; Old EnglishII. Find the relevant match from Column B for each item in Column A.1.D2.C3.B4.E5. AIII. Choose the best answer for each statement.1.B2.D3.B4.BExercises of Chapter III. XXX.1.Utopia2.Francis Bacon3.Hamlet;Othello;King Lear;Macbeth4.classical;human activities;XXXII. Find the relevant match from Column B for each item in Column A.Part I :1.D2.E3. B4. C5.APart II:6.L7.K8. I9.G10.F.11.H12. JIII. Choose the best answer for each statement.1.B2.D3.B4.B5.C6.CExercises of Chapter III1I. XXX.1. Charles I ; Parliament2. XXX ; XXX3. King Charles II；Restoration4.XXX XXX ; XXXII. Find the relevant match from Column B for each item in Column A.Part I :1.C2.D3.B4. APart II :1.H2.E3.F4.GIII. Choose the best answer for each statement.1.D2.C3.D4.B5.CExercises of Chapter IVI. XXX.1.Sentimentalism2.XXX XXX3.XXX FieldingII. Choose the best answer for each statement.1.、XXX.DIII. Find the relevant match from Column B for each item in Column A.1.B2.C3.A4,E5.DExercises of Chapter VI. XXX.1798;Walter XXX’s XXX23.Walter XXXII. Find the relevant match from Column B for each item in Column A.1.B2.C3.E4.F5.G6.A7.DIII. Choose the best answer for each statement.1.D2.C3.C4.D5.BExercises of Chapter VII.XXX.1.1837；1901；remarkable；expansion；XXX contradiction between the rich and the poor; the conflicts between capitaland labour; the widespread unemployment; severe depression3.The Life of Charlotte Bronte4.Lewis Carroll；Oxford;Alice’XXX; Through theLooking-GrassII. Find the relevant match from Column B for each item in Column A.1.F2.A3.B4.C5.H6.E7.J8.K9.G10.L11.D12.IIII. Choose the best answer for each statement.1.D2.C3.B4.D5.B6.CExercises of Chapter VIII. XXX.1. XXX 19252. Stream of consciousness3. science fiction; XXX fiction4. Modernism5. XXX Joyce; Virginia Woolf;XXX FaulknerII. Find the relevant match from Column B for each item in Column A.1.B2.C3.G4.E5.F6.H7.D8.A3III. Choose the best answer for each statement.1.B2.A3.D4.D5.AExercises of Chapter VIIII. XXX.1. Booker Prize (The XXX); Full-length; English: UK2.Animal Farm；XXX Eighty-Four3. Elias Canetti; Doris Lessing; XXX; Harold PinterII. Find the relevant match from Column B for each item in Column A.1.B2.G3.C4.F5.H6.J7.A8.I9.E10.DIII. Choose the best answer for each statement.1.B2.D3.C4.D5.AExercises of Chapter IXI. XXX.1. XXX2. New England XXX3. believers ; divinity; intuition; reason4. Washington Irving; XXX;Nature;XXX’sWaldenII. Find the relevant match from Column B for each item in Column A.1.E2.B3.H4.F5.C6.G7.A8.DIII. Choose the best answer for each statement.1.B2.B3.D4.D5.C6.AExercises of Chapter XI. XXX.41. naturalism; realism2. International XXX3. industrialization ; XXX4. wit ; satire5. feministII. Find the relevant match from Column B for each item in Column A.1.C2.A3.B4.H5.F6.D7.E8.GIII. Choose the best answer for each statement.1.A2.B3.B4.D5.BExercises of Chapter XII. XXX.1. Lost Generation2.XXX O’XXXII. Find the relevant match from Column B for each item in Column A.Part I :1.B2.E3.D4.A5.C。

Exercises to Linguistics外语系黄永亮Chapter 1 Invitation to Linguistics1.Define the following terms:Langue: Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members ofa speech community.Parole:parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.Prescriptive: Prescriptive and descriptive represent two different types of linguistic study. if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct andstandard”behaviour in using language, i.e. to tell people what they shouldday and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Descriptive: Prescriptive and descriptive represent two different types of linguistic study. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language peopleactually use, it is said to be descriptive;competence: Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.Performance: Chomsky defines performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.Synchronic: The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study;Diachronic: The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.Linguistics：Linguistics may be defined as the systematic (or scientific) study of language.language： Language is a form of human communication by means of a system of symbols principally transmitted by vocal sounds.”2.Does the traffic light system have duality, why?No. No discrete units on the first level that can be combined freely in the second level to form meaning. There is only simple one to one relationship between signs and meaning, namely, re-stop, green-go and yellow-get ready to go or stop.munication can take many forms, such as sign, speech, body language and facialexpression. Do body language and facial expression share or lack the distinctive properties of human language?Less arbitrary, lack duality, less creative, limited repertoire, emotional-oriented.4.Why is competence and performance an important distinction in linguistics?According to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence. And performance refers to the actual enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite numbers of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable but his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. Thus, Chomsky proposed that linguists should focus on the study of competence, not performance. The distinction of the two terms “competence and performance”represents the orientation of linguistic study. So we can say competence and performance is an important distinction in linguistics.5.In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in the following basic ways: Firstly, priority is given, as mentioned earlier, to spoken language. Secondly, focus is on synchronic study of language, rather than on diachronic study of language. Thirdly, modern linguistics is descriptive rather than prescriptive in nature. Linguists endeavor to state objectively the regularities of a language. They aim at finding out how a language is spoken: they do not attempt to tell people how it should be spoken. Fourthly, modern linguistics is theoretically rather than pedagogically oriented. Modern linguists strive to construct theories of language that can account for language in general. These features distinguished modern linguistics from traditional grammar. The two are complementary. Not contradictory. Knowledge of both is necessary for a language teacher: knowledge of the latter is necessary for a language learner.Chapter 2 Phonetics1. Give the description of the following sound segments in English1)[❆] voiced dental fricative2)[☞] voiceless alveolar fricative3)[☠] velar nasal4)[♎] voiced alveolar stop5)[☐] voiceless bilabial stop6)[ ] voiceless velar stop7)[●] (alveolar) lateral8)[♓] high front lax unrounded vowel9)[◆:] high back tense rounded vowel10)[ ] low back lax rounded vowel2. How is the description of consonants different from that of vowels?Consonants are described according to manner and place of articulation while vowels are described with four criteria: part of the tongue that is raised; extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate; kind of opening made at the lips; position of soft palate.3. Which sound may be described asa voiced bilabial plosive [♌]a voiced labio-dental fricative [ ]a voiceless velar plosive [ ]4. Why might a photographer ask the person she is photographing to say cheese?The vowel of the word cheese [♓:] is produced with the lips spread, this resemblinga smile.5.Account for the difference in articulation in each of the following pairs of words:coast ghost; ghost boastboast most; ghost mist;The words coast and ghost are distinguished by the fact that the initial segment is voiceless in the case of the former and voiced in the case of the latter.The word ghost and boast are distinguished by the place of articulation of the initial segment, [♑] being velar while [♌] is bilabial.Boast and most are distinguished by the manner of articulation of the initial segment, [❍] being nasal.Most and mist are distinguished by the fact that the former has a rounded back vowel shile the latter has a spread front vowel.Chapter 3 Phonology1.Define the following termsPhonology: Phonology is concerned with the sound system of languages. It is concerned with which sounds a language uses and how the contribution of sounds to thetask of communication.Phone: A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phonesPhoneme: Phoneme is the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive ina particular language.Allophone: Allophone refers any of the different forms of a phoneme is an allophone of it in English. Compare the words peak and speak, for instance. The /☐/ in peak is aspirated; phonetically transcribed as [☐♒] while the /☐/ in speak is unaspirated, phonetically [☐＝ ]. [☐,☐♒] are two different phones and are variants of the phoneme /☐/. Such variants of a phoneme are called Allophone of the same phoneme.Suprasegmental features:.The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment are called Suprasegmental features. Suprasegmental features include: stress, tone and intonation.2.Transcribe the realization of the past tense morpheme for each of the following words:Waited waved wiped waded. account for the differences.[id] in “waited”and “waded”follows another alveolar plosive. [d] in “waved”follows voiced consonants.[t] in “wiped” follows voiceless consonants, there being voicing assimilation. 3. which of the following would be phonologically acceptable as English words?Thlite grawl dlesher shlink tritch sruck stwondle“grawl” and “tritch”4.Why can we not use the sequence [☠kl] in twinkle as an example of a consonant cluster?The sequence [☠kl] bridges two syllables.5.For each of the following pairs compare the position of the stress. Comment.Economy/economic wonder/wonderfulBeauty/beautiful acid/acidicIn adjectives ending in –ic the stress moves to the following syllable, in adjectives ending in –ful it does not.6.Explain why somebody might choose to stress the following utterances as indicated bythe bold type:a) John want ed to do this today. b) John wanted to do this today. c) John wantedto do this to day.The first utterance implies that John was unable to do what he wanted.The second implies that he was only able to do something else.The third implies that he was only able to do it some other day.Chapter 4 Morphology1.Define the following terms:Morpheme: the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that can not be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.Compound:Polymorphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes, such as classroom, blackboard, snowwhite, etc.Allomorph: any of the different form of a morpheme. For example, in English the plural morpheme -‘s but it is pronounced differently in different environments as /s/ in cats, as /z/ in dogs and as /iz/ in classes. So /s/, /z/, and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.Bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the word it is added to, e.g. the plural morpheme in “dogs”.Free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.plete the words with suitable negative prefixesa. ir removable g. in humanb. in formal h. ir relevantc. im practicable i. un evitabled. in sensible j. im mobilee. in tangible k. il legalf. il logical l. in discreet3. “Morpheme” is defined as the smallest unit in terms of relationshipbetween expression and content. Then is morpheme a grammatical conceptor a semantic one? What is its relation to phoneme?Since morpheme is defined as the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, it at the same time covers the grammatical and semantic aspect of linguistic unit. A morpheme may overlap with a phoneme, such as I, but usually not, as in pig, in which the morpheme is the whole word, i.e. and independent, free morpheme, but the phonemes are /p/, /i/ and /g/.4. Identify in the following sentence four bound morphemes. State the function ofeach and say whether each is derivational or inflectional.The teacher’s brother considered the project impossible.The –er and the –‘s of teacher’s are bound morphemes, the former being derivational, as it produces a lexeme that denotes the person who does an action, the latter being an inflectional morpheme, as it indicates possession.The –ed of considered is inflectional, indicating that the action took place in the past. The im- of impossible is derivational, producing a new lexeme that denotes the opposite of possible.Chapter 5 Syntax1.Define the following terms:Category: parts of speech and functions, such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech, the identification of functions of words in term of subject,predicate, etc.Concord:also known as agreement, is the requirement that the forms of two or more wordsin a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of somecategoriesSyntagmatic relation:. Syntagmatic relation is a relation between one item and others in a sequence, or between elements which are all present. Paradigmatic relation: a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure, or between one element presentand the others absent.Deep structure: is defined as the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction, i. e. the underlying level of structural relationsbetween its different constituentsSurface structure: is the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction, which closely corresponds to the structural organization of aconstruction people actually produce and receive.Theme: The Theme is the first constituent of the clause.Rheme: All the rest of the clause is simply labeled the Rheme.2.Why is it important to know the relations a sign has with others, such as syntaxgmaticand paradigmatic relations?As the relation between a signifier and signified is arbitrary, the value of a sign can not be determined by itself. To know the identity of a sign, the linguist will have to know the signs it is used together with and those it is substitutable for.The former relation is known as syntagmatic and the latter paradigmatic.3.In what ways is IC analysis better than traditional parsing?In traditional parsing, a sentence is mainly seen as a sequence of individual words, as if it has only a linear structure. IC analysis, however, emphasizes the hierarchical structure of a sentence, seeing it as consisting of word groups first.In this way the internal of structure of a sentence is shown more clearly, hence the reason of some ambiguities may be revealed.4.What are the problems in IC analysis?There are some technical problems caused by the binary division and discontinuous constituents. But the main problem is that there are structures whose ambiguities cannot be revealed by IC analysis, e.g. the love of God. In terms of both the treediagram and the label, there is only one structure, but the word God is in two different relations with love, i.e. either as subject or object.5.Clarify the ambiguity in the following sentence by tree diagrams:Old teachers and priests fear blackbirds.SNP VPAdj. NP V NOld fear blackbirds.N Conj. Nteachers and priestsSNP VPNP Conj. N V NAdj. N and priests fear blackbirds.Old teachersChapter 6 Semantics1. defining the following terms:semantics: The subject concerning the study of meaning is called semantics. More specifically, semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistics units,words and sentences in particular.Denotation: the core sense of a word or a phrase that relates it to phenomena in the real world.Connotation: a term in a contrast with denotation, meaning the properties of the entitya word denotes.Sense: the literal meaning of a word or an expression, independent of situational context.Reference: the use of language to express a proposition, i.e. to talk about things in context.Synonymy: is the technical name for the sameness relation.Antonymy: is the name for oppositeness relation:hyponymy: a relation between two words, in which the meaning of one word (the superordinate) is included in the meaning of another word (the hyponym) semantic component: a distinguishable element of meaning in a word with two values,e.g. [+human].2. Some people maintain that there are no true synonyms. If two words mean really thesame, one of them will definitely die out. An example often quoted is the disuse of the word “wireless”, which has been replaced by “radio”. Do you agree? In general what type of meaning we are talking about when we say two words aresynonymous with each other?It is true that there are no absolute synonyms. When we say two words are synonymous with each other, we usually mean they have the same conceptual meaning.3. For each of the following pairs of words, state the principal reason why they maynot be considered to be synonyms:man boy toilet loo determined stubbornpavement sidewalk walk runThe words man and boy are principally distinguished be age, the words walk and run by speed. The principal distinction between the words toilet and loo is one of social register. Determined and stubborn are largely distinguished by attitude—a person reluctant to give up is described as determined by those who sympathize and as stubborn by those who do not. The difference between the words pavement and sidewalkis a matter of geography, the former being used in Britain and the latter in America.Chapter 7 Pragmantics1. defining the following terms:Performative:an utterance by which a speaker does something does something,as apposed toa constative, by which makes a statement which may be true or false. Constative:an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false.Locutuonary act: the act of saying something; it’s an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon, and phonology. Namely, the utterance of asentence with determinate sense and reference.Illocutuonary act: the act performed in saying something; its force is identical with the speaker’s intention.Perlocutionary act: the act performed by or resulting from saying something, it’s the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance. Cooperative principle:in making conversation, there is, as Grice holds, a general principle which all participants are expected to observe. He calls this guidingprinciple the Cooperative Principle, CP for short.. It runs as follows:"make your conversational contribution such as is required, at thestage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of thetalk exchange in which you are engaged.”Conversational implicature: the extra meaning not contained in the literal utterances,understandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker’sknowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one ofthe four maxims of the Cooperative Principle (CP)2. Consider the following dialogue between a man and his daughter. Try to explain the illocutionary force in each of the utterances.[The daughter walks into the kitchen and takes so e popcorn.]Father: I thought you were practicing your violin.Daughter: I need to get the violin stand.Father: Is it under the popcorn?The illocutionary force of “I thought you were practicing your violin”is a criticism of the daughter for her not practicing the violin. That of the daughter’s answer is a defense for herself—I’m going to do that. And that of the father’s retort is a denial of the daughter’s excuse.3.If you ask somebody “Can you open the door?”he answered “Yes”but does not actuallydo it, what would be your reaction? Why? Try to see it in the light of speech act theory.I would be angry with him. “Can you open the door”is normally a request of the hearer to do it rather than a question about his ability. The fact that he answers “Yes” but does not actually do it shows that he declines my request.4. A is reading the newspaper. When B asks “What’s on television tonight?” he answers “Nothing.” What does A mean in normal situations? Think of two situations in which this interpretation of “Nothing” will be cancelled.Normally “Nothing” here means “Nothing interesting”. If A adds after “Nothing” “The workers are on strike today” or “There’s going to be a blackout tonight”, then the interpretation of “Nothing interesting’ will be cancelled.。

Answers to the exercises for chapter:L A T E X1.foo2.A macro is a piece of replacement text.Therefore it does not induce a group,like a function does.It does not even have to be a complete instruction.Looping in a macro language is done with tail recursion.Since tail recursion does not need to maintain a stack,there is no difference in efficiency.3.In thefirst case,clearly there was a percent sign after the90that was notescaped.The remaining text on the line was then ignored by L A T E X.The word ‘From’has special meaning in email.If this word appears at the beginning ofa line,mail software escapes it with>.4.5.The\verb command should be able to have braces,in particular a closingbrace,in its argument.6.Consider the case where the toc is at the start of the document.Thefirstpass generates the toc and the labels.In the second pass labels are used,but because the toc is inserted,the page references are offagain and another pass is needed.7.In T E X by Topic no information is against the spine of the book.That makesit easier to leaf through it searching for both section titles and page numbers.The right running head seems to the number and title of thefirst section that starts on that page,if any.Having the title of the last section would be better.8.The environment given does not work,because after the verbatim begin,L A T E Xlooks for a literal end verbatim line.9.First part\newcounter{answer}\newenvironment{answer}{\refstepcounter{answer}\par\textbf{Problem\arabic{answer}.}\}{\par}Put any code snippets in includefiles,which you include with\input and \verbatiminput.1。

Exercises for Chapter OneI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2. Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general.3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.4. in the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and the checked against the observed facts.5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole.6. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.7. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication.8. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences.9. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology.10. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences.11. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics.12. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings.13. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context.14. Social changes can often bring about language changes.15. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society.16. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive.17. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.18. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time.19 Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the oral language.20. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F. de Saussure. III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best completethe statement.21. if a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said tobe ______________.A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguistic22. Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness23. Modern linguistics regards the written language as ____________.A. primaryB. correctC. secondaryD. stable24. in modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because___________.A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. Speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of informationconveyed.C. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongueD. All of the above25. A historical study of language is a ____ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparative26. Saussure took a (n)__________ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language froma ________ point of view.A. sociological…psychologicalB. psychological…sociologicalC. applied… pragmaticD. semantics and linguistic27. according to F. de Saussure, ____ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all themembers of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. Language28. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between_________ and meanings.A. senseB. soundsC. objectsD. ideas29. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of thespeaker. This feature is called_________,A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmission30. the details of any language system are passed on from one generation to the next through____, rather than by instinct.A. learningB. teachingC. booksD. both a and BIII. Match the following sentences to the onomatopoeia that describes them.A plate being dropped on the floor. TWINKLEA balloon being burst. BANGA gun being shot. SMASHSomeone eating crisps. GROWLA light being switched on. POPA fierce dog. CRUNCHA small bell being rung. CLICKIV. Put each of the onomatopoeias into a sentenceV. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary.1. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?2.How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronicstudy?3.Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not thewritten?4.What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?5.How do you understand competence and performance?6.Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky's distinctio nbetween competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences?7. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?Phonetics & PhonologyI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:7. Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds which a speaker issues with the help of a machine called spectrograph.8. the articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the throat, the mouth and the chest.9. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing.10. English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulation and the part of the tongue that is raised the highest.11. according to the manner of articulation, some of the types into which the consonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar.12. Vowel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: the position of tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.13. according to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified into close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels and open vowels.15. Phones are the sounds that can distinguish meaning.16. Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into different categories. II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given: 21．A ____ refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speech sounds.22．A___________ phonetics describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.23．The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/ have one feature in common, i.e. They are all b_______ sounds.24．Of all the speech organs, the t ____ is the most flexible, and is responsible for varieties of articulation than any other.25．English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation or in terms of p_______ of articulation.26．When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction audibly released and the air passing out again is called a s________.29．The transcription of speech sounds with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription while the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called n_________ transcription.32．The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important cavities: the pharyngeal cavity, the o_______ cavity and the nasal cavity.III. There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:35．Of all the speech organs, the _______ is/ are the most flexible.A. mouthB. lipsC. tongueD. vocal cords36．The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are ____ sounds.A. voicelessB. voicedC. vowelD. consonantal37．__________ is a voiced alveolar stop.A. /z/B. /d/C. /k/D./b/40．The sound /f/ is _________________.A. voiced palatal affricateB. voiced alveolar stopC. voiceless velar fricativeD. voiceless labiodental fricative41. A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highest position.A. backB. centralC. frontD. middle43. A(n) ___________ is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit, a collection of distinctive phonetic features.. A. phone B. sound C. allophone D. phonemeV. Give the description of the following sound segments in English.1. []2. []3. []4. [d]5. [p]6. [k]7. [l]8. [i]]9. [u:] 10. []VI. Give the IPA symbols for the sounds that correspond to the descriptions below.1. voiceless labiodental fricative2. voiced postalveolar fricative3. palatal approximant4. voiceless glottal fricative5. voiceless alveolar stop6. high-mid front unroundedvowel 7. high central unrounded vowel 8. low front rounded vowel9. low-mid back rounded vowel 10. high back rounded tense vowelV. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:57. Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writing?58. What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?59. How the description of consonants are different from that of vowels.III．MorphologyI. Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false:1.Morphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words areformed.2.Words are the smallest meaningful units of language.3.Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme thebasic unit in the study of morphology.4.The smallest meaningful units that can be used freely all by themselves are freemorphemes.5.Bound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes.6.Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammaticalcategories such as number, tense, degree, and case.7.The existing form to which a inflectional affix can be added is called a stem, which canbe a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.8.Prefixes usually modify the part of speech of the original word, not the meaning of it.9.Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the secondelement receives secondary stress.II. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:10.M ____ is the smallest meaningful unit of language.11.B___________ morphemes are those that cannot be used independently but have to becombined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.12.Affixes are of two types: inflectional affixes and d__________ affixes.13.D________ affixes are added to an existing form to create words.14. A s______ is added to the end of stems to modify the meaning of the original word andit may case change its part of speech.15.C__________ is the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to createnew words.17. In terms of morphemic analysis, d_______________ can be viewed as the addition of affixes to stems to form new words.18.A s______ can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself to which aderivational affix can be added.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:21.T he morpheme “vision” in the common word “television” is a(n) ______.A. bound morphemeB. bound formC. inflectional morphemeD. free morpheme22. The compound word “bookstore” is the place where books are sold. This indicates that the meaning of a compound __________.A. is the sum total of the meaning of its componentsB. can always be worked out by looking at the meanings of morphemesC. is the same as the meaning of a free phrase.D. None of the above.23. The part of speech of the compounds is generally determined by the part of speech of __________.A. the first elementB. the second elementC. either the first or the second elementD. both the first and the second elements.24. _______ are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.A. Free morphemesB. Bound morphemesC. Bound wordsD. Words25. _________ is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.A. SyntaxB. GrammarC. MorphologyD. Morpheme26. The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is _______.A. lexicalB. morphemicC. grammaticalD. semantic27. Bound morphemes are those that ___________.A. have to be used independentlyB. can not be combined with other morphemesC. can either be free or boundD. have to be combined with other morphemes.28. ____ modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.A. PrefixesB. SuffixesC. RootsD. Affixes29. _________ are often thought to be the smallest meaningful units of language by the linguists.A. WordsB. MorphemesC. PhonemesD. Sentences30. “-s” in the word “books” is_______.A. a derivative affixB. a stemC. an inflectional affixD. a rootV. Answer the following questions:43. What are the main features of the English compounds?44. Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.SemanticsI. Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false:1. Dialectal synonyms can often be found in different regional dialects such as British English and American English but cannot be found within the variety itself, for example,within British English or American English.2. Sense is concerned with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience, while the reference deals with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.3. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations.7. The meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all its components.8. Most languages have sets of lexical items similar in meaning but ranked differently according to their degree of formality.9. “It is hot.” is a no-place predication because it contains no argument.10. in grammatical analysis, the sentence is taken to be the basic unit, but in semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:11. S________ can be defined as the study of meaning.12. The conceptualist view holds that there is no d______ link between a linguistic form and what it refers to.13. R______ means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.14. Words that are close in meaning are called s________.15. When two words are identical in sound, but different in spelling and meaning, they are called h__________.16. R_________ opposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items.17. C ____ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components.19. An a________ is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence.20. According to the n ____ theory of meaning, the words in a language are taken to be labelsof the objects they stand for.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:21. The naming theory is advanced by ________.A. PlatoB. BloomfieldC. Geoffrey LeechD. Firth23. Which of the following is not true?A. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.B. Sense is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form.C. Sense is abstract and de-contextualized.D. Sense is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are not interested in.24. “Can I borrow your bike?” _______ “Y ou have a bike.”A. is synonymous withB. is inconsistent withC. entailsD. presupposes25. ___________ is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.A. Predication analysisB. Componential analysisC. Phonemic analysisD. Grammatical analysis26. “Alive” and “dead” are ______________.A. gradable antonymsB. relational oppositesC. complementary antonymsD. None of the above27. _________ deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.A. ReferenceB. ConceptC. SemanticsD. Sense28. ___________ refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form.A. PolysemyB. SynonymyC. HomonymyD. Hyponymy29. Words that are close in meaning are called ______________.A. homonymsB. polysemyC. hyponymsD. synonyms30. The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by _______.A. grammatical rulesB. selectional restrictionsC. semantic rulesD. semantic featuresIV. Define the following terms:31. morphology32. inflectional morphology33. derivational morphology34. morpheme35. free morpheme36. bound morpheme37. root38. affix39. prefix40. suffix41. derivation42. Compounding31. semantics32. sense 33 . reference34. synonymy 35. Polysemy36. homonymy 37. homophones38. Homographs39. complete homonyms40. hyponymy 41.antonymy11。

语言学练习（一,二）Exercises of LinguisticsChapter 2Multiple choices (3*15=45?)1. Which of the following feature cannot be used to describe English consonants?A. voicelessB. oralC. alveolarD. lateral2. Which of the following statements about allophone is NOT correct?A. Allophones are different forms of the same phonemeB. Allophones of the same phoneme are in complementary distribution.C. Allophones distinguish meaning.D. Allophones are language-specific.3. The word _____ contains a high vowel.A. matB. mudC. dotD. boot4. Phoneticians adopt the following standards in describing English consonants. Which of the following is NOT correct about [s] sound?A. fricativeB. voicelessC. alveolarD. affricate5. The syllabic structure of “blade” can be described as______.A. CCVCB. CCVCVC. CVCD. CVCV6. _______ refers to the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound.A. Addition of soundB. Loss of soundC. AssimilationD. Metathesis7. Assimilation includes the following phenomena except________.A. nasalizationB. palatalizationC. dentalizationD. transmutation8. Which of the following statements is correct? ( )A. Diacritics added to letter-symbols bring out finer distinctions than the letters alone can do.B. The lips are the most flexible part in articulation, only secondary to tongue.C. The [e] sound in English is a front, semi-close, unrounded, tense vowel.D. Minimal pairs are created in order to show the distinctive value of one phone.9. Which is not a suprasegmental feature? ( )A. stressB. toneC. intonationD. conjuncture10. About phone, phoneme and allophone, which statement is wrong? ( )A. Phones are speech sounds we actually hear and produce during linguistic communication.B. Phones do not necessarily have distinctive values but phonemes do.C. Allophones in some cases also have distinctive values.D. Phones in complementary distribution are not necessarily allophones.11. Which one is different from the others according to the characteristics of vowels?A. [i:]B. [?]C. [e]D. [I]12. _____ doesn?t form a minimal pair.A. meter-metreB. ill-isC. pad-patD. ton-tongue13. Conventionally, a ____ is put in slashes (/ /). A. allophoneB. phoneC. phonemeD. morpheme14. In the word______, [l] is velarized.A. leadB. stealC. lethalD. glide15. There are ____ syllables and _____ phonemes in the wordgentlemanly.A. 4, 9B. 3, 10C. 4, 10D. 3, 9Blank-filling (2*10=20?)16. If a sound can be a substitute for the other in a word in the same environment without changing the meaning, the two sounds are in__________ _________ (two words).17. The maximal numbers of consonants in coda position and onset position are respectively _____ and_____ (e.g. ________ and _______).18. The [g] sound is silent in design and paradigm but present in their corresponding forms signature and paradigmatic. This is due to a _______ rule which could be stated as: when occurring before a final consonant, a[g] sound is not pronounced.19. In terms of places of articulation, [θ] and [e ] can be classified into the category _______.20. __________ is the smallest linguistic unit which has distinctive value.21. When the vocal cords are apart, the air can pass through easily and the sound produced is said to be _______. True or false (T for true and F for false 1*10=10?)22. Linguists are concerned with all the sounds produced by the human speech organs. ( )23. English has four basic types of intonation. ( )24. Suprasegmental features cannot distinguish meaning. ( )25. Phonology is language specific but phonetics is not. ( )26. Acoustic phonetics is concerned with the perception ofspeech sounds. ( )27. The stress can be laid on different syllables of a word, resulting in different meanings. ( )28. Because of assimilation, the negative forms of legal and possible are illegal and impossible. ( )29. All vowels are voiceless. ( )30. [m] sound is both a labiodental and a nasal. ( )31. The sound segments are grouped into consonants and vowels. ( )Brief definitions (3*5=15?)32. phonology33. articulatory phonetics34. complementary distributionSound Description (2*5=10?)Describe the following speech sounds according to the criteria that we have learnt.35. [Λ]____________________________________________36. [ j ]____________________________________________37. [d?]____________________________________________38. [ h ]____________________________________________39. [ I ]____________________________________________Exercises of LinguisticsChapter 1Multiple choices (4*10=40?)1.Which of the following does not fall into the core of linguistics?A. phoneticsB. syntaxC. sociolinguisticsD. semantics2.Of the following statements, which is incorrect?A.Applied linguistics in a narrow sense refers to the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching.B.The study of language variation in terms of gender and psychology belongs to the category ofpsycholinguistics.C.Modern linguistics takes a descriptive attitude rather than a prescriptive one in language study.D.The ultimate goal of language is not just to generate grammatically well-formed sentences but to createmeaningful sentences.3.Which of the following statements are problematic?A.Modern linguistics is supposed to be scientific and objective, which seeks to describe the language people actually use.B.According to F. de Saussure, langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of acommunity, while parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.C. A diachronic approach in modern linguistics is given priority over a synchronic one.D.N. Chomsky thinks what a linguist should study is an ideal speaker’s performance instead of his competence.4.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in some different ways except ____.A.Linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is laying down rules of “correctness”.B.Spoken language is given prominence, not the written language in modern linguistics. The situation wasreverse in traditional grammar.C.Traditional grammar only examined one aspect of language while modern linguistics studies language in a comprehensive way.D.Modern linguists are opposed to the notion that any one language can provide an adequate framework for all others while traditional grammarians proposed a universal framework.5.“A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.”--The famous quotation from Shakespeare's playRomeo and Juliet demonstrates that language and objects in physical world are associated by _____.A. conventionB. rulesC. arbitrarinessD. symbols6.Choose correct statements about arbitrariness of language.______/doc/fd6908020.html,nguage is not entirely arbitrary.B.Onomatopoeic words in language are motivated.C.Some compounds in language are not formed entirely arbitrarily.D.Different sounds may refer to the same object in different languages.7. A professor is employing the _____ function when he says, “Next, I will explain what …Paleozoic? means.”A. referentialB. conativeC. metalinguisticD. poetic8.Human language can be used to refer to situations removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.This design feature is called _____.A. productivityB. displacementC. discretenessD. duality 9.According to Halliday, when we use language to organize our experience of the real or imaginary world, we are performing the _____ function of language.A. textualB. interpersonalC. ideationalD. evaluative10.We can understand abstract words like happiness and motivation. This shows language has the propertyof _______.A. dualityB. creativityC. arbitrarinessD. displacementTrue or false (T for true and F for false) (4*6=24?)11. Recursiveness, as seen in some sentences, well illustrates the creativity of language. ( )12. Some animal communication systems do show the feature of duality. ( )13. The sentence “I like the idea that Joseph proposed at the conference” shows referential function of language.( )14. Human child must learn a specific language after s/hewas born though genetically endowed with the ability to learn. ( )15. The distinction between syntagmatic relation and paradigmatic relation was made by N. Chomsky. ( )16. A linguistic study is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for the correct use of language. ( )Brief Definitions17. What is language? (6’)18. What is called general linguistics? (10’)Thought-provoking Question (20’)19. Is it necessary to make a distinction between speech and writing in linguistic study? Why?。

Exercises for the test of linguisticsThere are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that best complete the statement.Chapter 1 Introduction1.The study of language as a whole is often called ________ linguistics.A.particularB.generalC.ordinaryD.generative2.Traditional grammar regards the ________ form of language as primary, not thespoken form.A. oralB. writtenC. writingD. vocal3. The description of a language at some point in time is a ________ study.A. synchronic 限于一时的B. diachronic 历时的C. historicalD. comparative4.According to F. de Saussure, ________ refers to the abstract linguistic systemshared by all the members of a speech community.A.paroleB.performancengue 语言nguage5. Language is arbitrary in that there is no logical connection between meanings and________.A. wordsB. soundsC. objectsD. ideas6. Which of the following isn‟t the design features of human language?A. arbitrarinessB. performanceC. dualityD. displacement7. The core of linguistics excludes ________.A. semantics n.语义学B. morphology 形态学C. phonetics 语音(学)D. psycholinguistics 语言心理学Chapter 2 Phonology语音体系1.________ is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world‟s languages.A.PhonologyB.PhoneticsC.MorphologyD.Phonemics2.Acoustic phoneticians try to describe the ________ properties of the stream ofsounds which a speaker issues.A.oralB.mentalC.physicalD.recorded3.The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are ________ sounds.A.V oicelessB.voiced ,浊音的C.vowelD.consonantal 辅音的,4.[p] is a voiceless bilabial双唇音的________.A.affricateB.fricativeC.stopD.liquid5.________ aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns andhow these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.A.LinguisticsB.PhoneticsC.Phonology音位学D.Articulatory phonetics6. A ________ is not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.A.phonemeB.phoneC.soundD.speech7.The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phoneticenvironments are called the ________ of that phoneme.A.phonesB.soundsC.phonemesD.allophones8.________ is a typical tone language.A.EnglishB.ChineseC.FrenchD.American EnglishChapter 3 Morphology形态学1.Morphology refers to the ________ of words.A.scienceB.formC.historyD.system2.The smallest meaningful unit of language is ________.A.morpheme词素B.phoneC.phonemeD.allomorpheme3.The word “boyish” contains two ________.A.phonemesB.morphsC.morphemesD.allomorphs4.________ morphemes are those that cannot be used independently but have to becombined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.A.FreeB.BoundC.RootD.Affix5.Morphemes that represent “tense”, “number”, “gender”, “case”and so forth arecalled ________ morphemes.A.inflectionalB.independentC.freeD.derivational6.________ modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part ofspeech of the original word.A.Prefixes前缀B.Suffixes后缀C.RootsD.Affixes 词缀7.In English “-ise” and “-tion” are called ________.A.prefixesB.suffixesC.infixes中缀D.free morphemes8.There are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of ________ toform a new word.A.rootB.affixC.stemD.word9.The words such as “lab” and “doc” are ________.A.formed by blendingB.acronyms首字母缩略词C.coined by back-formation .逆构词逆构法D.clipped words省略词,截短词(省略开首或末尾部分,如flu代表influenza)10.The compound word “running dog” should be pronounced ________, when itmeans “a person who follows others blindly”.A.running …dogB.…running ,dog重音在running上，次重音在dog上C.…running …dogD.,running …dogChapter 4 Syntax句法1.Syntax is the study of the interrelationships between elements of sentencestructure and of the rules governing the way words are ________ to form sentences in a language.A.analyzedB.examinedC.linkedD.arranged2.________ lexical categories are open categories in the sense that new words areconstantly added.A.Minor Minor lexical categories are closed categoriesB.MajorC.AllD.None of the above3.NP and ________ are essential components of a sentence.A.VPB.PPC.APD.CP4.The two clauses in a ________ sentence are structurally equal parts of thesentence.A.simplepleteplexD.coordinate 并列句5.The embedded clause内嵌句in a complex sentence is normally called ________clause.A.a subordinate从句B. a mainC. a matrixD.a major6.Transformational grammar is a type of grammar first proposed by ________ inthe mid-1950s.A.SaussureB.BloomfieldC.ChomskyD.Halliday7.The rules that group words and phrases to form grammatical sentences are called________ rules.A.lexicalB.structuralC.coordinatebinational8.________ can generate an infinite number of sentences.A.Phrase structure rules 短语结构规则B.Movement rulesC.Syntactic rulesD.None of the aboveChapter 5 Semantics语义学1.Semantics can be defined as the study of ________.A.wordsB.meaningmunicationD.context2.Sense relates to the complex system of relationships that hold between thelinguistic elements themselves (mostly words); it is concerned with _________ relations.A.extra-linguisticB.intra-linguisticC.non-linguisticD.multi-linguistic3.Reference deals with the relationship between the linguistic elements (words,sentences, etc) and the ________ of experience.A.extra-linguisticB.intra-linguisticC.non-linguisticD.multi-linguistic4.Two words that are opposite in meaning are called ________.A.Synonyms 同义词B.Homonyms n.同形同音异义词C.Antonyms 反义词D.homophones同音异义词5.The pair of words “wide / narrow” are called ________.A.gradable oppositesplementary antonymsC.co-hyponymsD.relational opposites6.What is the meaning relationship between the two words “flower/ rose”?A.Polysemy 多义关系B.Synonymy 同义关系C.Hyponymy 上下义关系D.Antonymy 反义关系7.The words “railway” and “railroad” are ________.A.emotive synonymsB.dialectal synonymsC.stylistic synonymsD.collocational synonyms8.The same word may have more than one meaning, which is called ________.A.synonymyB.homonymyC.hyponymyD.polysemy9.The pair of words “lend” and “borrow” are ________.A.gradable antonymsB.relational oppositesplementary antonymsD.none of the above10.The way to analyze sentence meaning is called ________ analysis.ponentialB.predicationC.syntacticD.logicalChapter 6 Pragmatics 语用学1.Linguists found that it would be impossible to give an adequate description ofmeaning if ________ of language use was left unconsidered.A.brevity简洁B.context语境C.accuracy 准确(性)D.none of the above2.If a sentence is regarded as what people actually utter in the course ofcommunication, it becomes ________.A.a sentenceB.an actC. a unitD.an utterance 话语3.________ act theory is an important theory in the pragmatic study of language.A.SpeakingB.SpeechC.SoundD.Spoken4.One of the contributions Searle has made is his classification of ________ acts.A.locutionaryB.illocutionaryC.perlocutionaryD.speech5.Of the three speech act, linguistics are most interested in the ________.A.locutionary actB.perlocutionary actC.illocutionary act 语言外表现行为D.none of the above6.Most of the violation of the maxims of the CP give rise to ________.A.utterance meaningB.speech act theoryC.conversational implicaturesD.all of the above7.The significance of Grice‟s CP lies in that it explains how it is possible for thespeaker to convey ________ is literally said.A.more thanB.less thanC.the same asD.none of the aboveChapter 7 Language Change1.We may use the term ________ instead of historical linguistics as a way ofreferring to the approach which studies language change over various period of time and at various historical stages.A.diachronic linguisticsB.synchronic linguisticsC.sociolinguisticsD.psycholinguistics2.An important set of extensive sound changes affecting vowels, known as the GreatV owel Shift, occurred at the end of the ________.A.Old English periodB.Middle English periodC.Modern English periodD.Middle ages3.The most widely-spread morphological changes in the historical development ofEnglish are the loss and addition of ________.A.prefixesB.suffixesC.affixesD.case markings4.The most dramatic morphological loss concerns the loss of ________.A.gender markingsB.case markingsC.tense markingsD.both A and B5.The most vigorous and on-going change in the historical development of alanguage is the change in its ________.A.soundB.vocabularyC.morphological systemD.syntax6.The most obvious way in which Modern English differs lexically from OldEnglish is in the number of borrowed words from other languages, particular from ________.tinB.FrenchC.GreekD.German7.Chinese, the most popular language of the world, belongs to the ________ family.A.Indo-EuropeanB.Sino-TibetanC.AustronesianD.AfroasiaticChapter 8 Language and Society1.The goal of ________ is to explore the nature of language variation and languageuse among a variety of speech communities and different social situations.A.psycholinguisticsB.sociolinguisticsC.historical linguisticsD.general linguistics2.The situation in which two or more languages are used side by side is referred toas ________.A.diglossia 双语双语制B.bilingualism 双语现象C.pidginizationD.blending3. A linguistic ________ refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the“polite” society from general use.A.slangB.euphemism 委婉语C.jargon 行话; 黑话; 隐语,行业术语D.taboo禁忌4. A ________ is a mild, indirect or less offensive word or expression substitutedwhen a speaker or writer fears more direct wording might be harsh, unpleasantly direct, or offensive.A.linguistic tabooB.euphemismC.address termD.pidgin5.In normal situations, ________ speakers tend to use more prestigious forms thantheir ________ counterparts with the same social background.A.female; maleB.male; femaleC.old; youngD.young; old6.In general, language characteristic of ________ register is more often used in thewritten form than in the spoken form.rmalB.formalC.neutralD.none of the above7.It is ________ for individuals to be a perfect user of two languages in a full rangeof situations.monB.rareC.impossibleD.none of the aboveChapter 9 Language and Brain1.________ deals with how language is acquired, understood, and produced.A.Sociolinguistics社会语言学B.Psycholinguistics语言心理学C.Neurolinguistics神经语言学D.Anthropological linguistics 人类语言学2.The left hemisphere of human brain is responsible for the functions of ________.nguage and speechB.calculationC.analytic reasoning and associative thoughtD.all of the above3.________ refers to the localization of cognitive and perceptual functions in aparticular hemisphere of the brain.nguage lateralizationB.Brain lateralization大脑的侧化C.Right ear advantageD.None of the above4.The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is about ________.nguage and thoughtnguage and translationC.grammatical structureD.second language acquisition5.Linguistic ________ is the brain‟s neurological specialization for language.A.determinism决定论B.relativism相对论petenceteralization(尤指脑部的)偏侧性,偏侧优势,偏利6.The ________ age for the acquisition of the first language coincides with theperiod of brain lateralization.A.youngB.oldC.criticalD.flexibleChapter 10 Language Acquisition1.The study of language development over a period of time is generally termed as________.A.appliedB.diachronicparativeD.synchronic2.In general, language acquisition refers to children‟s development of their________ language of the community in which a child has been brought up.A.firstB.secondC.thirdD.foreign3.________ is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of asecond language usually obtained in school setting.A.AcquisitionB.LearningC.StudyingD.Acquirement4.________ transfer is a process that is more commonly known as interference.A.IntentionalB.PositiveC.NegativeD.Interrogative5.________ was believed to be the major source of difficulties experienced anderrors made by L2 learners.A.TransferB.Positive transferC.Negative transferD.Overgeneralization6.________ approach shows that there are striking similarities in the ways in whichdifferent L2 learners acquire a new language.A.TransferB.InterferenceC.Contrastive AnalysisD.Error Analysis7.During the process of SLA, a learner constructs a series of internal representationsthat comprises the learner‟s interim knowledge of the target language, this is ________.A.interlanguageB.first languageC.second languageD.foreign language8.The optimum age for SLA is ________.A.childhoodB.early teensC.teensD.adulthood9.Which of the following isn‟t a factor that may influence SLA?A.ageB.motivationC.personalityD.sex10.Which stages does the child belong to according to the development of thegrammatical system when we heard his saying like “No heavy,”“No eat,”“He no bite you,” etc.?A.the development of phonologyB.the development of syntax n. 1.句法;句法规则〔分析〕C.the development of morphology n.形态学(尤指动植物形态学或词语形态学)，形态论the development of vocabulary and semantics语义学11。

英语专业语言学第一章练习Chapter 1 IntroductionI. Directions: Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which oneof the four choices best completes the statement and choose the letter A, B, Cor D.1. deals with how language is acquired, understood and produced.A. SociolinguisticsB. PsycholinguisticsC. PragmaticsD. Morphology2. The fact that ability to speak a language is transmitted from generation to generation by aprocess of learning, and not genetically is usually referred to asA. performanceB. language acquisitionC. cultural transmissionD. competence3. made the distinction between langue and parole.A. ChomskyB. SaussureC. SapirD. Hall4. Modern linguistics, i, e., linguistic study carried out in this century is mostlythat is, it describes and analyses language.A. descriptiveB. prescriptiveC. synchronicD. diachronic5. Writing is a secondary language form based upon .A. speechB. gestureC. emotionD. sounds6. deals with language application to other fields, particularly education.A. Linguistic geographyB. SociolinguisticsC. Applied linguisticsD. Comparative linguistics7. As modern linguistics aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, and not tolay down rules for “correct” linguistic behavior, it is said to beA. prescriptiveB. sociolinguisticC. descriptiveD. psycholinguistic8. Many modern linguists have criticized grammarians for adopting a approachto language study.A. analyticalB. descriptiveC. prescriptiveD. pedagogical9. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet”, the famous quotation from Shakespeare’splay “Romeo and Juliet” well illustrates .A. the conventional nature of languageB. the creative nature of languageC. the universality of languageD. the big difference between human language and animal communication10. The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is good proof thathuman language is .A. arbitraryB. non-arbitraryC. logicalD. non-productive11. Linguistics is the scientific study of .A. a particular languageB. the English languageC. human languages in generalD. the system of a particular languageII. Directions: Fill in the blank in each of the following statements with one word, the first letter of which is already given as a clue. Note that you are to fill in ONE word only, and you are not allowed to change the letter given.1. Language is a system of a vocal symbols used for human communication.2. S is concerned with the diversity of language as it relates to various sociological factors.3. The description of a language as it changes through time is a d study.4. L refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.5. Language is p in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of newsignals by its users.6. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This is what d means.7. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to bed .8. Chomsky defines “competence” as the ideal user’s k of the rules of his language.9. Language is v because the primary medium is sound for all languages, no matter howwell developed their writing systems are.10. In the course of time, the study of language has come to establish close links with otherbranches of s studies, such as sociology and psychology.11. Language exists in time and changes through tine. The description of language at some pointof time is called a s study of language.12. As the first step of their scientific investigation of language, linguists have to observe andcollect linguistic f before they can do anything else.III. Directions: Judge whether each of the following statements is true or false. Put a T for true or F for false in the brackets in front of each statement.( ) 1. Competence means the actual saying of something, or the act of speech itself.( ) 2. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive.( ) 3.Writing is the quickest and the most efficient of the three human communication systems. ( ) 4. Language is a system of arbitrary written symbols used for human communication. ( ) 5. In modern linguistics, the written form of language is given more emphasis than the spoken form for a number of reasons.( ) 6. Language is a purely human and instinctive method of communicating ideas by means of a system of voluntarily produced symbols.( ) 7. Language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages.( ) 8. In modern linguistics, diachronic study seems to enjoy priority over synchronic study. ( ) 9. In the history of any language the writing system always came into being before the spoken form.( ) 10. Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i. e. we are all born with the ability to acquire language and details of a language system are genetically transmitted.( ) 11. An important difference between traditional grammarians and modern linguists in theirstudy of language is that the former tended to over-emphasize the written form oflanguage and encourage people to imitate the “best authors” for language usage.IV. Explain the following linguistic terms or notions in English.1．design features2．langue and parole3．competence and performance4.duality5.displacement6.synchronic descriptionV. Revision Exercises : 2, 3, 6, 8。

Review exercises of Chapter OneType1:Judge the following statements T(rue) or F(alse):•T1.Linguistics studies not any particular language , but language in general.•F2.A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks•T3.In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation.•T4.General linguistics studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.•nguage is a simple entity with multiple layers and facets.•F6.Phonetics deals with how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning.•T7.Morphology and syntax study the same aspect of language.•T8.The study of meaning in language is known as semantics.•nguage is a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings.•F10.Sociolinguistics has nothing to do with language or society.•T11.Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive , but sometimes prescriptive.•F12.Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar .•F13.A synchronic study of language is a historical study.•F14.Traditional grammar regards the spoken language as primary , not the written language.•T15.The writing system of any language is always a later invention, used to record the speech.•F16.The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F. de Saussure.•nguage is vocal because the primary medium is sounds for all languages.•nguage is entirely arbitrary.•T19.Productivity is unique to animal language.•nguage is culturally transmitted while animal call systems are genetically transmitted.•F21.Linguists must be able to speak several languages in order to study them.•F22.Linguists are judges, they know what is right and what is wrong about language.•F23.When we say synchronic descriptions of a language are prior to diachronic descriptions, we mean in describing one state of the language , some knowledge of its previous state is unnecessary.•F24.In linguistics study, linguists first work out a theory about language structure, then, test it with language facts.•nguage is arbitrary by nature but it is not entirely arbitrary.•F26.Animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species, while human beings haven’t this genetic basis.•T27.No nonhuman communication system is arbitrary.•T28.A linguist should be as objective as possible in his description and analysis of language facts.Type2:Fill in the following blanks:• 1.Human capacity for language has a _genetic_____ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.• 2.Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of ___language_______.• nguage is a system of arbitrary vocal ____ __symbols_____ ________ used for human communication.• 4.In professional usage, the _linguistics_____ is a scholar who studies language objectively.• 5.If a linguistic study describes and analyses the language people actually use, it is said to be __descriptive____. If it aims to lay down rules for correct behavior it is said to be _______prescriptive______.• 6.Charles Hockett specified ____12_______ design features of human language . the most important features are _arbitrariness______ ___duality______ productivity_______ interchangeability__________ _displacement___________ ____specialization______, etc.•nguage is a system which consists of two sets of structures, one of _sound_______ and the other of ________meaning___.•nguage can refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker, that means language has the feature of ____displacement_____.•9.“ A rose by any other name would smell as sweet”. This sentence means that language has the feature of ___arbitrariness_____.•10.Writing is a secondary language form based upon _speech_________.•11.The reason why an English speaker and a Chinese speaker are not mutually intelligible is because language is culturally ____transmission_______.•12._Displacement_____ means that language can be used to refer to things which present or not present , real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places.•nguage is a system consisting of two _dual/articulation_____ structures, or two levels.•nguage is a system of ______arbitrary ____ vocal symbols used for human communication.•15.Chomsky defines conpetence________ as the ideal speaker’s knowledge of the rules of his language.•16.____parole_____ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.•17.Modern linguistics gives priority to the _spoken_____ form of language.•18.The description of a language as it changes through time is a ___diachronic______ study.•19.______psycholinguistics____ relates the study of language to psychology.•20.Linguistics is generally defined as the _scientific_____ study of language.Type3: Multiple Choice:•For example: The study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication is __C____.• A. morphology B. general linguistics• C. phonology D. semantics• 1.A scientific study of language is conducted with references to some _C____ of language structure.• A. data B. general theory C. facts D. hypotheses• 2. ___C__ answers such questions as how we as infants acquire our first language.• A. Psycholinguistics B. Applied linguistics• C. Socio-linguistics D. Anthro-linguistics3. The D____ study of language studies the historical development of language over aperiod of time , it is a historical study. A. synchronic B. descriptive• C. prescriptive D. diachronic• 4.Modern linguistics focuses on the present-day language , it will be possible to describe language from B_____ point of view. A. sociological B. synchronic• C. diachronic D. psychological• 5. The distinction between competence and performance is similar to the distinction between __D___.• A. prescriptive and descriptive B. synchronic and diachronic• C.speech and writing D. langue and parole• 6. “Language is a purely human and non-linguistic method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols”is a definition of language made by_D_____.•Hall B. Chomsky C. Hockett D. Sapir•7. C. Hockett, who specified the design features of language , is a (n)__C__linguist.• A. French B. Swiss C. American D. Canadian•8. A linguist is interested in __B___ primarily.• A.speech sounds only B. all sounds• C. written language D. general theory.•9.Chridren can speak before they can read or write shows that A____.• A. language is basically vocal B. language is arbitrary• C. language is used for communication D. language is productive•10. Which of the following words is not entirely arbitrary?D•crash B. typewriter C. bang D. fish•11.Neither “iolk”nor “a he girl”is accepted to be well constructed in English .This indicates that language is__A___.• A. rule-governed B. not arbitrary C. not produced D. vocal•12. No one has ever said or heard “A black polar bear is playing in a small hotel with an African gibbon”, but one can say it when necessary , and he can understand it in the right register . This shows the _B_ nature of language.• A. arbitrary B. productive C. displaced D. culturally transmitted•13. When a dog is barking , you can decide it is a barking for something or at someone that exists now and there . It couldn’t be sorrowful for some lost love or a bone to be lost.This indicates the language nature of__D___.• A. arbitrariness B. productivity C. duality D. displacement•14. Duality or D_ makes a person to talk about anything with his knowledge.• A.lower level of language B. higher level of language• C. basic level of language D. double articulation of language•15. “Three ”in English , “arbre”in French and “Baum”in German all refer to the same thing . “a type of plant with a wooden trunk and branches”. This indicates that _B___.• A. language is vocal B. language is arbitrary• C. language is productive D. language is culturally transmitted•16. The study of language as a whole is often called_A_____.• A. general linguistics B. sociolinguistics• C. psycholinguistics D. applied linguistics•17.The study of language meaning is called _C_____.• A. syntax B. morphology C. semantics D. pragmatics•18. The description of a language at some point in time is a B____study.• A. diachronic B. synchronic C. descriptive D. prescriptive•19. _D____ made the distinction between langue and parole.• A. Chomsky B. Sapir C. Hall D. Saussure•20. Which of the following is NOT the design features of human language?B• A. Arbitrariness B. Performance• C. Duality D. Displacement•21.Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of some practical problems, the study of such application is known as _C___ .• A. anthropological linguistics B. computational linguistics• C. applied linguistics D. mathematical linguistics•22. _____B_ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.• A. Parole B. Langue C. Speech D. Writing•23. The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of theA____ nature of language .• A arbitrariness B. productivity C. duality D. cultural transmission•24. Which of the following is NOT a major branch of linguistics?D• A. Phonology B. Syntax C. Pragmatics D. SpeechType4: Define all the following terminologies:•Page 18-19: Exercise OneLinguistics1. Define the following terms briefly.(1) linguistics: the scientific or systematic study of language.(2) language: a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.(3) arbitrariness: the absence of similarity between the form of a linguistic sign and what itrelates to in reality, e.g. the word dog does not look like a dog.(4) duality: the way meaningless elements of language at one level (sounds and letters)combine to form meaningful units (words) at another level.(5) competence: knowledge of the grammar of a language as a formal abstraction anddistinct from the behavior of actual language use, i.e. performance.(6) performance: Chomsky’s term for actual language behavior as distinct from theknowledge that underlies it, or competence.(7) stylistics: the study of how literary effects can be related to linguistic features.(8) phatic communion: Language is used to establish an atmosphere or maintainsocial contact between the speaker and the hearer.(9) functionalism: the study of the forms of language in reference to their social function incommunication.(10) formalism: the study of the abstract forms of language and their internal relations.(11) synchronic linguistics: the study of language and speech as they are used at a givenmoment and not in terms of how they have evolved over time.(12) diachronic linguistics: the study of linguistic change over time in contrast to looking atlanguage as it is used at a given moment.Type5: Answer the following questions :•Page 19: Exercise 2,3, 4, 5, 6 and 7.•Type6: Discuss th2. No, language is human-specific. Human language has seven design features, including arbitrariness, duality, productivity, interchangeability, displacement, specialization and cultural transmission. These features are found utterly lacking in do gs’ or pigs’ noises and thus set human language apart from animal cry systems.3. Arbitrariness refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection bet ween a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with. For example, for the same animal dog, in English we call it /d0g/, in Chinese as “gou”, but “yilu” in Japanese; it barks wow wow in English but wang wang in Chinese. Of course, onomatopoetic words such as “quack-quack” and “bang” are exceptions, but words like these are re latively few compared with the total number of words in a language.4. A human baby does not speak any language at birth. What language the baby is going to speak is determined by the culture he is born into. A Chinese baby born and brought up in London by an English family will speak English, while an English child brought up in Beijing by a Chinese aunt will speak Chinese. That is to say, language cannot be transmitted through heredity. It is culturally transmitted.5. Firstly, linguistics describes languages and does not lay down rules of correctness while traditional grammar emphasizes correctness. Secondly, linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, while traditional grammar emphasizes the priority of the written language. Thirdly, traditional grammar is based on Latin and it tries to impose the Latin categories and structures on other languages, while linguistics describes each language on its own merits.6. A descriptive approach attempts to tell what is in the language while the prescriptive approach tells people what should be in the language. Most modern linguistics is descriptive, whereas traditional grammars are prescriptive.7. Synchronic linguistics studies language at one particular time while diachronic linguistics studies language developments through time. Synchronic linguistics focuses on the state of language at any point in history while diachronic linguistics focuses on the differences in two or more than two states of language over decades or centuries.e following quotes:•Page 19: Exercise 8.8. No, human language has the design feature of specialization. It refers to the fact that man does not have a total physical involvement in the act of communication. For example, a mother can tell a story to her child while slicing up a cake. However, wolves can only respond to a stimulus and is totally involved physically in the communication process. Thus, a wolf cannot have a language similar to man’s, even though it could express a thousand different emotions. Besides, the aspect of productivity also distinguishes human language from wolf ’s postures.•。

Linguistics supplementary exercisesChapter 1 IntroductionⅠ. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2. Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general.3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts.5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole.6. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.7. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication.8. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences.9. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology.10. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences.11. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics.12. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings.13. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not inisolation, but in context.14. Social changes can often bring about language changes.15. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society.16. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive.17. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.18. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time.19. Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the written language.20. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F. de Saussure.Ⅱ. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21. Chomsky defines “competence” as the ideal user’s k__________ of the rules of his language.22. Langue refers to the a__________ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules.23. D_________ is one of the design features of human language which refers to the phenomenon that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.24. Language is a system of a_________ vocal symbols used for human communication.25. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages is called s________.26. Human capacity for language has a g_______ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.27. P _______ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.28. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such applications is generally known as a________ linguistics. 29. Language is p___________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before.30. Linguistics is generally defined as the s _______ study of language.Ⅲ. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:31. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be _______.A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguistic32. Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness33. Modern linguistics regards the written language as _______.A. primaryB. correctC. secondaryD. stable34. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because _______.A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyedC. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongueD. All of the above35. A historical study of language is a _______ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparative36. Saussure took a(n) _______ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language froma ________ point of view.A. sociological…psychologicalB. psychological…sociologicalC. applied…pragmaticD.semantic…linguistic37. According to F. de Saussure, _______ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the mem- bers of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. Language38. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between _______ and meanings.A. senseB. soundsC. objectsD. ideas39. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called _______,A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmission40. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next through _______, rather than by instinct.A. learningB. teachingC. booksD. both A and BⅣ. Define the following terms:41. Linguistics 42. Phonology 43. Syntax 44. Pragmatics 45.Psycholinguistics46. Language 47. Phonetics 48. Morphology 49. Semantics 50. Sociolinguistics51. Applied Linguistics52. Arbitrariness53. Productivity54. Displacement55. Duality 56. Design Features 57. Competence 58. Performance 59. Langue 60. ParoleⅤ. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:61. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human commu- nication. Explain it in detail.62. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with examples.63. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?64. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study?65. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written?66. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?67. How do you understand competence and performance?68. Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences?69. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?Chapter 2 PhonologyⅠ. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1. Voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English.2. If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution.3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning.4. English is a tone language while Chinese is not.1. 语言的普遍特征：任意性arbitrariness 双层结构duality 既由声音和意义结构多产性productivity移位性displacement:我们能用语言可以表达许多不在场的东西文化传播性cultural transmission2。

语言学练习Chapter OneI. Fill in the blanks with the right linguistic concepts1. Human language is arbitrary. This refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the __________ it is associated with.2. Saussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics (utterances) as __________ and __________. The former refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and the latter is the concrete manifestation of language either through speech or through writing.3. The defining properties of human language are __________, __________, __________, __________ and __________III. Give brief definitions of the following terms1. synchronic linguistics2. cultural transmissionKeysI. Fill in the blanks with the right linguistic concepts1. meaning2. langue, parole3.arbitrariness, productivity, duality, displacement, cultural transmissionIII. Give brief definitions of the following terms1. synchronic linguistics: the study of a language at a given point in history. The time studied may be either the present or a particular point in the past; synchronic analyses can also be made of dead languages, such as Latin. Synchronic linguistics is contrasted with diachronic linguistics (or historical linguistics), the study of the historical development of language over a period of time.2. cultural transmission: this feature refers to the fact that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. They are not biologically transmitted from generation to generation. Though the capacity for language in human beings has a genetic basis, the particular language a human being learns is a cultural fact, not a genetic one. A human being brought up in isolation simply does not acquire language, as is shown by the rare studies of children brought up by animals without human contact.Chapter TwoIII. Give brief definitions of the following terms1. Phoneme2. complementary distribution3. assimilation4. minimal pairs5. allophoneIV. Describe the following sounds1. /d/2. /v/3. / ŋ/4. /ə/5. /ɑ:/6. /ε/7. /α/8. /v/9. /g/ 10./ʃ/ KeysIII. Give brief definitions of the following terms1. phoneme: It refers to the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language. For example, in English, /p/ is described as a phoneme.2. complementary distribution:When two sounds never occur in the same environment, they are in complementary distribution. For example, the aspirated English stops never occur after [s], and the un-aspirated ones never occur initially. Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution. The allophones of /p/, for instance, are also in complementary distribution. The un-aspirated [p] occurs after /s/, while the aspirated [p h] occurs in all other environments except after /s/.3. assimilation:①It is a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound. It is often used synonymously with coarticulation.②Nasalization, dentalization and velarization are all instances of assimilation. There are two possibilities of assimilation: if a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, it is regressive assimilation; the converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as progressive assimilation.③Assimilation can occur across syllable or word boundaries.④For example, in “mink”, “n”, which is originally pronounced as /n/, will be velarized by the following “k” /k/, and therefore the word will be pronounced as /miŋk/.4. Minimal pairs:The two words which are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string. For example, the English words bear and pear constitute a minimal pair as they differ in meaning and in their initial phonemes /b/ and /p/.5. allophone:Two allophones of a phoneme are two different phones derived from the same underlying phoneme, and they are in complementary distribution, and do not make one word so phonetically different as to create a new word or a new meaning. For example, the aspirated [p h] and the unaspirated [p=] are allophones of the phoneme / p/.6. The distinctive feature refers to a property which distinguishes one phoneme from another. For example, “voicing” is a distinctive feature, since it plays an important role in distinguishing obstruents in English.IV. Describe the following sounds1. /d/: voiced alveolar stop2. /v/: voiced labiodental fricative3. / ŋ/: voiced velar nasal4. /ə/: central lax unrounded vowel5. /ɑ:/: low back tense unrounded vowel6. /ε/:mid-low front lax unrounded vowel7. /α/: low / open front lax rounded vowel8. /v/: voiced labiodental fricative9. /g/: voiced velar stop10./ʃ/: voiceless postalveolar fricative。