耶鲁大学心理学中英导论课件

我们今天要做的是So what we're doing today继续情感这一主题is continuing on the theme of emotions.情感这课分两次讲"Emotions" Is a two-part lecture我们会继续一些话题and we're continuing along certain themes.首先我想先回答一个问题I want to begin by responding to a question这是上节课提出的关于微笑which was raised in the last class concerning smiling和非人灵长类动物and nonhuman primates.这个问题非常好It was a very good question.问题是The issue was:我们知道人类有不同种类的微笑we know that humans have different sorts of smiles传递不同种类的信息to convey different sorts of information.问题是非人灵长类动物The question was, "Do nonhuman primates,像黑猩猩和长臂猿like chimpanzees or gorillas or gibbons,也像人类一样有这么多种微笑吗have the same many sorts of smiles?"我联系了世界第一的微笑研究专家So, I contacted the world's expert on smiling,他没回我邮件who did not return my e-mails.于是我联系了世界第二微笑研究专家So, I contacted the second world's expert on smiling这位专家告诉我答案是否who told me that the answer is "No,"非人灵长类动物的微笑that primate--nonhuman primate smiles其实基本全都是用来安抚及缓和情绪的actually correspond almost entirely to appeasement smiles.像是别伤害我的微笑They're "Don't hurt me" Smiles.还有像人类一样害羞地微笑They're equivalent to the "Coy smile" that we saw on humans.但非人灵长类动物不会用微笑打招呼But that nonhuman primates do not use smiles for greetings;它们没有像问候式微笑或空姐式微笑there's no equivalent to the "Greeting smile" Or "Pan Am smile";也不把微笑当作是对幸福的真情流露nor do they use them as genuine expressions of happiness. 也没有杜乡式微笑[完全真实的微笑]There's no equivalent to the "Duchenne smile."这就是我目前所知道的That's as far as I know.如果世界第一那位专家给我回复了If the world's expert gets back to me若不同的内容我会告诉你们的and says something different, I'll keep you posted.还有件事Another thing.回到情感的开课主题Going back to the beginning theme of the class,回顾一下当时讲的内容what we started--just to review,我们讲了感情的不同功能we talked about the different functions of emotions.然后是微笑和面部表情And then we talked about smiling and facial expressions.然后讲了And then we turned to some--恐惧这一非社会性情感to a nonsocial emotion, the case of fear.又讲了社会性情感And then we shifted to social emotions.然后我们讲了对亲属的社会性情感And we talked about social emotions towards kin和使这种情感发生进化的and the special evolutionary reasons特殊原因that would lead them to evolve.快下课的时候And as we were ending,我们讲了动物和we were talking about the relationship它们的子女之间的关系between an animal and its children,重点讲了人类鸟类哺乳类动物particularly in cases like humans and birds and mammals与他们子女的关系尤为亲近where there tends to be a close relationship with our children.我们注重子女质量而非数量We invest in quality, not quantity.我可能一辈子生不了几个孩子I might produce very few children in my life.而进化的作用使得我对他们非常关注And my evolutionary trick then is to focus very intently on them确保他们都能存活and make sure they survive.如果我生了一百个孩子If I were to produce 100 children,那失去几个我也能受得了I could stand to lose a few,但如果我一辈子就生了五个或两个或一个but if I just produce five in my lifetime or two or one,对我而言他们就十分珍贵了they become very precious to me.因此在像人类这样的物种进化过程中And so, the story of the evolution of a species like us包含着父母和孩子之间形成的长期依赖和involves a long period of dependence and deep, deep bonds很深很深的情感纽带between the parent and the child.这是我所讲的父母是如何对待孩子的And that's part of what I talked about,其中的一部分内容how parents respond to children.我想在这堂课的开头放部有关父母如何And I want to begin this class by giving an illustration 对待子女的纪录片并以此为例from a documentary about parental response to children,但我想用非人类物种but I want to give it in a species that's not us.原因为何我将会用类比来解释And here is why. I'll explain why with an analogy.我有一个研究宗教心理学的朋友I have a friend of mine who studies the psychology of religion. 他研究人们信仰宗教的原因He studies why people hold religious beliefs.他告诉我当他跟一个非专业人士And he tells me that when he's talking to a non specialist,一个不是该领域的人说话时somebody not in the field,他从来不会说he doesn't ever tell them,为什么人类相信圣经里的话"Yeah, I'm really interested in why people believe in the Bible为什么人们在安息日点蜡烛or why people light the candles on Sabbath人们为何去教堂我对这些特别感兴趣or why people go to church"因为周围的人都信仰宗教because these are religions that people around here hold,如果你告诉他们你在研究这些问题and if you tell people you study them他们就会有点儿诧异they'll sort of be puzzled,为什么你会研究这些"Why would you want to study something like that"或者感觉遭到了冒犯Or offended.如果你想跟这样的听众If you want to talk about the psychology of religion讨论宗教心理学to an audience like this,那你应该以异域风情为话题what you do is you start with the exotic.给他们讲讲那些把黄油So, you start by talking about people放在头上的人who put butter on their heads.丹·斯珀伯谈到这样一种文明Dan Sperber talks about a culture那儿的人夏天把黄油放在头上where the men put butter on their heads in the summer.黄油就会融化And it kind of melts这是他们的风俗之一and that's part of--one of the things that they do或者你说有一种文明or--you talk about a culture他们相信鬼神相信树能说话that believes in spirits or that trees can talk.你说你在研究这个他们就会说You say you're studying it and they say,真有趣"Oh, that's interesting.我想知道他们为什么会相信那些I wonder why they believe that?"你用这种方法能看到And you use that as a way to look at more general facts我们文明中一些更加普遍的事实that exist even in our culture.用我们不熟悉的异域文化You use the fact that we don't take the exotic for granted促进我们熟悉的as a way to motivate the scientific study科学研究of things we do take for granted.这点当然更加普遍And this is, of course, true more generally.这是威廉·詹姆斯一段话中的观点This was the point in the William James quote他说有些事对人类而言很自然when he talked about things that are natural to us and noticed并注意到有些奇怪的事情that some very odd things对其它物种而言也很自然are equally natural to other species.我认为的确如此尤其是And it's true, I think, in particular当我们谈到when we talk about things比如说我们对自己孩子的爱时like the love we have for our children.一种科学看待So, one way to look at the love we have我们爱孩子的方式for our children scientifically,就是不感性地直接看待isn't to look at it head-on,因为我们对孩子的爱是神圣的because the love we feel towards our own children feels sacred, 我们觉得这种爱是独有的it feels special,但其他物种呢but look at it in other species.对舐犊之情最好的例证之一And so, one of the nicest illustrations of this就是帝企鹅is the Emperor penguin,有人将帝企鹅对子女的爱护which was--which--whose和交配拍成了一部childcare and mating practices were dramatized精彩的电影帝企鹅日记in a wonderful movie called "March of the Penguins."非常有趣And this is interesting因为它们生育照顾子女的方式because they had this incredibly elaborate异常精细复杂and quite precarious system of generating并且还非常危险and taking care of offspring.我想给你们看一小段电影So, I want to show you a brief clip of the movie看看其中一些部分to illustrate some parts of this.它们在开始所做的What they do at the beginning,生育子女的准备which is not--which leads up to this,就是从水中进行长途的艰苦跋涉is they take a very long trek from the water去它们的繁殖地to their breeding grounds.它们的繁殖地是一个不受风雨侵害的地方Their breeding grounds is--are protected from the wind它们在一快很厚的冰上and they're on a firm piece of ice这样它们就能完成整个生育过程了so they could hold the whole pack.它们在那里繁殖They do the breeding there在那里孕育了帝企鹅蛋and it's there that the eggs are created.电影就是从这儿开始的So, this is where the movie begins at this point.帝企鹅日记是"March of the Penguins" Was the second best--有史以来第二受欢迎的纪录片second most popular documentary of all time,仅次于华氏九一一beaten only by "Fahrenheit 9/11."人们对该片反映不一And people responded to it in different ways,值得注意的是当我们想到普遍的爱时which are informative when we think about the generalizations就能从动物行为联想到人类行为you could make from animal behavior to human behavior.一些保守的评论家把这视为Some conservative commentators saw this对家庭价值的颂扬as a celebration of family values,如爱信任一夫一妻制such as love and trust and monogamy.一些厌恶一切美好真实事物的自由主义者Some liberals, who hate everything that's good and true,回应道responded by saying,对它们是在一个交配季节一夫一妻"Well, yeah, they're monogamous for one breeding season. 这只是一年It's a year.第二年它们就分道扬镳另找配偶Then they go and find another mate.如果把这些年份加起来那相当淫荡If you add it up, it's pretty slutty."我想这更多说明了I think more to the point,这些动物表现出来的people were impressed and stunned by the rich丰富清晰并且系统化的行为and articulate and systematic behavior令人们印象深刻叹为观止that these animals were showing.显然它们的这些行为并不是从电视Plainly, they didn't pick it up from television,电影文化学习movies, culture, learning,学校等地方学到的schooling, and so on.从某种程度来说To some extent,这种复杂的行为是天生的this sort of complicated behavior came natural to them.那么就可以理解为什么智力设计论And it's understandable或是神造论的支持者that some proponents of intelligent design,将此视为上帝造物的例证or creationism, pointed to this as an example上帝创造了这些非常细致无比精巧的生命of how God creates things that are deeply, richly intricate影响了不同动物的生存so as to perpetrate the survival of different animals.从达尔文主义者的立场来说From a Darwinian standpoint,他们同意神造论者的这个观点the Darwinian would agree with the creationist这些精巧生命的形成并非偶然that this couldn't have happened by accident,这简直太复杂了但他们会认为这是this is just far too complicated, but would appeal to the--生物学适应性的非凡典范to this as an exquisite example of a biological adaptation,尤其是这一生物适应性in particular a biological adaptation即父母关怀子女是因为regarding parental care to children shaped by the fact子女继承了父母的基因that children share the parents' genes因此父母就会逐渐以各种方式and so parents will evolve in ways使其子女生存下来that perpetrate the survival of their children.还有其他研究方向Then there's the other direction,关于孩子如何对待父母which is how children respond to parents,年幼的孩子怎样以不同方式how the young ones are wired up to resonate响应周围的成年者与他们产生共鸣and respond in different ways to the adults around them.对此我们简单讲了一些理论And we quickly talked about some different theories of this.回顾一下上节课我们讲的内容And I'll just review what we talked about last class.婴儿会对与他最亲近的人产生依恋Babies will develop an attachment to whoever is closest.他们通常更喜欢他们的妈妈They'll usually prefer their mothers因为妈妈一般是because their mothers are typically他们最亲近的人those who are closest to them.他们喜欢她的声音They'll prefer her voice,她的面容她的微笑her face, her smell.人们常常认为It used to be thought当婴儿出生时会有某种that there is some sort of magical moment of imprinting神奇的铭记时刻that when the baby is born,婴儿必须看到他们的妈妈嘭的一下the baby must see his or her mother and "Boom,"母婴之间的联系就生成了a connection is made.如果婴儿没有这么做If the baby doesn't,以后这种依恋关系就会产生很严重的问题terrible things will happen with attachment later on. 这种说法很傻This is silly.那些什么特别时刻是没有道理的There is no reason to believe there's some special moment什么特别五分钟或是特别一小时or special five minutes or special hour.只是在适当的时间It's just in the fullness of time婴儿会对于他们babies will develop an attachment最亲近的人产生依恋to the animal that's closest to it.他们会以暗示的方式They will recognize it as, at an implicit level,下意识地将那个人视作他们的亲属at an unconscious level, as their kin.那么这是怎样形成的呢Well, how does this work?婴儿的大脑是怎样形成How does the baby's brain develop--一种对那个生物的情感依赖呢come to develop an emotional attachment to that creature?你们记得斯金纳[行为主义心理学家]Well, you remember from Skinner他的操作性条件理论会作出很好的解答that operant conditioning could provide a good answer to this.这被称为碗柜理论And this is known as the "Cupboard Theory,"婴儿爱他们的妈妈因为妈妈给予他们食物which is babies love their moms because their moms provide food.这就是规律效应操作性条件的作用It's the law of effect. It's operant conditioning.他们接近他们的妈妈They will approach their mothers从她们那里得到食物to get the food from them.而后他们会对母亲产生依恋And they will develop an attachment因为妈妈提供食物because their mother provides food.这与鲍尔贝那更具本土主义者风格And this is contrasted with a more nativist,在心理上更根深蒂固的理论截然相反hard-wired theory developed by Bowlby鲍尔贝称有两件事相关which claims that there's two things going on.对婴儿来说妈妈安慰他与他进行There is a draw to mom for comfort社会互动但他也对陌生人心存恐惧and social interaction and afraid of strangers.在现实世界中Now, in the real world,很难将这两种情况分开it's difficult to pull apart these two means of attraction因为给予你安慰的那个女人because the very same woman who's giving you comfort同样为你提供母乳and social interaction is also the one giving you milk.但是在实验中就能将两者进行区分了But in the laboratory you can pull them apart.这正是亨利·哈洛在你们And that's what Henry Harlow did上周看的那部电影里所做的in the movies you saw last week.哈洛揭示了灵长类动物的两种不同的妈妈So, Harlow exposed primates to two different mothers.一种是铁丝代母斯金纳理论的妈妈One is a wire mother. That's a Skinnerian mother.给予食物的妈妈That's a mother who gave food.另一种是绒布代母The other is a cloth mother手感很好这样抱上去很舒服set-up so that she'd be comfortable并且给予婴儿温暖和拥抱and give warmth and cuddling.问题是婴儿喜欢哪个妈妈And the question is, "Which one do babies go for?"你能从电影中回忆起来的话And as you can remember from the movies,结果是很明确的the results are fairly decisive.婴儿去铁丝代母那里要食物Babies go to the wire mother to eat--正如其中一位研究员所言as one of the characters said,你要活着就得吃饭"You've got to eat to live."但是他们发现他们更爱绒布代母But they viewed the--they loved the cloth mother.他们对给予温暖和拥抱的代母产生依恋They developed an attachment to the warm, cuddly mother.当他们遇到威胁时她就是他们的依靠That's the one they used as a base when they were threatened.当他们开始探索世界时That's the one they used as a base她就是他们的港湾from which to explore.好的那实际上Okay. And that actually--那是我有张照片Oh, that's just--I have a picture.我马上就会讲到And that actually takes me to the--还有一件事Oh, except for one thing,我马上就要讲完it almost takes me to the end我们对亲人的感情问题of the question of our emotions towards kin.你们可能会问一个问题One question you could ask is,如果什么交流也没有怎么办"What if there's no contact at all?"你可以想象Now, you could imagine the effects of很多人对这个问题的答案感兴趣how--A lot of people are interested in the question孩子早期与周围的成年人的关系of the effects of the child's early relationship会如何影响孩子的未来to adults around him or her in how the child turns out later.这与很多社会讨论This becomes hugely relevant如日托关系巨大for social debates like daycare.比如很多心理学家So for instance, a lot of psychologists非常关心一个问题are interested in the question,孩子被父母通常是母亲"Is it better for a child to be raised by a parent,养大是否更好usually a mother,把孩子送到托儿所是否会造成什么差别or does it make a difference if the child goes to daycare?如果孩子六个月就被送到托儿所会怎样What if the child goes to daycare at six months?如果孩子岁两再送到托儿所会怎样What if the child goes to daycare at two years?这会如何影响孩子How does this affect the child?"简单的答案是没人知道The short answer is, nobody really knows.针对是否会有微妙差异的讨论There's a lot of debate over whether or not一直存在并且争议巨大there are subtle differences and it's deeply controversial.但是我们能确定的是差异并不大But we do know that it doesn't make a big difference.我们知道如果你被妈妈养大We do know that if you got raised by mom,或者妈妈和爸爸或者只有爸爸or perhaps mom and dad, or maybe just dad直到你去上学而我all through your life until going off for school and I--父母在我三个月的时候就把我送到托儿所my parents threw me in a daycare at age three months--这不会使我们存在巨大的差异it's not going to make a big difference for us,也许会有细微的差异maybe a subtle difference但是并不能确定是哪方面的差异though it's not clear which way it would go.反正不会有很大区别But it won't make a big difference.但是如果完全没有联系呢But what if there's no contact at all?如果在某些可怕的情况下What if--What about terrible circumstances人们失去绒布代母where people get no cloth mother,没有任何人可依赖they get nobody for attachment?这当然存在于现实生活中This is a really--In the real world, of course,你不能拿这个做实验you can't do experiments on this.在人类的现实生活中And in the real world with humans,这只会在悲惨的情况下发生this only happens in tragic cases.但是这已经有人研究过But this has been studied.哈洛又是他So Harlow, again,他将猴子隔离raised monkeys in solitary confinement喂养在铁笼中so they were raised in steel cages只有一个铁丝代母with only a wire mother.换言之In other words,他们能够获得所需的营养they got all the nutrition they needed但是没有母亲抚育but they got no mothering.最后你会发现猴子们疯了It turned out that you kind of get monkey psychotics.他们孤僻不会玩耍甚至咬伤自己They're withdrawn. They don't play. They bite themselves.他们缺乏性能力They're incompetent sexually.缺乏社交能力They're incompetent socially.缺乏做母亲的能力They're incompetent maternally.在一个实验中一只隔离喂养的猴子In one case, one of these monkeys raised in solitary confinement被人工受精was artificially inseminated.她生下孩子后拿孩子的头撞地板When she had a child she banged its head on the floor最后将它咬死and then bit it to death.所以你需要这表明So, you need to be--you need--This shows--这残酷地证明This is kind of a stark demonstration that某些早期关系某些早期依赖some early connection,some early attachment对灵长类动物的生长十分重要is critical for the developing of a primate.显然你不会用人类做这样的实验Obviously, you don't do these experiments with people但是有现实情况but there are natural experiments,在某些严苛的孤儿院长大humans raised in harsh orphanages没有社会接触的人with little social contact,这些孩子换言之and these children--If the--In other words,他们仅能吃饱they get fed, barely,但是没人会抱起他们拥抱他们but nobody picks them up and cuddles them.这些孩子如果时间足够长These children, if this happens for long enough,他们的社会和情感发展会出现严重问题they end up with severe problems with social and emotional development.从情感观点说他们总是无法满足From an emotional point of view, they're often insatiable.他们非常需要拥抱和支持They really need cuddling and support否则他们就会很冷淡完全不关心or they're apathetic, they don't care at all.但是有些好消息Now, there's some sort of good news,如果能够早些给人们或者猴子一些改变which is if you get these people or these monkeys early enough就能转变这一不良发展的影响you can reverse the effects of this bad development.猴子治疗师做了些研究So, there's some research done with monkey therapists.他们所做的是选一个猴子So then, what they do is they take the monkey,把他养在铁笼中等猴子出来they raise it in a steel cage, the monkey comes out,他有些神经质the monkey is kind of psycho,然后他们将一个小猴子送进笼子and then they send in a younger monkey小猴子四处闲逛who is just goofing around,在笼子里上蹿下跳jumping all around the place and everything.小猴子跟着他们And experience with this younger monkey紧挨着他们这些与小猴子相处的经历who just follows them around and clings to them使他们逐渐改善leads to gradual improvement.使孤僻的猴子得到改善It makes the solitary monkey become better.这对人类可能有相似的效果There might be a similar effect with humans.有个故事是个真事不是实验So one story more about--of an anecdote than an experiment一群一岁半的孩子was a situation where at the age of one and a half,被从一个不给孩子任何交流的children were taken away from a really harsh orphanage严苛的孤儿院带出来where they had no contact送到一个收留精神失常妇女的收容所中and brought into a home for mentally retarded women 在这女人们给予他们很多交流和拥抱where these women gave them plenty of contact andcuddling结果我们知道and apparently, from what we know,使他们恢复正常brought them back to normal.关于我们对亲人And this is all I want to talk about,孩子和父母的感情问题about the emotions we feel towards our kin,我就说这些towards our children, and towards our parents.谁有问题或者想法Any questions or thoughts?请讲Yes.孤儿院的孩子互相安抚吗Do children in orphanages comfort each other?这个问题很好Professor Paul Bloom: It's a good question.孤儿院的孩子互相安抚吗Do children in orphanages comfort each other?我不知道I don't know.可能不存在这样的条件The situation probably wouldn't be there--问题在于遭遇这种情况的The problem is children in orphanages孤儿院孩子who are in these terrible situations一般都是婴儿或者很小tend to be babies and very young他们可能不会被聚集到一起and they wouldn't be thrown together in situations有机会互相安抚where they could comfort each other.这是个很有意思的问题It's a really interesting question.如果在一种情形下孩子虽然What if it was a situation where children没有绒布代母were raised without a supportive cloth mother at all,不能抱起他们拥抱他们would not be able to pick them up and hold them,但是他们是否能够一起玩互相支持but they could play amongst themselves and support each other?我不知道这个问题的答案I don't know the answer to that.助教:可以Teaching Assistant: Yes.可以吗有依据吗Professor Paul Bloom: Yes? Is there evidence on that?助教:有Teaching Assistant: Yes, there is.有Professor Paul Bloom: Yes.答案是有依据The answer is there is evidence,众所周知as everybody knows,这种幼儿之间的that this sort of--amongst the young,互相支持可以帮助猴子和孩子support can actually help the monkey and the children.还有人有问题吗Somebody else had a question here?请讲Yes.中间情况会怎样What does that tell us about the middle ground,如果父母只给与很少的安抚if the parent is comforting just a little bit却不够多会怎样and then not that much好的问题是Professor Paul Bloom: Right. So this is--The question is,中间情况会怎样"What does that tell us about the middle ground?"前面说的是极端情况So this is an extreme case那中间情况会怎样but what do we know about the middle case?假设你的父母你不是被养在笼子里Say your parent--You're not raised in a cage,也不在罗马尼亚的孤儿院you're not in a Romanian orphanage,但是你的父母就是不怎么抱你but your parents just don't pick you up very much.他们不太爱你They don't love you very much.暂时没有充足证据证明There's no good evidence that这会对一个人产生任何影响that has any effect on a person.问题是几周以后我们会The problem is, and we're going to talk about this详细地讲这个问题in much more detail in a couple of weeks,确实有不太亲近的父母is it's true that parents who aren't affectionate孩子也不太近人have kids that aren't affectionate but it's not clear但是还不清楚这是由于遗传原因this is because of a genetic connection还是环境原因or an environmental connection.能确定的是在中间情况下The one thing we do know is that in the middle ground,影响不太明显effects tend not to be dramatic.除非在极端情况下So when you get away from extreme cases,否则影响很难观察effects are hard to see需要仔细的实验来梳理结论and require careful experimental research to tease out.我认为对很多对所有事情来说I think what it's safe to say for a lot--for everything可以确定的是除非是极端情况but the severe conditions否则我们不知道会有什么样的影响is we don't know what kind of effects there are.即使有影响也不会很大很明显But if there are effects they are not big and dramatic ones.好的Okay.动物的好感Animals' good feelings,动物对亲属的感情吸引animals' emotional attraction to their kin,从进化论观点看并不特别费解is not a huge puzzle from an evolutionary point of view.进化是由你的后代遗传和复制了Evolution is driven by forces that operate on the fact of多少你的基因所决定的how many genes get reproduced and replicated among your descendants. 所以不难理解为什么动物热衷于So, it makes sense that animals would be wired-up会照顾他们的孩子to care for their kids.也不难理解It would make sense that kids得以存活的孩子who are wired-up to survive会对他们的父母产生依赖would develop attachments to their parents.但是令人疑惑的是动物What's more of a puzzle though is that animals,包括人类including humans,与非亲属也有微妙复杂的关系seem to have exquisitely complicated relationships with non-kin. 确切地说动物对非亲属很好In particular, animals are nice to non-kin.你也会对完全没有关系的人很友善You are nice to people that you're not related to.这有很多例子There are a lot of examples of this.动物们互相照顾Animals groom one another.你会把虱子和虫子从你朋友的身上抓走You go, you pick off the lice and the bugs off your friend;他们也会帮你抓走they pick it off you.动物会发出危险警告They give warning cries.危险警告很多动物会发出危险警告So, warning cries--All sorts of animals give warning cries. 假设你是我不知道You are--I don't know.假设你是个小动物大的敌人来了You're a little animal and a big animal comes charging你会喊喂and you say, "Hey!"你会喊叫然后大家闻风而逃Oh. You may sort of cry and everybody runs away.这对你很危险And that's very risky for you但你还是会做but you do it anyway,为了保护跟你没关系的人often to protect people you aren't related to.动物们还会互相照顾孩子Often animals share childcare.如果从一个冷血的自然选择And from a cold-blooded, natural selection,保存自身基因的观点来看survival-of-the-gene point of view,你可以想象you would imagine that假如你将孩子交给我白天照顾if you lend me your kid for the day我会将他吃掉以获得营养I would eat him for the protein这不是我的基因and "It's not my genes这样对我的孩子有好处and actually it gives more for my kids."实际上并不是这样的That's not quite how it works though.动物们分享食物Animals share food.事实上那种动物In fact, that animal,及其丑陋的吸血蝙蝠就分享食物hugely ugly, the vampire bat, shares food.吸血蝙蝠会What happens is the vampire bat--吸血蝙蝠住在洞穴中飞出去觅食vampire bats live in caves and they fly out.经常会有一只蝙蝠收获丰厚And what they do is often a bat will strike it big.比如说她发现了一匹马咬了它She'll find a horse, for instance, bite the horse,吸取了大量的鲜血然后飞回来pump in tons of blood and then fly back.她不会自己全部留下And what it does is it doesn't keep it to itself.取而代之她飞遍整个洞穴Rather, it goes around the whole cave将血吐给所有的吸血蝙蝠and vomits blood into the mouth of all the other vampire bats这样所有蝙蝠都会受益so everybody benefits.难道这不好吗Isn't that nice?现在你会说Now, what you're tempted to say is,这很好所有蝙蝠都能受益"Well, that's really nice. Everybody benefits,"但是从进化论角度but this raises a puzzle这产生了一个问题from the evolutionary point of view.记住这样动物获益更多Remember, animals benefit more,在这种情形下and to this situation,动物们共同工作比单独工作获益更多animals benefit more by working together than by working alone.益处超过代价The benefits outweigh the costs.这被称作互惠利他主义This is known as "Reciprocal altruism"指我对你的行为meaning my behavior to you,我对你的帮助对你的利他主义my good behavior to you, my altruism for you,是建立在互惠的基础上is predicated on the idea of reciprocation,我也会受惠于你"I'll benefit from you."假设吸血蝙蝠比如说And you imagine how vampire bats, for instance,为什么这样合情合理why this makes sense.假设你是一只吸血蝙蝠This is--If you're a vampire bat,。

心理学导论第九课很高兴为大家介绍I'm delighted to introduce the first guest lecture心理学导论课程的首位客座讲师for this introduction to psychology course, 彼得·萨洛维院长Dean Peter Salovey.彼得是我的一位老朋友老同事Peter is an old friend and colleague.在座许多人我想应该是在座所有人Many of you--I think everybody here都知道他是耶鲁学院的院长knows through his role of him as dean of Yale College.在介绍中我想提一下I'll just, in this context of this introduction,关于他的另外两件事mention two other things about him.首先无论是做院长之前 One is prior to being dean还是当了院长之后and in fact, still as a dean,他一直是个活跃的科学家he's an active scientist尤其是作为一位社会心理学家and in particular, and in particular, a social psychologist他积极地参与对健康心理学的研究actively involved in studying health psychology,以及对如何适当运用心理学方法the proper use of psychological methods来确定健康信息to frame health messages,他还创立并发展了and also is the founder and developer情商这一概念of the idea of emotional intelligence,他对情商进行了大量研究an idea he's done a huge amount of research on.其次彼得一直以来都是耶鲁学院的Secondly, Peter is or was an active and extremely well-known teacher一位活跃的非常知名的教师at Yale College.他曾讲授过耶鲁学院有史以来He taught at one point, the largest course ever 人数最多的课程in Yale College,一门关于法律中心理学的课程a course on psychology in law这门课打破了这里的所有记录which broke every record ever had here.他可以说是一位前无古人后无来者的And before that, during that, and after that, 具有传奇色彩的心理学导论老师he was a legendary introduction to psychology teacher.说他是传奇人物是有一定道理的 And I think--and he had some reason for why he was so legendary今天就欢迎他来为我们讲述爱情with his lecture today on the topic of love.非常感谢Thanks very much.好了吗Is that ok?好的 Okay.非常感谢布罗姆教授Thank you very much, professor Bloom.很高兴今天能来这里给大家做讲座It really is a pleasure to come and lecture to you today今天是情人节我们的主题是"爱"on Valentine's day on the topic of love.我的主要研究领域是人类情感My main area of research is human emotion.爱是一种情感 And love is an emotion.但我并不是针对个人进行研究It's not one that I study personally,至少不是在实验室里进行研究 at least not in the lab, and不过聊起来很有意思--but it is fun to talk about.这个主题也适用于理解And it is a topic that lends itself to许多社会心理学现象many social psychological phenomena.能来这里进行客座演讲也很棒It's also great to be able to come in and guest lecture.自从当了院长我很怀念的一件事One of the things I very much miss since serving as dean就是讲授心理学110课程is the opportunity to teach psychology 110.尽管我喜欢当院长And although I love being dean,但我真的很怀念讲授心理学导论课的日子I do miss teaching introductory psychology,怀念让人们接触到the feeling of exposing people to ideas他们从未听过的观点时的那种感觉that maybe you hadn't heard before.我估计这场讲座中要谈到的一些观点Well, I suspect some of the ideas in this talk 你们可能从未听说过 you'll have not heard before而由于种种原因and for a variety of reasons,大家在今天的讲座中要注意几点a couple of the things you'll notice is今天我谈到的一些实验that some of the experiments I'll talk about today现在已经不能再进行了are not the kinds of experiments that can be done anymore.这些实验在伦理上被认为是不可接受的They're not considered ethically acceptable但在五六十年代及七十年代早期都有进行but they were done in the fifties and sixties and early seventies因为当时伦理标准不同 when ethical standards were different因此我们可以讲授那些实验and so we can teach them.但我无法让你们像We just can't give you the same experiences当时那些大学生一样that some of the college students that进行同样的实验we'll talk about today in these studies had.我还要提到的一点就是The other thing I will mention is that许多有关浪漫爱情的心理学研究there is a certain androcentric and heterosexual quality都是以男性为中心且具有异性恋的特点to much of the social psychological research on romantic love.在实验中你们会看到这一点You'll see that in the experiments.通常被试为男性Usually, the participants are men and而女性往往是实验目标usually the targets are women in these experiments.我并不认为这是研究爱情的唯一方法I'm not endorsing this as the only way to study love.只不过恰巧这些实验都是这么做的It just happens to be the way these experimentswere done所以我在开始前提醒大家注意这点and so I mention this caution right from the beginning.我们必须思考We'll have to think about大家需要思考的一件事就是one of the things you should think about is你们认为这些实验能否推广到do you think these experiments generalized to 其他类型的二人关系之中呢other kinds of dyadic relationships.这个问题And that's a question that整场演讲中你都应该进行思考I think you can ask throughout this lecture.好的那我们开始吧Okay. So let's get started.首先我想And to start things off I think我们需要思考一个定义what we need to do is consider a definition.我将会给爱一个定义I'm going to define what love is不过接下来要谈到的大部分实验but then most of the experiments I'm going to talk about其实主要是关于吸引而不是爱are really focused more on attraction than love 两人互相感兴趣who finds each other of romantic interest进而可能会发展成一段恋爱关系that might then develop into a love relationship.不过我们还是从对爱的定义开始吧But let's start with a definition of love.我将采用一位前同事的定义And I'm going to pick a definition from a former colleague,罗伯特·斯滕伯格 Robert Sternberg,他现在是塔夫斯大学的院长who is now the dean at Tufts University不过他曾在耶鲁任教在心理学院这里but was here on our faculty at Yale教了将近三十年for nearly thirty years or so.他所提出的爱的理论认为And he has a theory of love that argues爱由三个成分组成that love is made of three components亲密激情与承诺intimacy, passion, and commitment,承诺有时也称决心或承诺or what is sometimes called decision/commitment.这个定义相对来说很直白And these are relatively straightforward.他认为如果你没有同时具备这三要素He argued that you don't have love你并没有体验到爱if you don't have all three of these elements.亲密就是亲近的感觉Intimacy is the feeling of closeness,与某人沟通相互结合of connectedness with someone, of bonding.从行为上说亲密就是你们分享秘密Operationally, you could think of intimacy as you share secrets,你只和这个人分享信息You share information with this person that而不和别人分享you don't share with anybody else.这就是亲密Okay. That's really what intimacy is,结合源于你们之间信息的分享the bond that comes from sharing information而这些秘密是你不会与他人所分享的that isn't shared with other with many other people.第二个因素是激情Second element is passion.激情的定义因人而异Passion is what you think it is.激情就是我们可以说是Passion is the--we would say把我们引向浪漫爱情的驱力the drive that leads to romance.你可以当它是生理吸引或者是性爱You can think of it as physical attraction or sex.斯滕伯格认为And Sternberg argues that这是恋爱关系中必不可少的一个因素this is a required component of a love relationship.当然在卡尔洪学院洗澡It is not, however, a required component可没必要非得有激情of taking a shower in Calhoun College.斯滕伯格的爱情理论中第三个因素是The third element of love in Sternberg's theory is他所说的决心或承诺what he calls decision or commitment.决心就是一个人处于一段恋爱关系中The decision that one is in a love relationship,愿意为这段关系贴上恋爱标签the willingness to label it as such,做出承诺来维持这段关系and a commitment to maintain that relationship至少持续一段时间at least for some period of time.斯滕伯格认为 Sternberg would argue如果你不称这种感情为爱情it's not love if you don't call it love,如果你没有保持这段关系的欲望and if you don't have some desire那这种感情就不是爱情to maintain the relationship.因此如果你具备了这三个因素So if you have all three of these,亲密激情和承诺 intimacy, passion and commitment,按斯滕伯格的理论你就有爱情了in Sternberg's theory you have love.该理论有趣的地方就在于Now what's interesting about the theory is如果你只有三要素中的一点what do you have if you only have one或只有两点又算什么呢out of three or two out of three?如果你具备三点中的两点What do you have那会是什么感情and how is it different又与爱情有什么不同if you have a different two out of three?这些就是这种理论These are--what's interesting about有趣之处就在于this kind of theorizing is it give它能形成许多不同的排列组合it gives rise to many different permutations that 当你把它们加以分类when you break them down and start to仔细研究就会很有意思look at them carefully can be quite interesting.我所做的就是采用So what I've done is I've taken斯滕伯格的爱的三要素Sternberg's three elements of love,即亲密激情和承诺intimacy, passion and commitment,然后列出当一个人完全没有and I've listed out the different kinds of relationships有一种两种或是三种因素时one would have if you had zero, one, two or three 可能拥有的各种不同的关系out of the three elements.我会使用斯滕伯格在他的理论中And I'm using names or types所使用的名称和类型that sternberg uses in his theory.这些的确是按照他所说的去讲 These are really from him.有些类型是显而易见的Some of these are pretty obvious.如果你没有亲密感没有激情If you don't have intimacy, if you don't have passion,没有承诺那你就没有爱情if you don't have commitment, you don't have love.斯滕伯格称之为无爱这是个术语Sternberg calls this non-love. That's the technical term.实际上他想说的是And essentially what he's saying现在你和坐在身边的人的关系is the relationship you now have to the person sitting next to you,假设你身边坐的是随便一个人presuming that you're sitting next to a random person不是你大学里认识的that you didn't know from your college,你们的关系可能就是"无爱"is probably non-love.如果还存在别的关系 If it's something else,我们可以在讲座结束时讨论一下we could talk about it at the end of the lecture 或者是一会我提到时再说or perhaps when I get to it in a moment.现在让我们加入一些要素 Now let's start to add elements.让我们加入亲密感Let's add intimacy.这是在分享秘密 This is sharing secrets,是种亲近感联系感结合感a feeling of closeness, connectedness, bonding.如果我们对某人拥有这种感情 Let's say we have that with someone但没有激情but we don't have passion,也就是说没有性唤起that is, no sexual arousal,也没有承诺要维持这段关系And no commitment to maintain the relationship.这就是喜欢斯滕伯格称之为喜欢This is liking. Sternberg calls it liking.大多数典型的友谊中And liking is really what is happening都有着这种感情in most typical friendships,这里指的不是密友 not your closest friendship而是普通朋友but friendships of a casual kind.你感到亲近你会和这个人分享一些You feel close, you share certain information with that person并不会和其他的许多人分享的信息that you don't share with other- many other people,但你并没有生理上的吸引but you're not physically attracted也没有想要长期维持这种关系and there's no particular commitment to maintaining this的某种承诺for a long period of time.如果你并未感受到亲密Now, what if you're not intimate,也没作出承诺you're not committed,但却充满激情你感到性唤起but you're passionate; you feel that sexual arousal.这就是斯滕伯格所称的"迷恋"This is what Sternberg would call infatuation.这个术语可能同样适用于你And that term probably works for you too,痴迷的爱也就是一见钟情infatuated love, and this is love at first sight."我不认识你"I don't know you,我们从未分享过任何秘密 We've never shared any secrets因为我们并不相识because I don't know you,我没有义务界定我们的关系I'm not committed to defining this as anything, 我对未来也没有承诺I'm not committed to the future.事实上我对未来连想都没想过In fact, I'm not thinking about the future.我想的只有当下 I'm thinking about right now可是我深深地被你吸引"but boy, am I attracted."是的这就是迷恋Right. That's infatuation and也就是斯滕伯格所说的"痴迷的爱"that's what Sternberg means by infatuated love.第三种只含单一要素的关系是The third kind of one-element relationship is 没有亲密感there's no intimacy, right,没有结合感没有亲密没有秘密no bonding, no closeness, no secrets,没有肉体吸引也没有性唤起no physical attraction, no sexual arousal,但天呐我们竟要维持这段关系but by gosh, we are going to maintain this relationship,我们要始终对此负责we are committed to it for all time.斯滕伯格称之为"空洞的爱"Sternberg calls that "empty love.""空洞的爱"挺有意思的empty love is kind of interesting.这通常是长期关系恶化的最终阶段It's often the final stage of long-term relationships that have gone bad."我们互不交流"We don't share information with each other anymore没了亲密感so there's no intimacy.我们对彼此不再有肉体上的吸引We don't feel physically attracted to each other anymore,没有了激情 there's no passion,但为了孩子我们最好还是在一起but we'd better stay together for the kids, right?或为了保存脸面我们最好还是在一起Or we've got to stay together for appearance's sake或者我们最好在一起or we'd better stay together否则经济状况就会出大麻烦"because financially it would be a disaster if we don't"等等各种亲密或者激情以外的原因or all of the reasons other than intimacy and passion都可以使人们对对方作出承诺that people might commit to each other.这就是斯滕伯格所称的"空洞的爱"That's what Sternberg calls empty love.有趣的是Now what's interesting is在婚姻包办的社会里in societies where marriages are arranged这种状况往往是恋爱关系的第一阶段this is often the first stage of a love relationship.这两个人可能从未谋面These two people who have maybe never seen each other before,从未分享过秘密因此并无亲密感可言who have never shared secrets so there's nointimacy,他们从来他们并不知道who have never--don't know是否会被彼此的身体吸引if they're physically attracted to each other到了婚礼当天他们才见面and on their wedding day revealed to each other并彼此根据法律作出承诺and committed legally有时这种承诺还带有宗教色彩and sometimes religiously to each other.对吧于是双方有了承诺Right? The commitment is there但除此之外还什么都没有But at that moment nothing else might be there.当然有趣的是What's interesting of course is that这类关系的离婚率such relationships don't seem to have any greater chance of ending in divorce并不比因爱情而结婚的人离婚率更高than people who marry for love.但这有一点混淆视听But there's a big confound,对这类关系进行的研究中有一个大问题there's a big problem in studies of those kind of relationships.是什么问题呢有人回答吗What might it be? Anybody.所述情况可能会有什么问题呢What might be the problem in the statement我刚说过这种关系I just made that these kind of relationships和因爱情而结合的婚姻一样are just as likely to survive都能维持下去as people who marry for love?请讲Yes.对了这种情况可能会发生在Yeah. So they may occur;包办婚姻更可能会发生在they're more likely to occur in societies不赞成离婚的社会里that frown on divorce.这些社会中离婚的社会成本很高 They make it very costly, socially costly, to divorce,所以人们会出于种种原因在一起so then they stay together for all kinds of reasons,但不总是什么好的原因not always such good ones.好的 "三选二也不坏"是谁唱的呢All right. Now who was it who sang the song "Two Out of Three Ain't Bad"?是"肉块"吗 [美国摇滚音乐人]Was that Meat Loaf?是谁就是"肉块"Who was it? It was Meat Loaf.好的布朗教授说是"肉块"All right. Professor Bloom says it was Meat Loaf.那就是"肉块"了It was Meat Loaf.你们都说 "有歌手叫'肉块'吗"You're all saying, "there was a singer called Meat Loaf?""肉块"唱的"三选二也不坏"Meat Loaf sang the song "Two Out of Three Ain't Bad."让我们看看三选二Let's see是不是真的还不坏if two out of three ain't bad.如果你有亲密感What if you have intimacy,"我们分享秘密 "we share secrets,充满激情彼此吸引passion, we feel physically attracted to each other,但我们并不会相互承诺"but we're not making any commitments here."斯滕伯格称之为"浪漫式爱情"Sternberg calls that "romantic love."这种关系有着肉体吸引 This is physical attraction紧密联系却没有承诺with close bonding but no commitment,罗密欧和朱丽叶初次相见时就是如此Romeo and Juliet when they first met.一段恋爱关系开始时都类似于这样This is all familiar when relationship starts."我们彼此喜欢被对方的身体吸引"We like each other, I'm physically attracted to each other,我喜欢和你在一起的时光I--to you, I enjoy spending time with you但我不会做出任何长期承诺but I'm not making any long-term commitments.因此我甚至不愿意用'爱'这个词来描述So I'm not even willing to use the 'L' word in describing我们之间的关系" 对吗what it is we have." Right?你们中可能有不少人都经历过这种关系Many of you might have been in relationships of this sort.这就是浪漫浪漫式爱情That's romance. That's romantic love.如果你们之间有亲密感Now, what if you have intimacy,"我们彼此分享秘密"We share secrets with each other,但肉体上没有什么特别的吸引but there's no particular physical attraction 不过我们都对这段关系都有承诺but we are really committed to this relationship."斯滕伯格称这种关系为"友谊之爱"This is what Sternberg calls "companionate love."这就是密友之间的关系This is your best friend."我们承诺彼此坦诚"We are committed to sharing intimacy,承诺永远做朋友"to being friends forever,"但是这里不含肉体吸引But physical attraction is not part of the equation here.这种关系在某种程度上可能是This is sort of the--maybe古希腊对某种恋爱关系的理想型the Greek ideal in relationships of some kind.好的如果我们有激情All right. What if we have passion,"你对我有性吸引力" "I'm sexually attracted to you,"但我们并不亲密but no intimacy."我不怎么想了解你"I don't want to really know that much about you,也不怎么想让你知道我的事情I don't want to really share anything of me with you, 不过我一心想要but I am committed to maintaining保持我们之间肉体上的相互吸引this physical attraction to you"这种感觉被斯滕伯格称为"愚昧的爱"Well, that's what Sternberg calls "fatuous love."这种求爱就如旋风一般 It's a whirlwind courtship.仿佛好莱坞电影里的浪漫情节It's a Hollywood romance.这可能会导致一场闪婚It might lead to a shotgun wedding.也许你会发现自己在拉斯维加斯Maybe you find yourself in Las Vegas结婚了一天半and you get married for a day然后意识到这并不是个好主意and a half and then realize that this wasn't such a good idea.也许你叫布兰妮你是个歌手And maybe your name is Britney and you're a singer.不管怎么说你们懂的 Well, anyway, you've got the idea.这就是"愚昧的爱"That's fatuous love."可以说我们只在性方面互相承诺""We are basically committed to each other for sex"但这种关系很难持久but it's very hard to make those relationships last a long time因为我们可能毫无共同点because we might not have anything in common,我们可能什么也不交流we might not share anything with each other,我们可能互不信任we might not trust each other,彼此之间也没有特殊的联系we are not particularly bonded to each other.另一方面如果你三要素兼备On the other hand, if you have all three,亲密激情和承诺都有intimacy, passion, commitment,这就是斯滕伯格所称的"完整的爱"This is "consummate love" according to Sternberg.是一种完整的爱Complete love.这就是斯滕伯格对爱的定义This is how he defines love.好了现在你们知道了爱的定义Okay. So now you have a definition of love and you can now,我们的家庭作业就是今晚坐下来as a homework assignment, sit down tonight 列张单子写上所有你认识的人and make a list of every person you know再写上爱的三要素by the three elements of love在表格的小格子里打钩and just start putting the check marks in the boxes 再计算你个人与别人之间的爱的分数and tallying up your personal love box score.这作业不用上交And we don't want to collect those.也不检查不过这个作业很有趣We don't even want to see those but you can have fun with that.你还可以让别人做Then you can ask the other people to do it too相互比较and you can compare with each other.如果你能通过这个练习 And if you all survive this exercise你就会因此变得更好you'll be better for it.是那些未能将你杀死的事物使你变得更强What doesn't kill you makes you stronger.这就是练习背后的意义That's the idea behind that exercise.好的如今社会心理学对"爱"的研究All right. Now the social psychology of love really实际上已经成了对"吸引"的研究has been a social psychology of attraction.是什么让人们感到彼此吸引呢What makes people find each other attractive?什么让人们想要亲近What makes them want to be intimate?什么让人们会对彼此有身体欲求What makes them physically desirable to each other?什么可能会导致承诺What might lead to a commitment,作出承诺的决定让一段关系持续下去a decision to make a commitment to make the relationship last?真是太好了This is just so nice.我的讲座主题是"爱"I'm giving this lecture on love而你们俩坐在前排手拉着手and the two of you are holding hands here in the front row.真是而且It's really-- and--三要素兼备吗亲密感激情All three elements present, intimacy, passion, and...嗯好啦好的 Yeah. Okay. Good.只是检测一下啦 Just checking.好的Okay.有趣的是在社会心理学中的"吸引"So what's interesting about the social psychology of attraction会关注七个变量is it has focused on seven variables.我把它们分为两组And I've divided these into two groups,三大变量和另外四个更有趣的变量the big three and the more interesting four.我所指的"三大变量" And I call them the big--the big three are是指这三个非常有影响力的变量three variables that the effects are so powerful that几乎没必要详细讨论they almost don't need to be discussed in much detail.而更有趣的四点变量才是The more interesting four are我这次讲座要重点讨论的 the ones I'm going to focus on in this lecture 因为它们更为微妙because they're a bit more subtle而且你们可能闻所未闻and they may be things that you've never heard of before.但我们先大致说一下三大要素But let's quickly talk about the big three.要理解三大要素The way to understand the big three is就要理解"一切其他条件同等的情况下"with the phrase "all other things being equal.在"一切其他条件同等的情况下""all other things being equal,"人们发现自己与空间距离较近的人people who find themselves in close spatial proximity to each other,例如在参加讲座时共用一个椅子扶手的人like sharing an armrest in a lecture, 更容易相互吸引will be more likely to be attracted to each other也更容易发展为恋爱关系and form a romantic relationship.这是在"一切其他条件同等的情况下"Okay, all other things being equal.这一点已经通过许多有趣的方法得到证明Now this has been tested in lots of interesting ways.在纽约市曾进行过一些研究Studies have been done in the City of New York 如果你生活在曼哈顿where you can if you live in Manhattan你就能很好地了解到you can actually get a very nice metric of在城区里人们住所间的相对距离how far apart people live from each other in city blocks.对吧你可以使用一个网格图Right? You have a nice grid pattern还可以用一个城市街区的度量表and you can use a city block metric计算每个人的住所相隔多远to add up the number of blocks between people's doors.住得更近的人And people who live more closely together are更容易形成恋爱关系more likely to end up in romantic relationships with each other.这似乎很明显对吧It seems kind of obvious. Right?大学校园里情况也一样This even works on college campuses.我们可以按英尺计算你的宿舍We can measure in feet the distance between the door to your room离校园里任何一个同学宿舍的距离and the door to every other room of a student on campus这种可能性之间会有相关性and there will be a correlation between the likelihood of这是一种负相关 It's a negative correlation即和一个人发展为恋爱关系的可能性--the likelihood of getting into与你和此人的房间距离a romantic relationship with a person and the number of feet之间的相关性between your door and that person's door.离得远近越有可能发展为恋爱关系The fewer feet, the more likely a romantic relationship,一切其他条件同等的情况下All other things being equal."一切其他条件同等的情况下"Now, all other things being equal是个很强的限制is a big qualifier.是吧不过如果我们能在统计上Right? But if we could statistically控制每个其他变量control for every other variable,那我所要做的All I'd need to do is measure the distance就是测量你的房间from your door to到学校里其他人房间的距离everybody else's door on campus,然后我就能在图表上标出and I could chart out who's going to fall in love with 耶鲁大学校园内谁会爱上谁whom on the Yale campus.但这个想法有点儿Now, this idea in a way is我也不知道I don't know.也许有点儿违反直觉Maybe it's a little counterintuitive.有一种关于陌生人的文化传说认为There is a kind of cultural myth around the stranger,你不认识的人the person you don't know,才是你会爱上的人who you will, who you fall in love with.在身边的人And that is not likely to be the case反而不太可能有感觉if it's the person who is nearby.对吗 Right?你会发现随着我们了解到另一个And you'll see as we go through the other big "三大要素"中的另外两点the other two "big three" that这个主题有些重复there is a kind of repetition of this theme.你爱上的并不是陌生人It isn't the stranger you fall in love with.好的我们继续说说相同点 All right. Let's continue down. Similarity.你可能听过这句话You've probably heard the phrase"物以类聚人以群分""birds of a feather flock together"在爱情上的确就是这样And that's true when it comes to romance.无论心理学家们在此类实验中On any dimension that psychologists所测量的是哪个维度have measured in these kinds of studies,当人们更为相似时when people are more similar,会觉得更受彼此吸引they are more likely to find each other attractive.可能是一些明显的因素相似This could be obvious things例如身高或是年龄like height or age但也可能是别的诸如对于死刑的看法but it also could be things like attitudes toward capital punishment,更喜欢红袜队而非洋基队 [棒球队]preference for the Red Sox over the Yankees.对吧这些都是相似性的维度Right? All of these are dimensions of similarity.一切其他条件同等的情况下越是相似All things being equal, the more similar 越容易彼此吸引the more likely you'll find each other attractive.所以说相异不一定相吸So, opposites don't really attract.人可能会以类聚Birds of a feather may flock together但不同的人其实并不相互吸引but opposites don't really attract each other.一般我说到这里的时候Now, usually at this point讲堂里都会有人举手说somebody in the lecture hall raises their hand and says, "我男朋友或女朋友和我"Well, my boyfriend or my girlfriend and I是完全不同的两种人"are complete opposites萨洛维教授你又怎么解释呢And how do you account for that, professor Salovey?"我通常会看着他们说"祝你们好运"And I usually look at them and I say, "good luck."当然所有其他条件可能并不相同And of course all things might not be equal.可能会有其他的变量在起作用There may be other variables at play but,但是一切其他条件同等的情况下all things being equal,相似性不会产生蔑视 similarity does not breed contempt.相似使人互相吸引Similarity breeds attraction.对吗这不是很有意思吗 Okay? Isn't it interesting?我们有许多俗谚相互矛盾 We have all of these common sayings that contradict each other然而通过实证发现and then empirically,比起其他谚语some of them turn out to have more有些谚语证据更为充分evidence supporting them than others.没证据显示"相异者相吸"So "opposites attract?" not much evidence.没证据显示"相似性产生蔑视""Similarity breeds contempt?" not much evidence."物以类聚人以群分"呢"Birds of a feather flock together?"对这个谚语是有些证据的Yeah, there's some evidence for that anyway.最后一点是熟悉程度 Finally, familiarity.熟悉程度是指Familiarity--我们往往会爱上在我们周围We tend to fall in love with people in our environment with已经熟悉的人whom we are already familiar.那种"在迷人夜晚与陌生人邂逅"的想法The idea that some enchanted evening we。

回顾一下上节课我们讲到这Just to review, here's where we left off.上节课和这节课的一半The discussion from last lecture and for about half of this lecture都将讨论社会心理学is going to be social psychology.我们首先谈论了某些基本偏见And so, we started off by talking about certain fundamental biases关于我们如何看待自己然后我们转向讨论in how we see ourselves. We then turned to talk about a bias如何看待他人的偏见都是基本归因错误and how we see other people, the fundamental attribution error.现在我们谈论一些And now we're talking a little bit about some aspects of我们如何看待他人的问题how we see other people.我们上次课快速地讲了我们喜欢他人的几个因素So, we quickly talked about certain aspects of why we like other people包括邻近性相似性吸引力including proximity, similarity, and attractiveness,上次课讲到马太效应and where we left off was a discussion of the Matthew effect,就是一般好的事物会趋向于更好which is basically that good things tend to compound.如果你有钱你会得到更好的教育If you're rich you'll get a better education,如果你很聪明别人会更喜欢你如果你很有吸引力等等if you're smart people will like you more, if you're attractive and so on.现在不要交论文Nobody bring up their papers at this point.下课会有人来收They'll collect them at the end of class.我要说的是What I want to talk to--好吧你除外就到此为止Okay, except for you. Just ending it now.看来我要让教学助理I'm going to ask the teaching fellows to阻止任何人接近这区域才行stop anybody from approaching that area.我想先开始讨论印象形成I want to begin by talking about impression formation,我们是如何对他人产生印象的how we form impressions of others,告诉你们一些关于印象形成的有趣事情and tell you a couple of interesting things about impression formation.首先第一印象非常重要The first one is, first impressions matter a lot.因为不同原因而重要They matter a lot for different reasons.他们很重要可能因为人类有They might matter a lot because humans have,一般来说都有证实偏差in general, a confirmation bias such that比如一旦你相信某样事物once you believe something other information其他与喜欢相关的信息就会被编码来支持你所相信的is then encoded along the likes to support what you believe.凯利进行了一个经典实验So, the classic study here was done by Kelley当一位演讲嘉宾进来的时候一些学生收到的简介是描述嘉宾where a guest speaker comes in and some of the students received a bio很热情的其他人describing the speaker as very warm, the other as--迟到的同学现在不要交你的论文do not bring your paper up if you're coming in late.下课再交Just--at the end of class, yeah.另一些人拿到的个人简介是谢谢艾里克Others got a bio saying--thanks, erik--简介是说嘉宾相当冷酷后来结果表明the speaker was rather cold and then it turned out later on当学生们被问到对嘉宾的印象时when they're asked for their impressions of the speaker他们很大程度地受第一印象的影响people are very much biased by what they first assumed.如果我被描述成一个活泼富有创意的人If I'm described to you as a vivacious and creative person当你看到我浑身是劲跳来跳去时and you see me and I'm all kind of bouncing around and everything,你就会加强对我的第一印象"他真是活泼可爱头脑灵活啊"you could then confirm this as, "Look how vivacious and creative he is."如果我被描述成整天泡在酒缸里If I'm described as somebody who drinks too much,你可能会想他是个酒鬼you might think he's an alcoholic.如果我被描述成一个紧张不安的人If he's described as somebody who's insecure and nervous, 你会把我的活动理解成是紧张抽搐you could interpret my activity as nervous twitches.第一印象给你设置了一个框架通过框架去理解其他事情Your first impression sets a framework from which you interpret everything else.这是一部出色电影的主题This was the theme of an excellent movie就是彼得·塞勒斯主演的《妙人奇迹》called Being There starring Peter Sellers.这部讽刺喜剧《妙人奇迹》的主角And the running joke of the movie "Being There" was that the main character,仓西·加德纳the character Chauncey Gardner,意外地被认为是一名天才somehow through accident had the reputation for being a genius but while,但实际上他是个轻度智障他会四处走动in reality, he was actually mildly retarded. But he would go around and人们就会问他一些政治上的看法他就会说些类似people would ask him his opinions on politics and he would say things like"我喜欢呆在花园里"的话因为他天才的盛名"Well, I like being in the garden." and because of his reputation as a genius人们就会说"真是深奥我想知道他是什么意思"people said, "Wow. That's very profound. I wonder what he means."人们就会说"真是深奥我想知道他是什么意思"And--or people would talk to him and he'd just stare at them and say--人们就会被他冒失鲁莽地盯着看吓到and people would say--would be intimidated by his bold and impetuous stare而实际上他完全不知道发生什么事when actually he just totally didn't know anything.所以第一印象能塑造后续印象So, first impressions can shape subsequent impressions而不仅仅塑造当下的印象不久前有个狙击手not just when dealing with people. A little while ago there was a sniper,实际上是一对狙击手在华盛顿杀人actually a pair of snipers killing people in Washington有一件大家都知道的事情是犯人开了一辆白色小货车and the one thing everybody knew about it was there was a white van involved.后来发现根本就没有白色小货车It turned out there was no white van at all但第一件案子里有人看到白色小货车but in the first incident somebody saw a white van,新闻媒体都大肆报道this was reported in all the newspapers,然后其他同类案件中人们都开始看到白色小货车then every other incident people startedseeing the white van.于是他们开始寻找白色小货车开始注意它们So, they started looking for them and they started to attending--attend to them.因此第一印象在人际交往中非常重要So, first impressions matter hugely when dealing with people因为它为我们如何理解事物奠定了基础because it sets the stage for how we interpret everything else.第二个发现就是A second finding building on the first is that我们的印象形成非常迅速we form impressions very fast, very quickly,这里有个文献资料叫《片刻解读》and this is a literature known as "Thin slices."观点是我们形成对他人的印象The idea is you don't have to see much of a person并不需要观察很久对此最早的研究to get an impression of what they are. The first studies done on this其实是针对教师和大学教授们were actually done on teachers, on university professors.大学教授有教学评估So, university professors have teaching evaluations可以利用这方法来粗略评估and you could use this as a rough and ready approximation of学生们对教授的看法what students think of them.接下来你们要做的就是两位社会学家So, what you do then is--the question that these people were interested in,罗森塔尔和安巴蒂感兴趣的问题是Rosenthal and Ambady, two social psychologists,就是需要观察教授多久时间were how long do you have to look at a professor才能猜测出教授的受欢迎程度to guess how popular a teacher he is?他们给学生看了一整节课的剪辑录像So, they showed these clips for a full class.你们需要看一整节课吗Do you have to see them for a full class?你们需要看两节课吗Do you have to see them for two classes?还是需要看半个小时呢Do you have to see them for a half hour?你需要在他周围观察多久How long do you have to be around a person to see him,才能评价讲课人呢答案是五秒钟to estimate how good a lecturer that person is? And the answer is five seconds.看剪辑录像五秒钟后人们就能很好地预料到So, after clips of five seconds people are pretty good at predicting演讲者的某种评价还记得大五人格模型吗what sort of evaluations that person will have. Remember "The Big Five,"我们如何用大五人格模型来评价他人你们都有室友how we evaluate people on "The Big Five?" well, you have a roommate你们可以用大五人格模型来评价你的室友and your roommate you could evaluate on "The Big Five."你们曾经和他或她有很多的经历你需要多少时间You've had a lot of experience with him or her. How much time do you need来评估他们人格的五个维度呢to evaluate somebody on the five dimensions of personality?再次强调答案是根本不需要很多时间在很简短的接触后The answer is, again, not much time at all. After very brief exposures to people,人们就可以非常准确地运用大五人格模型来评价他们people are very accurate at identifying them on "The Big Five."另一个更惊奇的发现是One of the more surprising findings is--关于性取向或同性恋雷达这不是一个科学术语concerns sexual orientation or "Gaydar." that's not a scientific term这两位心理学家很有兴趣研究but the same psychologists were interested in studying你能多快需要多久how quickly you can--if at all how long does it take to能看出某个人的性取向他们所做的是figure out somebody's sexual orientation? Now, what they did was--他们都是聪明的心理学家他们设计了一个研究实验they were clever psychologists so they set it up in a study研究中被试并不知道性取向是研究的问题where the people did not know sexual orientation was at issue.例如他们可能像你们这样填一张表格So, for instance, they may be people like you who filled in a form,在非常长的问卷中只有一题是问你性取向的one question along a very long form was your sexual orientation,然后你就坐下来接受访谈and then you're sitting down being interviewed by somebody访谈过程都被拍了下来然后拿给其他人看and your interview is being filmed, and then other people are shown--给那些不认识你的人看录像研究表明who don't know you are shown the film. And the finding is that人们片刻就能较准确地判断出性取向people based on thin slices are quite good at detecting sexual orientation.每个人都很擅长同性恋者做得比异性恋者更好Everybody's good at it, gay people are better at it than straight people,再次说明你不需要太多的时间你仅需要约一秒钟and, again, you don't need much time. You just need about a second.你用一秒钟去观察某个人你就能做出猜测You see somebody for about a second, you could make a guess.但并不总是对的其实你只是比乱猜好一些You're far from always right. In fact, you're just a bit better than chance但在判断性取向时比乱猜要好but you are better than chance at telling sexual orientation.综合这两方面So, these two facts taken together,片刻解读和第一印象thin slices and the power of first impressions,意味着仅仅短暂接触某个人means that just by a brief exposure to somebody就能决定你将来对他们的看法it shapes so much of how you're going to think about them in the future.现在我们从另一个方向来看这问题Now, we can look at this from the other direction.我们谈论对他人的看法We're talking about the perceptions of other people,我们如何理解他人但社会心理学家同样感兴趣的是how we perceive other people, but social psychologists are also interested in当我们对他人产生特定看法时the question of what happens to other people他人会有什么反应因此一个问题是as a result of being perceived in a certain way. So, one question is,"是什么影响着我认为他人是聪明或愚蠢的"What would cause me to perceive somebody asintelligent or stupid,同性恋或是异性恋焦虑或是冷静的"gay or straight, anxious or level-headed?"第二个问题是"当受到这种方式的评价后会有什么影响"A second question is, "What are the effects of being judged that way?"心理学家创造了一个术语关于自我实现预言And psychologists have coined a term, talk about self-fulfilling prophesies,更确切地说这就是众所周知的"皮格马利翁效应"and the claim here more specifically is what's known as "The Pygmalion effect."皮格马利翁效应就是如果我相信你有某种特点And the Pygmalion effect is if I believe you have a certain characteristic这可能会使你表现得好像你就有这个特点this might cause you to behave as if you have that characteristic.这名字出自一部戏剧萧伯纳的皮格马利翁The name comes from the play by George Bernard Shaw Pygmalion,引用里面的一句话"淑女和卖花女之间的区别and the quote here is "The difference between a lady and a flower girl不是她的举止而是她受到的对待is not how she behaves but how she's treated.我在希金斯教授前总是卖花女I shall always be a flower girl to Professor Higgins因为他总是把我当卖花女来看待一直这样"because he always treats me as a flower girl and always will,"改编成为一部广为人知的电影《窈窕淑女》但我觉得同样的主题made into a better known movie, my Fair Lady. But I think that the same theme有一个更好的电影当例子《尼基塔女郎》is better exemplified in a far better movie, La Femme Nikita,当一名冷血杀手受到尊重和爱戴时where a cold-blooded killer is treated with respect and affection她变得更温和平易近人and then she becomes a much more warm and accessible person,即使她还是杀了很多人但它仍然很好地阐明这个效应and then she kills a lot of people but that-- but still it illustrates the point.这一效应被大量实验论证And this point has tons of empirical validity.罗森塔尔和杰克逊设计的经典实验中The classic experiment was by Rosenthal and Jackson他们告诉老师们一些学生非常聪明where they told teachers that some of their kids were really smart但另一些学生就不是那么的聪明and other kids were less-- were not really smart,不要期待他们在智商上会得到大幅提升they weren't expected to show a huge jump or spurt in their IQ,这个当然是瞎掰的这些孩子是随机抽样的and this was of course trickery. The children were chosen at random但那些被说成非常聪明的孩子but the children who were described as showing--预期在智商上会得到提升的孩子他们的智商真的提高了as expected to show a jump in IQ, in fact, did show a jump in their IQ scores这不是魔法一般来说如果有人告诉我你是个天才and this isn't magic. It's basically--if I am told that you're a genius你将在这堂课里才华横溢and your genius is about to be in full-flower throughout this class这个班本来人就不多我会更多地关注你and it's a small class as these classes were, i'll focus more on you,更加地注意你如果有人告诉我"这学生不行"I'll give you more of my attention. If I'm told "Not so much for you,"你就会被我无视you'll suffer relative to him.皮格马利翁效应说明我们期望的影响有多大And so the Pygmalion effect shows how our expectations can really matter.这引出了最后关于期望的问题以及我们如何去评价一个人This brings us to the final-- the issue of expectations and how we judge people这不仅在个体中存在is a story that could be told about individuals还在群体中存在but it's also a story that could be told about groups.我想以社会心理学中群体讨论And this is where I want to end this section on social psychology 作为本次课的结尾by talking about groups.很多社会心理学家都关注着一个问题 A lot of social psychology is concerned with the question of我们是如何看待人类群体的how we think about human groups我们已经在道德那节课上谈论过and we've already discussed this in the lecture on morality when we talked about人类动力促使我们去思考术语"我们"和"他们"的区别the human dynamic pushing us to think in terms of "Us" Versus "Them"罗伯斯山洞实验中说明过这一点as shown in the Robber's Cave study塔杰菲尔的最小群体实验同样体现这一点and also shown in the minimal group research by Tajfel从动机和情感上的立场来看showing that from a motivational, emotional standpoint我们不难区别"我的团体"和"你的团体"it's not difficult for us to think in terms of "My group" Versus "Your group."这种思维方式确实有影响到And this way of thinking has real consequences我们的感情生活情感生活for our emotional life, our affective life,影响到我们在分配资源上的抉择但是这里我想讨论and how we choose to distribute resources. What I want to talk about here though我们对人类群体看法的不同方面is a different aspect of how we think about human groups.我要讲下刻板印象I want to talk a little bit about stereotypes.现代英语里"刻板印象"通常是个贬义词Now, "Stereotypes" In English often just is a bad word.有刻板印象说明你有些问题To have a stereotype is to be-- is to have something wrong with you. 你会觉得有刻板印象不是件好事You might say it's not good to have stereotypes.心理学家倾向于把这词使用在更广泛意义上Psychologists tend to use the term in a broader sense.我们倾向于将这个词用在关于典型性的We tend to use the term to refer to information we have about categories分类和直觉上and intuitions we have about the typicality,我们经常认为的特定类别的特征our frequency of certain features of categories.我们发现收集类别的信息And it turns out that collecting information about categories对我们的生存至关重要我们每时每刻都接触新鲜事物is essential to our survival. We see novelthings all the time and如果我们不能学习和推测if we were not capable of learning and making guesses,对这些新事物做出可靠的猜测我们就不能生存下去educated guesses, about these novel things we would not be able to survive.当你在这里看到这个物体你把它归类为一张椅子So, when you see this object over here you categorize it as a chair然后你认识到你应该可以坐上去and you recognize that you could probably sit on it.这苹果大概可以吃的那条狗可能会吠有尾巴会咬我This apple is probably edible, this dog probably barks and has a tail and eat me咬我且不会说英文的eats me and doesn't speak English.这些都是我们对椅子苹果和狗的刻板印象These are all stereotypes about chairs and about apples and about dogs.这在逻辑上并不一定是正确的也许是条吃素的狗It doesn't mean they're logically true. This could be a vegetarian dog,有毒的苹果会爆炸的椅子但它们通常是正确的a poison apple, an explosive chair, but they're typically true.如果你突然失去归纳的能力And if you were suddenly stripped of your ability to make generalizations,你会不知所措你不知道吃什么不知道怎么与人交往you'd be at a loss. You wouldn't know what to eat, how to interact.所以记录信息和归纳能力So, some sort of ability to record information and make generalizations在我们生活中必不可少is absolutely essential to making it through life.有趣的是我们也会对人类进行归类What's interesting though is we also categorize types of people.我们有各种刻板印象男人女人So, we have stereotypes in our heads about men and women,儿童青少年成人白人黑人亚洲人等等about children, adolescents or adults, whites, blacks, Asians and so on.但刻板印象不都是坏事情下面有两个原因Now, this is not essentially a bad thing for a couple of reasons.第一有些刻板印象是积极的First, some of these stereotypes are positive.你可能对某些群体有积极的刻板印象You might have positive stereotypes about certain groups. 你可能会认为某些群体比较有创造力或是聪明You might believe some groups are unusually creative or intelligent.你可能对自己的群体有特别积极的刻板印象You might have a particularly positive stereotype about your own group即使你的群体是耶鲁学生或是来自法国的人even if your own group is Yale students or your own group is people from France或是某某大学的人or your own group is people from such and so college.你会有积极的刻板印象更重要的是You might have positive stereotypes. More importantly,我们对群体的刻板印象的方式we collect stereotypes about groups of people和我们对物品归类的刻板印象through much the same way we collect stereotypes about categories如椅子苹果和狗的方式是相同的刻板印象大多是准确的like chairs and apples and dogs. Andso they're pretty often accurate.有些实验中问到人们谁更有可能成为一名律师When there are studies which ask people who is more likely to be a lawyer,犹太人还是西班牙人呢谁可能更高点someone who's Jewish or someone who is Hispanic, who is likely to be taller,日本人还是瑞典人呢人们可以回答这些问题somebody from Japan or somebody from Sweden, people can answer these things.他们的刻板印象影响着他们的回答They have their stereotypes that guide their answers,而这些回答都不是任意或随机的and the answers are not arbitrary or random.他们的回答通常都是正确的刻板印象通常可以让我们Their answers are often correct and often possessing stereotypes lets us更合理更正确地概括归纳这个世界make reasonable and correct generalizations about the world.这对刻板印象来说是个好消息不过也有坏消息That's the sort of good news about stereotypes but there's also bad news.其中一个问题就是它们并非总是准确的One problem is that they're not always accurate这里有两个因素导致它们容易犯错and there's a couple of factors that could lead them away from accuracy.其中一个就是我们之前谈论的第一印象One is what we talked about before regarding first impressions,就是一种证实偏差which is a confirmation bias.如果你认为同性恋者都是女人气的男同志都是女人气的If you believe that homosexuals are effeminate, that gay men are effeminate,这就会影响到你以后对同性恋者的看法then this is going to shape how you see future gay men. 如果你看到一个娘娘腔的男同性恋者你可能会说If you see an effeminate gay man, you'll probably say,"证明我理论的又一实例" 如果你看到一个不怎么娘娘腔的"Ah, more evidence for my theory." if you see a man who is not effeminate,你可能会无视他或者觉得这家伙同性恋得不够彻底you might ignore it or say maybe he's not really gay after all.如果你认为黑人都是犯罪分子If you believe black men are criminals,当你看到一个黑人罪犯时你会把他列为支持证据then when you see a black man who is a criminal you'll chalk it down as support但你很少注意白人罪犯but you'll pay less attention to evidence that white men are criminals还有某些不是罪犯的黑人and some black men are not criminals.你不会用科学客观地去审视得到的数据You won't look at this as a scientist objectively scanning data.相反地你会带偏见看问题Rather, you'll be biased in certain ways.你会偏向于注重那些能够证明你理论的案例上You'll be biased to put extra weight on the cases that support your theory而忽略那些相反的案例此外我们的数据并不总是可靠的and diminish cases that refute it. Furthermore, our data is not always reliable.所以这就是刻板印象的一个例子So-- oh, and this is actually an example of this at work.在古典音乐界里有刻板印象It turns out in the world of classical music there's a stereotype of那就是女性不如男性精通音乐她们演奏水平不如男性women being simply less proficient than men: they play smaller than men,她们不够有力量技术更弱they don't have the same force and they have smaller techniques,她们容易喜怒无常等等they're more temperamental and so on.如果你问一个评审人评审人就会说If you asked somebody who was a judge, the judge would say,"看事实就是这样我根本就没对她们有成见""Look. This is just the way things are. I'm not being biased at all."匿名试听的测试就是The test of this then is to have blind auditions让人们在屏幕背后试听演奏where people do their auditions behind a screen这样你就不知道演奏者是男还是女so you can't tell whether they're man or a woman,是白人还是黑人甚至是亚洲人或其他什么的or for that matter, white or black or Asian or whatever.结果显示这样女性更多被雇佣说明It turns out when you do that women get hired far more suggesting第一刻板印象是不正确的that the stereotype is a, incorrect第二对人们的雇佣有消极和不公平的影响and B, has a real negative and unfair effect on people getting hired.刻板印象的第二个问题就是我刚刚讲过的\NA second problem is –what I was talking about immediately before this –我们接受到的一些信息具有误导性is some of our data are misleading我们从媒体上获得大量关于这世界的信息so we get a lot of the information about the world from the media.媒体包括电视电影The media would include television and movies也包括戏剧书籍和故事but would also include plays and books and stories.某种程度媒体描述了And to the extent these portray一个对世界不切实际或不公平或带偏见的看法an unrealistic or unfair or biased perception of the world我们构建的刻板印象忠于我们所获得的信息we could construct stereotypes that are faithful to the data we're getting但这信息没有代表性but the data is not representative.比如人们And so people, for instance,反感意大利裔美国人在电视上露面object to the fact that when there's Italian Americans on TV 认为他们通常是黑道家族的成员they're often members of the Sopranos, a mobster family.纵观历史犹太人一直很苦恼Throughout history Jews have been upset《威尼斯商人》里对夏洛克的描述里他不是个好人at the portrayal of Shylock in "Merchant of Venice," not a very nice guy.相应的那些想培养积极观点的人And often in response people who want to foster more positive views会尝试会把其他群体的代表加入进来will often try to-- will often put in representatives from other groups以独特的方式来达到目的in unusual ways to make that point.这里有谁看过电视剧《银河战星》的Anybody here ever see the television show Battlestar Galactica?好的他是谁《银河战星》的主角Okay. Who's that? He's the star of "Battlestar Galactica."你们不知道是因为你们太年轻了在原版的《银河战星》You don't know because you're too young. In the original "Battlestar"--我讨厌你们在原版的《银河战星》中他是个主角and I hate you. In the original "Battlestar Galactica," This was the star.这个主角叫星巴克This was the main character known as "Starbuck,"在最新版里改变成一个女人了who got transformed into a woman in the more recent one,一个关于描述如何有趣的改变的例子 a sort of example of how portrayals are shifting in interesting ways.当然刻板印象上还有道德问题There's also, of course, moral problems over stereotypes.基于刻板印象去评价椅子苹果和狗是可以的So, it's fine to judge chairs and apples and dogs based on the stereotypes.甚至评价狗的品种也是可以的It's even fine to judge breeds of dogs.如果我告诉你我要买条灵缇犬而不要比特犬If I told you that I decided to buy a greyhound instead of a pit bull因为我想要条性情温顺的狗because I wanted a dog of a gentle temperament,没人会尖叫着说我是个狗种族歧视者nobody would scream that I'm a dog racist involving--说实话这就是一个刻板印象and--but honestly, it's a stereotype.人们认为灵缇犬比比特犬温顺得多Greyhounds are supposed to be more passive and gentle than pit bulls.我认为这是一个正确的刻板印象但它仍然还是刻板印象I think it's a true stereotype but it's a stereotype nonetheless.针对狗品种的刻板印象是没有问题的But we have no problems when it comes to things like breeds of dogs一旦我们用于评价人们时就是有严重问题了with stereotypes. We have serious problems judging people this way.例如这是个道德原则我们中的一些人坚持认为So, for instance, it's a moral principle that some of us would hold to that即使刻板印象是正确的even if stereotypes are correct但把它们应用在日常的生活上仍是不道德的it is still immoral to apply them in day to day life. 这里有个术语叫心理画像The term for this would be "Profiling."现在情况变复杂了因为在某些情况下Now, it gets complicated because there are some cases我们确实允许刻板印象发挥作用where we do allow stereotypes to play a role.当你们考取了驾照或者已经拿到驾照的同学When you all go and get driver's licenses or when you did get driver's licenses你们比起我来要付更高的汽车保险费you have to pay higher auto insurance premiums than I do.我认为这很公平因为像你们这种年轻人I think this is perfectly fair because young people like you抽大麻或是喝酒后开车会发生更多的事故get into a lot more accidents with your reefer and your alcohol现在你们有人就会说这是刻板印象and so it is--now, some of you are saying "That's a stereotype."它的确是刻板印象但这是有统计学意义的And it is a stereotype but it's a statistically robust one。

Dialogue: 0,0:00:12.33,0:00:17.89, 在以后的两节课里我们将讨论有关社会心理学的内容This is going to begin a two-lecture sequence on social psychology onDialogue: 0,0:00:17.89,0:00:22.27, 有关我们如何看待自己如何看待看待他人how we think about ourselves, how we think about other people,Dialogue: 0,0:00:22.27,0:00:24.56, 如何看待其他群体的成员how we think about other groups of people.Dialogue: 0,0:00:27.04,0:00:29.23, 我们已经讨论过很多人类心理能力We've talked a lot about the capacitiesDialogue: 0,0:00:29.23,0:00:32.69, 其中一些能力包括of the human mind and some of these capacitiesDialogue: 0,0:00:32.69,0:00:37.43, 适应和处理物质世界的involve adapting and dealing with the material world.Dialogue: 0,0:00:37.43,0:00:42.39, 因此我们必须选择食物必须在世界中漫游So, we have to choose foods, we have to navigate around the world,Dialogue: 0,0:00:42.39,0:00:44.02, 必须识别物体we have to recognize objects,Dialogue: 0,0:00:44.02,0:00:49.32, 必须能够理解自然界的相互作用we have to be able to understand physical interactions.Dialogue: 0,0:00:49.32,0:00:51.87, 但可能我们进化成的心理But probably the most interesting aspect ofDialogue: 0,0:00:51.87,0:00:57.31, 最有趣的方面是我们能够理解他人与他人打交道our evolved minds is our capacity to understand and deal with other people.Dialogue: 0,0:00:57.31,0:01:03.11, 我们对他人如何工作非常感兴趣We are intensely interested in how other people work.Dialogue: 0,0:01:03.11,0:01:10.06, 二零零五年有个大新闻The story that was a dominant news story in 2005 was this.Dialogue: 0,0:01:10.28,0:01:14.03, 你们中的一些人那些看不到屏幕的人And some of you--this--for those of you who aren't seeing the screen,Dialogue: 0,0:01:14.03,0:01:18.26, 这是有关詹妮弗·安妮丝顿和布拉德·皮特的离婚案is the separation of Jennifer Aniston and Brad Pitt.Dialogue: 0,0:01:18.69,0:01:21.79, 我还记得我第一次听说这事是在什么地方I remember where I was when I first heard about this.Dialogue: 0,0:01:24.83,0:01:30.40, 这非常有趣就是记得作为心理学家And it's an interesting sight. Just remember--stepping back. As psychologistsDialogue: 0,0:01:30.40,0:01:33.59, 我们必须对肯定的事情提出疑问我们要质疑所谓的常识we have to question the natural. We have to take thingsDialogue: 0,0:01:33.59,0:01:38.58, 并研究它们刚刚发生的事情是that are commonsense and explore them. And one thing which just happens is,Dialogue: 0,0:01:38.58,0:01:40.06, 我们为这些事情所着迷we're fascinated by this stuff. Dialogue: 0,0:01:40.06,0:01:42.80, 我们对名人的生活感兴趣We're fascinated by the lives of celebrities.Dialogue: 0,0:01:42.80,0:01:45.77, 我们对他人的社会生活非常感兴趣We're fascinated by the social lives of other people.Dialogue: 0,0:01:45.77,0:01:50.50, 为什么会这样呢这是个有趣的问题And it's an interesting question to ask why.Dialogue: 0,0:01:51.34,0:01:52.86, 这是我将在之后两节课中And this is one of the questions Dialogue: 0,0:01:52.86,0:01:56.45, 会讲到的问题之一which I'm going to deal with in the next couple of lecturesDialogue: 0,0:01:56.45,0:01:59.95, 但在我开始讲社会心理学理论之前but before I get to the theory of social psychologyDialogue: 0,0:01:59.95,0:02:02.67, 我想先讨论一项个体差异I want to talk about an individual difference.Dialogue: 0,0:02:02.67,0:02:07.07, 几周前我们用了一节课的时间So, we devoted a lecture early on--of a couple of weeks ago,Dialogue: 0,0:02:07.07,0:02:12.17, 讲述人与人之间智力和人格上的个体差异to individual differences across people in intelligence and personality.Dialogue: 0,0:02:12.17,0:02:17.06, 我想讲有关人在社会属性方面的差异I want to talk a little bit about an individual difference in our social naturesDialogue: 0,0:02:17.06,0:02:20.34, 然后给大家做个测验and then I want people to do a test that will exploreDialogue: 0,0:02:20.34,0:02:23.03, 看看你们处于什么位置where you stand on a continuum. Dialogue: 0,0:02:23.03,0:02:26.46, 你面前放着的那张纸就是测验That test is the piece of paper you have in front of you.Dialogue: 0,0:02:26.46,0:02:28.94, 没有拿到的同学请举手Anybody who doesn't have it please raise your handDialogue: 0,0:02:28.94,0:02:30.92, 助教会发给你and one of the teaching fellows will bring it to you.Dialogue: 0,0:02:30.92,0:02:35.00, 不要着急你现在还不知道怎么做Y ou don't know what to do yet with it so don't worry.Dialogue: 0,0:02:35.00,0:02:37.99, 这个测试是马尔科姆·格拉德威尔The test was developed actually by Malcolm GladwellDialogue: 0,0:02:37.99,0:02:43.49, 他是一位科普作家在他著作《引爆流行》中开发的who is a science writer-- in his wonderful book The Tipping Point.Dialogue: 0,0:02:43.49,0:02:45.41, 格拉德威尔在测验介绍中And as he introduces the test, Dialogue: 0,0:02:45.41,0:02:50.70, 他详述了斯坦利·米尔格拉姆的另一个实验Gladwell recounts another experiment done by Stanley Milgram,Dialogue: 0,0:02:50.70,0:02:55.11, 当然米尔格拉姆因服从实验闻名但他也做了很多有趣的事of course famous for his obedience work but he did a lot of interesting things.Dialogue: 0,0:02:55.11,0:03:03.33, 在一项经典实验中他将包裹给从内布拉斯加州的奥马哈人中And one classic study he did was he gave a package to 160 people randomly chosen Dialogue: 0,0:03:03.33,0:03:11.29, 随机挑选的一百六十人然后让这些人无论如何将包裹送给in Omaha, Nebraska and he asked these people to get the package somehowDialogue: 0,0:03:11.29,0:03:14.15, 这在很多年前还没有因特网and this was many years ago before the internet,Dialogue: 0,0:03:14.15,0:03:19.97, 没有电邮要将包裹送到一个在波士顿工作before e-mail?To get the package to a stockbroker who worked in BostonDialogue: 0,0:03:19.97,0:03:23.13, 却住在马萨诸塞州雪伦市的股票经纪人but lived in Sharon, Massachusetts.Dialogue: 0,0:03:23.13,0:03:26.90, 他发现大多数人竟然做到了What he found was that mostpeople were able to do it.Dialogue: 0,0:03:26.90,0:03:29.56, 当然没有人认识这个人Nobody, of course, knew this manDialogue: 0,0:03:29.56,0:03:33.47, 但他们认识那些可能认识这个人的人but they knew people who might know people who would know this man.Dialogue: 0,0:03:33.47,0:03:38.72, 所以大多数人成功了大多数人都能将包裹送至这个人So, most people succeeded. Most people were able to get the packages to this manDialogue: 0,0:03:38.72,0:03:45.29, 这就是六度分隔理论and it took at maximum six degrees of separation,Dialogue: 0,0:03:45.29,0:03:48.27, 著名的短语的出处which is where the famous phrase comes aboutDialogue: 0,0:03:48.27,0:03:52.48, 我们与他人的间隔只有六个人而已that we're all separated from another person by six degrees of separation.Dialogue: 0,0:03:52.48,0:03:53.91, 这不是普遍正确的This is not true in general.Dialogue: 0,0:03:53.91,0:03:57.83, 只在美国内做过实验This was a very--a single experiment done within the United States,Dialogue: 0,0:03:57.83,0:03:59.63, 但这个想法非常吸引人but the idea is appealing, Dialogue: 0,0:03:59.63,0:04:03.94, 人们是通过一系列人脉与其他人联系的that people are connected to one another via chains of people.Dialogue: 0,0:04:06.06,0:04:10.91, 米尔格拉姆发现特别有趣的是But what Milgram found that was particularly interesting wasDialogue: 0,0:04:11.23,0:04:19.69, 半数的被试仅通过两个人就将包裹送到了that in about half of the cases these packages went through two people.Dialogue: 0,0:04:19.69,0:04:24.79, 也就是说如果标出人与人间的关系That is, if you plot the relationships between people--Dialogue: 0,0:04:24.79,0:04:28.88, 我们以这个房间里的人为例We can take each person in this room,Dialogue: 0,0:04:28.88,0:04:32.97, 将彼此认识的人连线find everybody you know and who knows you and draw a line,Dialogue: 0,0:04:32.97,0:04:37.81, 如果我们真这么做的话我们看到的不会是一张网but if we were to do this you wouldn't find an even mesh of wires.Dialogue: 0,0:04:37.81,0:04:41.16, 相反你会发现有些人会成为节点Rather, you'd find that some people are clusters.Dialogue: 0,0:04:41.16,0:04:45.40, 这些人就是格拉德威尔所谓的联系员这有点像空中交通Some people are what Gladwell calls "Connectors." it's like air traffic.Dialogue: 0,0:04:45.40,0:04:50.14, 以前的空中交通是与各个目的地的连线Air traffic used to be everything flew to places localDialogue: 0,0:04:50.14,0:04:56.27, 但现在更像一个枢纽系统例如芝加哥的奥黑尔或纽瓦克to it but now there's a system of hubs, chicago O'Hare for instance or NewarkDialogue: 0,0:04:56.27,0:05:00.99, 都是许多飞机经过的地方而有些人就是枢纽where planes fly through. Some people are hubs.Dialogue: 0,0:05:00.99,0:05:05.92, 这些人就是那种认识很多人的人Some people are the sort of people who know a lot of people.Dialogue: 0,0:05:05.92,0:05:11.82, 这房间里的一些人可能是枢纽这不难发现Some peoplein this room might be hubs, and it is not impossible to find out.Dialogue: 0,0:05:11.82,0:05:18.28, 这张纸上有二百五十个从曼哈顿电话簿上The piece of paper you have here is 250 names chosen randomlyDialogue: 0,0:05:18.28,0:05:21.55, 随机抽取的名字from a Manhattan phone book. Dialogue: 0,0:05:22.18,0:05:25.38, 其中包含了不同种族They capture a range of ethnicities, Dialogue: 0,0:05:25.38,0:05:30.17, 世界不同地区不同原国籍的人different parts of the world, different national origins.Dialogue: 0,0:05:30.17,0:05:34.07, 下面就是我想让你们做的我给大家五分钟时间Here's what I'd like you to do. And I'll give about five minutes for this.Dialogue: 0,0:05:34.07,0:05:40.20, 浏览这些名字并圈出那些你认识的人的名字Go through these names and circle how many people you know.Dialogue: 0,0:05:40.20,0:05:42.40, 圈名字的规则是Now, the rules of this are,Dialogue: 0,0:05:42.40,0:05:47.44, 圈出那些你们彼此认识的人的名字to know somebody you have to--they have to know you back.Dialogue: 0,0:05:47.44,0:05:57.04, 如果是个名人这里一个名字是约翰逊So, if it's a celebrity--Well, here--one of the names here is Johnson.Dialogue: 0,0:05:57.04,0:06:01.56, 我听说过埃尔文·约翰逊但埃尔文·约翰逊从没听说过我Now, I've heard of Magic Johnson but Magic Johnson has never heard of me,Dialogue: 0,0:06:01.56,0:06:06.52, 所以不能圈这个名字另外我们系主任是玛西亚·约翰逊so I cannot circle it.On the other hand, our department chair is Marcia Johnson.Dialogue: 0,0:06:06.52,0:06:11.01, 她认识我所以我就可以圈她开始浏览并圈出你认识的人She has heard of me, so I could circle it. Go through and circle it.Dialogue: 0,0:06:11.01,0:06:15.60, 圈出所有你认识同时也认识你的人Circle all the people you know who know you.Dialogue: 0,0:06:15.60,0:06:17.82, 那些就是和你有联系的人Those are the people you're connected to.Dialogue: 0,0:06:17.82,0:06:22.76, 如果你认识的人里有重名的圈两次If you know more than one person with the same last name, circle it twice.Dialogue: 0,0:06:22.76,0:06:25.14, 如果你没有拿到这张纸而你又想参与进来If you don't have this piece of paper and you want to participate,Dialogue: 0,0:06:25.14,0:06:29.42, 请举手助教会发给你please raise your hand and one of the teaching fellows will bring it to you.Dialogue: 0,0:08:05.49,0:08:09.63, 在大家做这个的时候我想多说两句I'm going to talk a little bit more about this while people go through this.Dialogue: 0,0:08:11.03,0:08:15.35, 人际关系的问题很多情况下都很有趣The issue of connections between people is intellectually interestingDialogue: 0,0:08:15.35,0:08:21.07, 还可以让我们对人们如何互动for many reasons and might allow us to develop some generalizationsDialogue: 0,0:08:21.07,0:08:27.68, 有一个归纳当然六度空间理论about how people interact. The game of Six Degrees of Separation has, of course,Dialogue: 0,0:08:27.68,0:08:34.72, 也成了演员凯文·贝肯根的著名电影轶事turned into a famous movie trivia thing revolving around the actor Kevin Bacon,Dialogue: 0,0:08:34.72,0:08:38.55, 我想之所以选他是因为他名字压韵吧I think chosen just because it rhymes with "Separation."Dialogue: 0,0:08:38.55,0:08:41.63, 凯文·贝肯的六度空间游戏是这么玩的And the game of "Six Degrees of Kevin Bacon" is played byDialogue: 0,0:08:41.63,0:08:45.52, 任何一名演员计算接近凯文·贝肯taking any actor and computing how many stepsDialogue: 0,0:08:45.52,0:08:48.84, 要经过多少步it would take to get to Kevin Bacon. Dialogue: 0,0:08:48.84,0:08:51.56, 有些计算机科学家已经将这个开发出来了And some computer scientists have developed this.Dialogue: 0,0:08:51.56,0:08:54.87, 他们检查国际电影数据库中They've gone through each of the quarter million actorsDialogue: 0,0:08:54.87,0:08:58.11, 二十五万名男女演员and actresses on the international movie databaseDialogue: 0,0:08:58.11,0:09:03.14, 然后计算出他们的贝肯数贝肯数就是指他们联系到贝肯and computed their "Bacon number." and the Bacon number is the number of stepsDialogue: 0,0:09:03.14,0:09:07.13, 所需要的步骤数it takes for them to get to Kevin Bacon. Dialogue: 0,0:09:07.13,0:09:17.35, 比如爱德华·阿斯纳在电影《JFK》中与凯文·贝肯合作So for instance, Ed Asner was in the movie Change of--; "JFK" With Kevin Bacon. Dialogue: 0,0:09:17.35,0:09:20.74, 那么爱德华·阿斯纳的贝肯数为一So, Ed Asner has a Bacon number of one.Dialogue: 0,0:09:20.74,0:09:26.36, 埃尔维斯·普雷斯利在《修女变身》中与爱德华·阿斯纳合作Elvis Presley was in the movie "Change of Habit" with Ed AsnerDialogue: 0,0:09:26.36,0:09:29.69, 而这是他与凯文·贝肯最紧密的联系了and that's his closest connection to Kevin Bacon.Dialogue: 0,0:09:29.69,0:09:33.01, 所以埃尔维斯·普里斯利的贝肯数为二So, Elvis Presley has a Bacon number of two.Dialogue: 0,0:09:33.01,0:09:36.75, 结果发现如果你观察二点五抱歉It turns out that if you look at the 2.5--sorry,Dialogue: 0,0:09:36.75,0:09:44.17, 电影数据库中的二十五万人并计算他们的贝肯数the quarter million people on the movie database and compute their Bacon number,Dialogue: 0,0:09:44.17,0:09:49.17, 平均贝肯数为二点八这就是联系到凯文·贝肯的the average Bacon number is 2.8. That's how many steps your average personDialogue: 0,0:09:49.17,0:09:52.04, 所需平均人数is away from Kevin Bacon.Dialogue: 0,0:09:52.24,0:09:57.82, 然后你可以在演员中计算出联系最多人的一个Y ou could then, for any actor or actress, compute the most connected one.Dialogue: 0,0:09:57.82,0:10:00.44, 联系最多的那位演员So, the most connected one would be the one forDialogue: 0,0:10:00.44,0:10:05.08, 将是这二十五万人中平均来说最多人联系的whom the quarter million are, on average, the most connected to.Dialogue: 0,0:10:05.08,0:10:10.06, 联系最多演员的答案相当出人意料And the answer of the most connected actor or actress is reasonably surprising.Dialogue: 0,0:10:10.06,0:10:12.32, 大家想猜猜吗Does anybody want to guess?Dialogue: 0,0:10:15.99,0:10:19.19, 我先给大家一个错误答案I'll start you off with the wrong answer and this,Dialogue: 0,0:10:19.19,0:10:24.33, 顺便说一句可以在该网站上找到答案不是约翰·韦恩by the way, can be found on this web site. It's not John Wayne.Dialogue: 0,0:10:24.33,0:10:28.98, 约翰·韦恩确实拍了很多电影一百八十部电影John Wayne has been in many movies, 180 movies,Dialogue: 0,0:10:28.98,0:10:33.57, 在六十多年里但他不是最多联络人in fact, over sixty years, but he isn't well connected at all because mostlyDialogue: 0,0:10:33.57,0:10:39.58, 他几乎只出现在西部电影中所以我们不停地看到同一些人he was in westerns so we saw the same people over and over again.Dialogue: 0,0:10:43.09,0:10:45.16, 梅丽尔·斯特里普也不是Meryl Streep also isn't it Dialogue: 0,0:10:45.16,0:10:51.40, 因为梅丽尔·斯特里普很不幸只拍好电影所以because Meryl Streep has the misfortune of playing only in good movies. So,Dialogue: 0,0:10:51.40,0:10:56.50, 她与像亚当·桑德勒和约翰·克劳德·范·戴姆这些演员没联系she has no connection with people like Adam Sandler and John Claude V an Damme. Dialogue: 0,0:10:59.80,0:11:05.10, 猜一下有其他猜测吗克里斯托弗·沃肯有点靠谱了Guess. Any guesses? Christopher Walken is a good one.Dialogue: 0,0:11:05.10,0:11:07.27, 我们来查查看我只认识少数几个人We could look it up.I only know a few names here.Dialogue: 0,0:11:07.27,0:11:10.93, 克里斯托弗·沃肯不是最多的尼古拉斯·凯奇是个有趣例子Christopher Walken is not a finalist. Nicolas Cage is an interesting case.Dialogue: 0,0:11:10.93,0:11:13.45, 尼古拉斯·凯奇拍过好电影吗Has Nicolas Cage been in good movies?Dialogue: 0,0:11:14.61,0:11:18.37, 我不是想我这是自找麻烦了I don't want to get-- i'm going to get more controversial than I want to.Dialogue: 0,0:11:18.37,0:11:21.82, 一个类似临时演员的人他最多算个二流演员请再说一遍A guy who is one step above an extra.He's like a B-list actor at best.Pardon me?Dialogue: 0,0:11:25.81,0:11:27.04, 最佳联络人The most connected guy?Dialogue: 0,0:11:29.60,0:11:35.56, 最佳联络人我想说你是对的是罗德·斯泰格尔The most connected guy, and I think this shows that you're right,is Rod Steiger.Dialogue: 0,0:11:36.44,0:11:39.75, 他是演艺史上的最佳联络人He's the most connected actor in the history of actingDialogue: 0,0:11:39.75,0:11:44.31, 不是因为他比其他人参演了更多电影because it isn't that he's been in more movies than everybody else.Dialogue: 0,0:11:44.31,0:11:47.84, 迈克尔·凯恩可能是世界上出演电影最多的人Michael Caine has probably been in the most movies of any person on earth,Dialogue: 0,0:11:48.28,0:11:52.16, 但罗德出演了各种类型的电影他出演了《码头风云》but he's been in all sorts of movies. He was in "On the Waterfront",Dialogue: 0,0:11:52.16,0:11:57.25, 《炎热的夏夜》以及像《无妄之灾》这类烂片"In the Heat of the Night," and really bad movies like "Carpool".Dialogue: 0,0:11:57.25,0:12:01.53, 他参演戏剧和犯罪连续剧惊险片西部片恐怖电影He's been in dramas and crime serials, thrillers, westerns, horror movies,Dialogue: 0,0:12:01.53,0:12:03.98, 科幻片和音乐剧science fiction, musicals.Dialogue: 0,0:12:05.50,0:12:12.43, 有些人就像罗德·斯泰格尔有些人在他们日常生活里Now, some people are like Rod Steiger. So, some people in their day-to-day livesDialogue: 0,0:12:12.43,0:12:16.97, 与人有很多互动我想从互动中可以了解的是have many interactions and I think one of the things we know from interactingDialogue: 0,0:12:16.97,0:12:20.67, 我们能从人群中识别出这些人with people is we candistinguish them from other people.Dialogue: 0,0:12:20.67,0:12:23.70, 有多少人已经做完了How many people have finished their things right now?Dialogue: 0,0:12:23.70,0:12:27.52, 好我认识学院里的一个人Okay. I know one person in the departmentDialogue: 0,0:12:27.52,0:12:30.88, 是我知道的认识最多人的人who is one of the most connected people I know on earth.Dialogue: 0,0:12:30.88,0:12:36.51, 如果我想如果我真的想联系拉扎斯菲尔德我会去找他说If I wanted--If I really had to talk to Rumsfeld, i'd go to this person and say,Dialogue: 0,0:12:36.51,0:12:40.57, 你能帮我联系上菲尔德吗如果我想整某个人"Can you get me in touch with Rumsfeld?" if I wanted to get somebody whacked,Dialogue: 0,0:12:40.57,0:12:42.32, 我会去问他I'd ask this guy.Dialogue: 0,0:12:42.88,0:12:45.99, 在学院里我还认识其他的人据我所知Then I know someone else in the department and, as best I know,Dialogue: 0,0:12:45.99,0:12:48.12, 我是她唯一认识的人I'm the only person she knows. Dialogue: 0,0:12:49.79,0:12:58.42, 有多少人的得分低于十分So, how many people scores below ten on this?Dialogue: 0,0:13:01.72,0:13:04.03, 有多少人得分在十分到二十分之间How many between ten and twenty?Dialogue: 0,0:13:05.01,0:13:06.88, 二十分到三十分之间呢Between twenty and thirty? Dialogue: 0,0:13:07.82,0:13:09.68, 三十分到四十分呢Thirty and forty?Dialogue: 0,0:13:11.32,0:13:13.64, 四十分到五十分之间呢Between forty and fifty? Dialogue: 0,0:13:15.52,0:13:16.77, 五十分到六十分呢Fifty and sixty?Dialogue: 0,0:13:18.97,0:13:21.50, 有多少人得分超过六十分How many people scored above sixty?Dialogue: 0,0:13:23.86,0:13:26.05, 有人得分超过六十分吗Anybody above sixty? Dialogue: 0,0:13:27.95,0:13:31.53, 格拉德维尔在很多地方做过这个实验Gladwell has done this in a lot of places.Dialogue: 0,0:13:32.06,0:13:35.30, 在大学生群体里平均分是二十一分The average is twenty-one among a college crowd.Dialogue: 0,0:13:36.51,0:13:39.50, 有些人得分超过一百Some people score as high as over 100.Dialogue: 0,0:13:39.60,0:13:44.94, 年龄越大得分越高可能很明显The older you are, the more-- the higher you tend to score, maybe obviously,Dialogue: 0,0:13:44.94,0:13:48.80, 不是在这个国家呆的时间越长得分越高not--the longer you've been in the country the higher you tend to score.Dialogue: 0,0:13:48.80,0:13:55.66, 记者的分数理所当然会高些学者的分数不那么高Journalists tend to score reasonably high, academics not so high,Dialogue: 0,0:13:55.66,0:13:59.36, 格拉德维尔指出有些人就是有天赋and--but what Gladwell points out is some people have the gift.Dialogue: 0,0:13:59.36,0:14:01.72, 有些人比其他人更有社交天赋Some people are more social than othersDialogue: 0,0:14:01.72,0:14:04.76, 并与很多人以各种有趣的形式保持联系and this connects in all sorts of interesting ways.Dialogue: 0,0:14:04.76,0:14:11.48, 人脉问题涉及社会因素The issue of connection has social factorsDialogue: 0,0:14:11.48,0:14:19.51, 这是社会学家为来耶鲁念书给出的一个很好理由and it's one answer that sociologists give for why it's good to go to Y ale.Dialogue: 0,0:14:19.51,0:14:26.29, 一个答案是因为这里有丰富的学术资源So, one answer is, well, because of the great intellectual benefits.Dialogue: 0,0:14:26.29,0:14:29.84, 先不说这个很讽刺的Put that aside. Let's be more cynical here.Dialogue: 0,0:14:29.84,0:14:35.79, 另一个答案是你能交到很牛的朋友Another answer is that you develop powerful friends.Dialogue: 0,0:14:37.45,0:14:41.71, 这很接近了但社会学家给出的答案And that's closer, but the interesting answer sociologistsDialogue: 0,0:14:41.71,0:14:45.42, 不是你交到多少厉害的朋友come to is it's not so much you develop powerful friends;Dialogue: 0,0:14:45.42,0:14:52.90, 而是你认识了多少很牛的人在耶鲁你认识了很多人rather,you develop powerful acquaintances. Through Y ale you know a lot of peopleDialogue: 0,0:14:52.90,0:14:56.10, 他们不一定是好朋友但他们是相识的人and they don't have to be close friends but they are acquaintances.Dialogue: 0,0:14:56.10,0:14:59.91, 社会学家指出你生活中的很多方面And sociologists point out that for a lot of aspects of your life,Dialogue: 0,0:14:59.91,0:15:05.25, 例如找工作熟人很重要人脉很重要like getting a job, acquaintances matter, connections matter,Dialogue: 0,0:15:05.25,0:15:07.48, 你通过进入像耶鲁这样的地方and the connections you establish by going toDialogue: 0,0:15:07.48,0:15:11.39, 而建立起来的人脉将为你未来做很好的铺垫 a place like Y ale hold you in good stead for the rest of your life,Dialogue: 0,0:15:11.39,0:15:16.15, 除了学术资源这个地方能给你带来above and beyond any intellectual qualities that this place may offer.Dialogue: 0,0:15:18.89,0:15:21.38, 这就是我在下节课以及以后的两节半课所要说的内容Here's what we're going to do for the next lecture and a half,two lectures.Dialogue: 0,0:15:21.38,0:15:23.63, 我们首先讨论自我We're first going to talk about the self. Dialogue: 0,0:15:23.63,0:15:26.42, 然后我们讨论自我和他人Then we're going to talk about the self and other;Dialogue: 0,0:15:26.42,0:15:29.54, 基本上我们对自己的看法basically, differences between how we think of ourselvesDialogue: 0,0:15:29.54,0:15:34.02, 和我们对他人的看法是存在差异的我们将专门讨论and how we think about other people. Then we're going to talk exclusively aboutDialogue: 0,0:15:34.02,0:15:36.19, 我们如何看待他人然后讨论how we think about other people and then we'll talk aboutDialogue: 0,0:15:36.19,0:15:42.38, 我们如何看待像哈佛学生或同性恋或黑人这样的群体how we think about groups like Harvard students or gay people or black people.Dialogue: 0,0:15:45.08,0:15:51.91, 我将从我最喜欢的研究结果开始这是有关自我的内容I'll start with my favorite finding of all time and this is about the self.Dialogue: 0,0:15:51.91,0:16:00.37, 有关焦点效应我每天早晨都很匆忙And this is about thespotlight effect. So, my mornings are often rushedDialogue: 0,0:16:00.37,0:16:03.53, 因为我有两个孩子有时我没有定闹钟because I have two kids. So, I get up and sometimes I don't set the alarmDialogue: 0,0:16:03.53,0:16:07.64, 就会起晚我挣扎着下床把孩子们叫起来and I get up late; I stagger out of bed; I wake the kids;Dialogue: 0,0:16:07.64,0:16:11.68, 问候佣人做好准备做早餐I greet the servants; I get ready; I make breakfast.Dialogue: 0,0:16:11.68,0:16:17.37, 我冲出房间通常在大概下午三点时有人会说I run out of the house and then usually around 3 o'clock somebody points out,Dialogue: 0,0:16:17.37,0:16:22.11, 某次是一个流浪汉说我耳朵上有一大块剃须膏in one case a homeless man, that I have a big glob of shaving cream in my ear orDialogue: 0,0:16:22.11,0:16:26.08, 因为我剃须时都没心思看镜子because I neglected to actually look in the mirror while I shaved.Dialogue: 0,0:16:26.08,0:16:30.09, 又一次我参加一个派对我发现我的衬衫上没穿正Or I have once been to a party and I found my shirt was misaligned,Dialogue: 0,0:16:30.09,0:16:33.28, 严重地没穿正不是一个扣子seriously misaligned, not one button but--Anyway,Dialogue: 0,0:16:34.74,0:16:39.25, 总之那时候我的感觉很不成熟so--and so I feel when this happens I'm very immature.Dialogue: 0,0:16:39.25,0:16:41.57, 我甚至感觉这是世界末日And I basically feel this is the end of the world,Dialogue: 0,0:16:41.57,0:16:46.50, 这实在太丢脸而且每个人都注意到了问题是this is humiliating and everybody notices. And so the question is,Dialogue: 0,0:16:46.50,0:16:53.36, 当这发生时有多少人真的注意到了呢焦点效应就是how many people notice when something happens? And the spotlight effect--Well,Dialogue: 0,0:16:53.36,0:16:55.86, 在讨论我最喜欢的实验之前before talking about my favorite experiment ever,Dialogue: 0,0:16:55.86,0:16:57.77, 我先播一段《辛普森一家》there is an episode of "The Simpsons"Dialogue: 0,0:16:57.77,0:17:01.07, 它充分说明了焦点效应that provides a beautiful illustration of the spotlight effect.Dialogue: 0,0:17:01.07,0:17:04.86, 这段短片还对心理测验给出了个漂亮的例证And then it has a beautiful illustration of psychological testing,Dialogue: 0,0:17:04.86,0:17:07.80, 我让大家一个一个看so I'll give you them quickly one after the other.Dialogue: 0,0:17:10.09,0:17:14.46, 因此汤姆·季洛维奇一位社会心理学家So, Tom Gilovich, a social psychologist,Dialogue: 0,0:17:14.46,0:17:17.51, 对焦点效应问题很感兴趣was interested in the question of the spotlight effect,Dialogue: 0,0:17:17.51,0:17:23.72, 当我们穿粉红衬衫上班或耳朵上粘了剃须膏或其他什么which is when we wear a pink shirt to work,shaving cream in our ear or whatever, Dialogue: 0,0:17:23.72,0:17:29.88, 我们真会过高地估计别人对此的注意吗do we systematically overestimate how much other people notice?Dialogue: 0,0:17:29.88,0:17:35.59, 他就此做了一系列实验其中一个实验是这样做的Hedid a series of experiments. And in one experiment what he did wasDialogue: 0,0:17:35.59,0:17:39.16, 他从心理学导论课上找到一些被试he got in the subjects ...Standard Intro Psych drill.Dialogue: 0,0:17:39.16,0:17:44.47, 跟他们说我希望你们明天穿件T恤And said,"I want you to wear a T-shirt for the next dayDialogue: 0,0:17:44.47,0:17:47.24, 我希望T恤上有图and I want it to have a picture on it," Dialogue: 0,0:17:47.24,0:17:51.01, 然后他让他们穿上他们认为and he got them to wear T-shirts that had pictures on itDialogue: 0,0:17:51.01,0:17:55.63, 最尴尬图片的T恤that were the most embarrassing pictures that they could have on it.Dialogue: 0,0:17:55.63,0:17:58.07, 结果发现如果你问人们It turns out that if you ask people Dialogue: 0,0:17:58.07,0:18:00.92, T恤上印什么画最难以接受what's the worst picture to have on the T-shirtDialogue: 0,0:18:00.92,0:18:09.42, 位居第一的答案是希特勒和巴瑞·曼尼洛that you are wearing, the number one answer is Hitler tied with Barry Manilow.Dialogue: 0,0:18:15.79,0:18:19.32, 画在T恤上最好的图画是The best pictures to have on your T-shirtDialogue: 0,0:18:19.32,0:18:23.75, 马丁·路德·金和杰瑞·宋飞are Martin Luther King Jr. And Jerry Seinfeld.Dialogue: 0,0:18:24.77,0:18:26.56, 结果发现人们It turns out that people--Dialogue: 0,0:18:26.56,0:18:29.80, 他让他们穿着T恤到处走动一天然后问他们And then he had them go about their day and asked them,Dialogue: 0,0:18:29.80,0:18:33.10, 有多少人注意到了你的T恤"How many people noticed your T-shirt?"Dialogue: 0,0:18:33.10,0:18:36.74, 然后心理学家又去问被试周围的人And then the psychologists went around and they asked the people,Dialogue: 0,0:18:36.74,0:18:39.72, 你们有多少人注意到了这个人的T恤"How many of you noticed this person's T-shirt?"Dialogue: 0,0:18:39.72,0:18:45.21, 结果发现他们大概错误估计了两倍And it turned out they got it wrong by a factor of about two.Dialogue: 0,0:18:45.21,0:18:51.00, 他们认为有一百个人注意到但其实只有五十个人注意到They thought, say, 100 noticed, but fifty people noticed.Dialogue: 0,0:18:51.00,0:18:54.20, 通过多次研究季洛维奇和And across study after study after study GilovichDialogue: 0,0:18:54.20,0:18:58.02, 他的同事找到了支持焦点效应的证据and his colleagues have found support for the spotlight effect,Dialogue: 0,0:18:58.02,0:19:01.62, 也就是你认为人们注意到你which is that you believe that people are noticingDialogue: 0,0:19:01.62,0:19:07.40, 但其实并没有他们正忙着注意他们自己you all the time but they aren't. They're busy noticing themselves.Dialogue: 0,0:19:07.40,0:19:15.72, 知道这点非常有用季洛维奇之所以对此感兴趣And this is actually a useful thing to know. Gilovich got interested in thisDialogue: 0,0:19:15.72,0:19:19.48, 是因为他对后悔心理学感兴趣because he's interested in the psychology of regret.Dialogue: 0,0:19:19.48,0:19:23.20, 结果发现如果你真的去问那些临终的人And it turns out that if you actually ask dying people,Dialogue: 0,0:19:23.20,0:19:28.60, 或是年纪很大的人你这辈子最后悔的事是什么or really old people basically, "What do you regret from your life?"Dialogue: 0,0:19:28.60,0:19:33.82, 他们不约而同地都对他们没有尝试过的事情感到后悔they regret the things as a rule that they didn't try.Dialogue: 0,0:19:33.82,0:19:36.52, 但当你问他们为什么不尝试时But when you asked them why they didn't try itDialogue: 0,0:19:36.52,0:19:40.17, 他们的回答是这样我看起来会很愚蠢the answers tended to be "I would look silly."Dialogue: 0,0:19:40.17,0:19:45.14, 很有趣的是结果发现其实人们并不像你想的And it turns out, interesting to know, that people just don't careDialogue: 0,0:19:45.14,0:19:46.79, 那么关心你as much as other people think you are. Dialogue: 0,0:19:46.79,0:19:48.81, 你可以将这看成好事或坏事Y ou could take that as good news or bad newsDialogue: 0,0:19:48.81,0:19:54.82, 但聚光灯并不像我们想的那样聚焦在我们身上but the spotlight is not on us as much as we think it is.Dialogue: 0,0:19:54.82,0:20:00.56, 季洛维奇发现的第二个效应是透明度效应There's a second effect Gilovich discovers called "The transparency effect."Dialogue: 0,0:20:00.56,0:20:03.30, 透明度效应非常有趣And the transparency effect is quite interesting.Dialogue: 0,0:20:03.30,0:20:09.16, 透明度效应是指The transparency effect is that we believe Dialogue: 0,0:20:09.16,0:20:13.13, 我们高估自己的透明度that we're more transparent than we are.Dialogue: 0,0:20:13.13,0:20:22.74, 我需要一个自认为不会撒谎的人I need somebody up here who thinks that he or she is a bad liar.Dialogue: 0,0:20:25.96,0:20:28.65, 我只要你说三个句子Just--I just need you to say three sentences.Dialogue: 0,0:20:28.65,0:20:31.30, 我甚至会提前告诉你I'll even tell you what it is ahead of time.Dialogue: 0,0:20:31.30,0:20:32.88, 我将问你三个问题I'm going to ask you three questions: Dialogue: 0,0:20:32.88,0:20:35.85, 你去过伦敦吗你有弟弟妹妹吗"Have you been in London? Do you have a younger sibling?"Dialogue: 0,0:20:35.85,0:20:40.79, 你喜欢寿司吗我希望你回答这三个问题and "Do you like sushi?" I want you to answer with one of those answers there.Dialogue: 0,0:20:40.79,0:20:44.30, 但对其中一个问题说谎I want you to lie about one of them.Dialogue: 0,0:20:44.30,0:20:48.05, 在座各位的任务就是识别出The task will be for everybody else to recognizeDialogue: 0,0:20:48.05,0:20:50.93, 猜一下你哪个问题说谎了and guess which one you're lying about.Dialogue: 0,0:20:50.93,0:20:52.26, 你愿意做吗Do you want to go up?Dialogue: 0,0:20:52.26,0:20:58.14, 我会写下哪个问题你要说谎Y eah. And I will even write down which one you should lie on.。

MoralityReminders• Book approval: April 9• Assignment due: April 16• Final exam: April 30• Also: Experimentalparticipation requirementMoralityWhere are we?• Brain• Freud and Skinner• Cognitive development, language, vision, memory• Love• Emotion, reason, evolutionWhere are we?• Cognitive neuroscience• Differences• Sex and food• Morality• Social thought and behavior• Mysteries• Mental illness• HappinessOutline• Moral feelings• Moral judgment• Why do good people do bad things? [The Milgram Study]Outline• Moral feelings• Moral judgment• Why do good people do bad things? [The Milgram Study] How could moral feelingsevolve?1. Selfish genes lead toaltruistic animals• To the extent that evolution operates at the level of the genes, there is no hard-and-fast distinction between oneself and anotherHaldane’s math--“Would you lay down your life for your brother?”--“No, but I would gladly give my life for three brothers, or five nephews, or nine first cousins”Choose:You die or your three brothersdie• Gene A: makes an animal choose to die • Gene B: makes an animal choose forits brothers to die• Gene A wins2. It benefits animals tocooperate• Warning cries• Grooming• Food exchange-- our minds have evolved to solve the prisoner’s dilemmaSocial emotions and theprisoners dilemma• We feel GRATITUDE and LIKING for people who cooperate with us. This motivates us to be nice tothem in the future• We feel ANGER and DISTRUST toward those who betray us. This motivates us to betray or avoid them in the future• We feel GULT when we betray someone who cooperates with us. This motivates us to behavebetter in the futureFirst case-study of moralfeeling:Empathy Instinctive empathy towards those close to usThe pain of others is aversive • For babies• For chimpanzees• Not logically linked to morality• But it does lead to moral concern and action(more empathy --> more concern & help)Psychopathy as a breakdown in instinctive empathy13-year-old mugger, when asked about one of his victims:“What do I care? I’m not her.”Gary Gillmore:“I was always capable of murder … I can become totally devoid of feelings of others, unemotional. I know I’m doing something grossly … wrong. I can still go ahead and do it.”Ted Bundy:"I mean, there are so many people"Second case-study of moralfeeling:In-group versus out-groupThe Robbers Cave study • 11 and 12-year-old boys at a 3 week camping program• Well-adjusted WASPs• Separate cabins, leaders, “Eagles” and “Rattlers”, for one week • Distinctive cultures• Competition--within-group solidarity--negative stereotyping--hostility, raids, violenceThe Robbers Cave study • Attempts to reduce hostility between groups: --peace talks--individual competitions--shared meals--shared movies--fun with firecrackers--sermons on brotherly loveALL FAILED The Robbers Cave study What could bring them together?Superordinate goal(shared enemy)“Minimal Groups”• Henri Tajfel, after World War II • Klee/Kandinksy lovers• Coin flipOutline• Moral feelings• Moral judgment• Why do good people do bad things? [The Milgram Study]Moral judgments• Evaluation• Obligation• SanctionsUniversals• Intuitions about fairness and reciprocity (anger at cheaters, gratitude toward sharers) • Intuitions about moral and immoral acts• Adult humans, but also:--young children--non-human primatesVariation• Richard Shweder notes that people …Three frameworks of moralthoughtEthics of autonomy--rights, equality, freedomEthics of community--duty, status, hierarchy, interdependenceEthics of divinity--purity, sanctity, pollution, sinThree frameworks of moralthoughtEthics of autonomy--rights, equality, freedomEthics of community--duty, status, hierarchy, interdependenceEthics of divinity--purity, sanctity, pollution, sin• Most Americans -- particularly college students -- believe that they hold to an ethics of autonomy• If it doesn’t harm anyone, it’s ok• E.g., sex between consenting adults • Ok?Moral disgust• Brother and sister• Family dog• Flag & toilet• ChickenConclusion: Our moral intuitions can surprise usOutline• Moral feelings• Moral judgment• Why do good people do bad things? [The Milgram Study]Stanley Milgram’s Studies • Basic studyprocedure– teacher and learner(learner alwaysconfederate)– watch learner beingstrapped into chair --learner expressesconcern over his “heartcondition”Stanley Milgram’s Studies • Teacher to another room with experimenter• Shock generator panel – 15 to 450 volts, labels “slight shock” to “XXX”• Asked to give higher shocks for every mistake learner makesBad explanations forMilgram’s Results• Abnormal group of subjects?– numerous replications with variety ofgroups shows no support• People in general are sadistic?– videotapes of Milgram’s subjects showextreme distressStanley Milgram’s Studies • Learner protests120 “Ugh! Hey this really hurts.” more and more150 “Ugh! Experimenter! That’s all. as shock get me out of here. I told youI had heart trouble. My heart’s increasesstarting to bother me now.” • Experimenter300 (agonized scream) “I absolutely continues to refuse to answer any more.get me out of here You can’t hold request me here. Get me out.” obedience even if330 “(intense & prolonged agonized teacher balks scream) “Let me out of here.Let me out of here. My heart’sbothering me. Let me out,I tell you…”Follow-Up Studies to Milgram• Original study• Different building• Teacher with learner• Put hand on shock• Orders by phone• Ordinary man orders• 2 teachers rebel• Teacher choosesshock levelCritiques of Milgram• 84% later said they were glad to haveparticipated and fewer than 2% saidthey were sorry, but, still, seriousdamage could have been done• Do these experiments really help usunderstand real-world atrocities?Is the issue really obedience?The perfect situation• Authority of Yale and value of science • Experimenter self-assurance and acceptance of responsibility• Distance of learner and experimenter • New situation and no model of howto behaveTwo forces for evil • Deindividuation of self• Denigration of otherTwo forces for evil • Deindividuation of self• Denigration of otherDeindividuation• There is a sense of reduced accountability and shifted attention away from the self that occurs in the context of groups• Responsible for riots, lynching, gang rapes, and other group violence• Deindividuation is not limited to groups • Effect of authority• Effect of anonymityWhy Don’t People AlwaysHelp Others in Need?• Diffusion of responsibility – presence of others leads todecreased help response– we all think someone else will help,so we don’tWhy Don’t People AlwaysHelp Others in Need?• Latane studies– several scenarios designed to measure thehelp response• found that if you think you’re the only one that canhear or help, you are more likely to do so• if there are others around, you will diffuse theresponsibility to others• Kitty Genovese incidentHow to make others matterless• Distance• Euphemism (‘cargo’, ‘extermination’)• Humor• Take away their names• See them as disgustingIf people are seen as disgusting, they matter less“Thus, throughout history, certain disgustproperties --sliminess, bad smell, stickiness,decay, foulness --have repeatedly andmonotonously been associated with… Jews,women, homosexuals, untouchables, lower-class people --all of those are imagined astainted by the dirt of the body”--Martha NussbaumDisgust(“the body and soul emotion”) • Human universal• Basic emotion: characteristic facial expression • Rozin: Animals and animal by-products – Feces– Urine– Blood– Vomit– Rotten flesh– Most meat“Just look at these guys!The louse-infestedbeards! The filthy,protruding ears, Thosestained, fatty clothes…Jews often have anunpleasant sweetish odor.If you have a good nose,you can smell the Jews."(Nazi School Book, 1938)Two forces for good• Contact and interdependence • Perspective-taking1. Contact and inter-dependence• Selfish motives for altruistic actionRobert Wright’s argument for the moral value of globalization“One of the many reasons I don’t want to bomb the Japanese is that they built my minivan.”Thomas Friedman:1. Contact and inter-dependence• Selfish motives for altruistic actionRobert Wright’s argument for the moral value of globalization“One of the many reasons I don’t want to bomb the Japanese is that they built my minivan.”Thomas Friedman:1. Contact and inter-dependence• The contact hypothesis--equal status--common goal--social supporte.g., -Robber’s Cave-military-universities?2. Perspective taking • If you take another person’s perspective, you care more about that personWays to motivate perspectivetaking in othersDirect:“How would you feel if you …”“Try to see it from their point of view …”Indirect:Representing something as similar to more familiar objects of empathy Fetus: similar to childAnimal: similar to humanStranger: similar to family member[metaphors of “brotherhood”, “sisterhood”]Reading response• If the Milgram experiment was done for the first time right now, at Yale, with Yale undergraduatesa) what do you think you would do?b) what do you think the average Yale student would do?。

欢迎大家来到心理学导论的课堂I'd like to welcome people to Introduction to Psychology.我是保罗·布罗姆博士My name is Dr. Paul Bloom.是本门课程的教授I'm professor of this course.如果还有同学没领取教室前面的教学大纲If you haven't pick up the syllabus in front of the class请举手示意我Please raise your hand.我们有教学大纲吧Are we... Are we have syllabus?请举手示意我Please raise your hand研究生助教会发给你and the teaching fellow will bring it to you如果你还没领到教学大纲的话If you don't have the syllabus.大家也可以在这个网站上下载教学大纲The syllabus is also available on this website这个网站将会成为你学习本门课程This website will become important to you to的得力助手assist you to take this class.网站上资源里有教学大纲It will include the syllabus我会不定期更新which will occasionally be revised会非常及时well and advance所有的课程资料也会放在网上Also all of the class material will be on the site包括我所展示的幻灯片including copies of slides I'm presenting包括我现在放的这个课件including this slides right now.还有关于练习考试Practice and exam和每一次阅读作业的细节要求and every ditail on the reading assignments所以大家要经常登录这个网站So you have to use this website regularly以获取最新的课程信息to keep in touch with the course今天的课会很简短Today will be a short class只是帮助大家理清本课程的研究方向What I just wanna do today is orient you介绍一下课程tell you what this course is about我知道课程都在预选阶段I know this is a shopping period所以我希望让大家and I'll give you a good sence对课程有一个整体感知what you be in for, if you took this course.首先我会向大家展示I wanna go over本门课程的安排与考核the style of the classes,以及会涉及书目等等the evaluation the readings and so on.接下来我会给出一些And then I'll give you some examples我们会涉及话题的具体实例of some of the specific topics that would be covering.但在我开始之前But before I get started,我要告诉大家这个课程的一点特别之处I have to point out something a little bit unusual about this class我们会被录像We're being filmed.本课程是"耶鲁大学公开视频课程计划"This course is one of the seven courses chosen to begin 的七个实验课程之一the Yale University Open Educational Resourse Vidio Lecture Project那么这也就意味着And what's this means is,在本年度结束时that when the year's over所有的视频录像都会在网上these vidioes well be on the internet,免费对所有人开放free for anybody who wants to see them.希望它能够通过网络传播到各个国家And ideally will be access by people across many different countries为无法通过正常渠道接受大学教育的人们some of them wouldn't normally have access提供便利to the university education我视此为耶鲁之荣I see this is a good and honorable更是对资源的充分利用use of Yale resources.当然这也是耶鲁建立and of course, this is a part of"世界学术霸权"的大计Yale's plan for world domination.因此来自媒体创新中心的So, because of this, Yale University Production Team耶鲁大学节目制作组from the Center of Media Initiatives将会在教室后面全程录制本课程is gonna be taping all the class in there up there.这一计划的目标在于The idea is that让全世界看到真实的耶鲁课堂this should be the as honor truth as possiable让观看录像的人们获得与在座各位and the classroom experence should have centrally be the same同样的知识as they're not there.因此他们需要录制的是课程So there attention to tape the lecture也就是我和后面的幻灯片to tape me and sometimes the slides,而不会拍摄同学们but not tape your faces or voices.所以没有让各位签署授权协议So we're not having you sign the release forms两点需要说明第一Two things, one thing is就我而言我会尽量注意自己的言辞personally, I have to remind myself not to use profanity因为可能会有孩子观看'Cause children maybe watching.所以我会很注意So, I'll try not to do that另一件事情就是Result to another complex thing如果你们坐在第一排If you're in the front roll,或者前几排or second roll or third roll那么你们的头部It's possible that some part of your head,背部甚至脸部your back or even your face都可能被镜头扑捉到might end up on the film.如果你在证人保护计划之内If you're on a witness protection program或者是个逃犯级人物or you're sort of fugitive就尽量不要坐在前排了you probably don't want to sit on the front roll.各位要是现在想换到后排就放心换If people wanna kind of slide back,没关系的that's fine,我不介意as I'm talking好我们可以开始了Okay, we're ready.欢迎大家选择心理学导论这门课程I'd like to welcome people to this course, Introduction to Psychology.我是保罗·布罗姆博士My name is Dr. Paul Bloom.负责教授本门课程I'm professor of this course.本课程旨在让大家And what this is going to be在宏观上对人类心智研究形成基本的认识is a comprehensive introduction to the study of the human mind.因此我们讨论的主题会非常之广泛So, we are going to cover a very, very wide range of topics 其中囊括了大脑儿童语言性including brains, children, language, sex,记忆狂躁厌恶memory, madness, disgust,歧视以及爱恋等等racism and love, and many others.我们将会探讨的问题诸如We're going to talk about things like the proper explanation如何合理解释两性差异for differences between men and women;动物究竟能否学习语言the question of whether animals can learn language;我们作呕究竟因何而起the puzzle of what grosses us out;为何我们有些人会进食过量the problem of why some of us eat too much而我们又该如何阻止and what we could do to stop;为何当人们融入团体时会变得疯狂the question of why people go crazy in groups;我们同样关注research into你能否相信自己的儿时记忆whether you could trust your childhood memories;以及为何抑郁只存在于一部分人中research into why some of us get depressed and others don't.这门课一周两节The style of this is there'll be two lectures a week,也会有指定的阅读材料as well as course readings.要想在这门课中取得好成绩Now, to do well in the course,必须要认真听讲用心阅读指定书目you have to attend both the lectures and do the readings.两者内容会有些重叠There will be some overlap.有时In some cases,讲课的内容与阅读内容紧密相连the lectures will be quite linked to the readings.但部分的阅读内容But there will be some parts of the readings并不会在课上进行讨论that will not find their way into the lectures,也会有一些课堂内容and some lectures--some entire lectures完全与阅读材料无关that will not connect at all to the readings.因此想要学好这门课程So, to pursue this course properly你就必须两者兼顾you have to do both.这也就意味着What this means is that如果你落下了一节课你就要看笔记if you miss a class you need to get notes,你可以向朋友或者身边的同学借来看and so you should get them from a friend or from the person sitting next to you.我会把幻灯片放到网上The slides are going to be made available online.你不用抄我的课件So, one of the things you don't have to do is you don't have to write this down.你可以用自己的方式做笔记You take notes any way you choose,但如果你不想记笔记but if you don't get anything on there也大可直接下载课件it'll be available online.我会把它做成黑白板式上传I'm going to post it in a format which will be black and white方便同学打印and easy to print out所以完全不用担心笔记问题so you don't have to worry about this.但我要强调But again,看课件绝对不可能替代上课attending to the slides is not a substitute for attending class.我们的教材是There's a textbook,彼得·格雷的《心理学》第五版Peter Gray's Psychology, 5th edition,我们的阅读书目是and there's also a collection of short readings,格雷·马库斯主编的《诺顿读本》The Norton Reader edited by Gary Marcus.这是一本非常经典的教材It's an excellent textbook;当然读本也同样精彩it's an excellent collection,要求大家两本书都有and you should get them both.你能够在约克街的迷宫书店买到They're available at Labyrinth bookstore on York Street或者网购or you get them online.告诉大家一个小秘密上一期课我用了I should note that last time I taught the course我指定的教材是马库斯的读本I used the Marcus Reader,上学期马文·春教授指定的是and when Professor Marvin Chun taught his course last semester 彼得·格雷的第五版教材he used Peter Gray's 5th edition textbook.所以会有很多旧书So, there may be a lot of used copies floating around.大家大可以光明正大地拿来用You should feel free to try to get one of those.下面我们来说分数The evaluation goes like this.期中和期末我们各有一次考试There is a Midterm and there is a Final.期末考试不会拖到考试周The Final will not be held in the exam period,因为长假的魅力实在太大because I like to take long vacations.所以我把考试安排在了最后一次课上It will be held the last day of class.题型分为单项选择简答The exams will be multiple choice and short answer,还有填空之类的fill in the blank, that sort of thing.考试前我会把历年真题放在网上Prior to the exams I will post previous exams online,以便大家熟悉考试模式so you have a feeling for how these exams work and so on.还会同时上传复习大纲There will also be review sessions.本课程将于开学后三周开课Starting at the beginning of the third week of class也就是自下下周开始每周一上课that is not next week but the week after on each Monday我会提出一系列问题I'm going to put up a brief question or set of questions,要同学们思考并回答which you have to answer大家的答案要在周五前交给研究生助教and your answers need to be sent to your teaching fellow.周五会将各位研究生助教安排给你们大家And you'll be given a teaching fellow, assigned one, by Friday.这个作业不会很难This is not meant to be difficult.几分钟就能完成It's not meant to be more than five, ten minutes of work,这个作业的目的but the point of the question,要十几到二十分钟完成吧--15, 20 minutes of work,这个作业的目的在于激励大家but the point of the question is to motivate people跟上课程的进度并去阅读材料to keep up with the material and do the readings.这些作业会被评为"及格"或"不及格"These questions will be marked pass, fail.我希望大家在所有的问题上都能及格I expect most everybody could pass all of the questions但这只是想让大家不要掉队督促一下but it's just to keep you on track and keep you going.我们还要写一篇简短的书评There is a book review, a short book review,在临近期末的时候完成to be written towards near the end of the class.我在之后的课上会给大家讲详细的要求I'll give details about that later on in the semester.我还要求你们以被试的身份去参加实验And there's also an experimental participation requirement,下个星期我会给你们and next week I'll hand out一份关于要求的介绍a piece of paper describing the requirement.这项要求的重点在于让你们去亲身体会The point of the requirement is to give you all experience看看心理学到底在研究些什么actually seeing what psychological research is about同时也能够为我们的研究as well as to give us提供数百名的被试hundreds of subjects to do our experiments on.有时会有同学问到The issue sometimes comes up as to如何才能学好这门课程how to do well in the course.下面我来告诉你们该怎样做Here's how to do well.不要缺课Attend all the classes.一定要阅读指定的材料Keep up with the readings.最好是在上课前就已经阅读过指定材料Ideally, keep up with the readings before you come to class.我强烈建议大家建立一些学习小组And one thing I would strongly suggest is to form some sort of study groups,正式的或非正式的都可以either formally or informally.这样在考试之前Have people you could talk to你就能和大家一起讨论when the--prior to the exams or—她拍了下她旁边的人she's patting somebody next to her.希望你能认识他I hope you know him.事实上我会安排大家相互认识And in fact, what I'm going to do,这节课不会了因为这是节试听课not this class because it's shopping period.我不知道下节课会有谁来有什么情况I don't know who's coming next class, or what不过我会在课程开始的时候but I'll set up a few minutes prior,先安排几分钟at the beginning of the class,让你们向前后左右的同学for people just to introduce进行一番自我介绍themselves to the person next to them这样你们就能在这个班里so they have some sort of resource认识一些新同学了in the class.这是一门大班课程Now, this is a large class,如果你并不打算和周围人相互介绍的话and if you don't do anything about it,也就不会有什么人能够认识你了it can be very anonymous.也许你们有些人会选择这种做法And some of you may choose to pursue it that way当然这样做是完全可以的and that's totally fine.但我还是建议你们But what I would suggest you do与我们大家建立些联系is establish some contact with us,不论是和我还是和研究生助教either with me or with any of the teaching fellows,我会在下周向你们介绍研究生助教们and I'll introduce the teaching fellows sometime next week.你们可以在课前或课后与我们交谈You could talk to us at the beginning or at the end of class.如果没有什么特殊情况Unless there are special circumstances,我一般都会至少提前十分钟到教室I always try to come at least ten minutes early,我也愿意在课后和大家一起讨论问题and I am willing to stay late to talk to people.你们可以在我的办公时间来找我You could come by during my office hours,教学大纲上有写我的办公时间which are on the syllabus,你们也可以通过电子邮件跟我预约and you could send me e-mail and set up an appointment.我非常愿意同学生们一起讨论些好的想法I'm very willing to talk to students about intellectual ideas,讨论下学习困难之类的话题about course problems and so on.如果你们在校园里碰见了我And if you see me at some point just on campus,你们可以向我进行自我介绍you could introduce yourself碰见我教的学生我会很开心的and I'd like to meet people from this class.那么我再强调一遍So, again, I want to stress你们可以选择在这门课上默默无闻you have the option of staying anonymous in this class,但是你们也可以选择站出来but you also have the option of seeking out跟我们多多接触and making some sort of contact with us.好了Okay.刚才讲了些课程的规定That's the formal stuff of the course.那这门课讲了些什么呢What's this course about?与其他很多课程不同Unlike a lot of other courses,一些学生是带着非同寻常的动机some people come to Intro Psychology来上心理学导论这门课的with some unusual motivations.也许是你觉得自己疯了Maybe you're crazy所以希望能够不那么疯and hope to become less crazy .也许你想学会如何更好地学习Maybe you want to learn how to study better,想提升你的性生活质量improve your sex life,想为自己释梦interpret your dreams,想多交点交朋友and win friends想学会如何影响他人and influence people.作为选择这门课程的理由Those are not necessarily bad reasons这些倒也并不算太差to take this course,当然除了性这个方面and with the exception of the sex part,这门课实际上还是能够帮助你们this course might actually help you out解决一些问题的with some of these things.科学的心理学研究The study of scientific psychology能让你们更多地了解has a lot of insights of real world与我们日常面对的真实问题有关的relevance to real problems真实的世界that we face in our everyday lives.当这些问题出现的时候And I'm going to try-- and when these issues come up—我会强调这些问题I'm going to try to stress them并让你们试着思考and make you try to think about the extent想想我将讲到的实验室研究to which the laboratory research I'll be talking about对你们日常生活的影响can affect your everyday life:你们是如何学习的how you study,是如何与他人交流的how you interact with people,是如何说服他人去认同别人观点的how you might try to persuade somebody of something else,哪种心理治疗最适合你what sort of therapy works best for you.但实际上我觉得这门课的总体目标But the general goals of this course要比上面的这些更有意思are actually I think even more interesting than that.我所要做的What I want to do is就是向大家介绍在人文领域里to provide a state of the art introduction对最重要主题to the most important topic也就是对我们人类的研究现状that there is: us.人类大脑如何运作How the human mind works,我们如何思考how we think,又是什么让我们变成了现在的样子what makes us what we are.我们将从多个方面来理解这些问题And we'll be approaching this from a range of directions.所以传统上So, traditionally,心理学通常被分为以下五个子领域psychology is often broken up into the following--into five sub-areas:神经科学Neuroscience,通过观察大脑反应来研究心理which is the study of the mind by looking at the brain;发展心理学这是我的主要研究方向developmental, which is the area which I focus mostly on,研究人类是如何成长发育以及学习的which is trying to learn about how people develop and grow and learn;认知心理学cognitive,也许是五个子领域里which is the one term of the five对你们有些人来说最不熟悉的一个领域that might be unfamiliar to some of you,它用计算机方法来研究心理but it refers to a sort of computational approach to studying the mind,通常将心理比作计算机often viewing the mind on analogy with a computer并探究人类如何行动如言语理解and looking at how people do things like understand language,物体辨认游戏等等recognize objects, play games, and so on.还有社会心理学There is social,主要研究人类的群体行为which is the study of how people act in groups,如何与他人交流how people act with other people.最后就是临床心理学And there is clinical,这也许是当人们提到心理学时which is maybe the aspect of psychology最先想到的方面that people think of immediately when they hear psychology,它主要研究心理健康和心理疾病which is the study of mental health and mental illness.我们会涉及以上所有的领域And we'll be covering all of those areas.我们还会涉及一些相关的领域We'll also be covering a set of related areas.我坚信仅仅局限于心理学学科的学习I am convinced that you cannot study the mind是不可能让你有能力去研究人类心理的solely by looking at the discipline of psychology.心理学学科充满了心理如何发展的问题The discipline of psychology spills over to issues of how the mind has evolved.经济学和游戏理论如今已经成为了Economics and game theory are now essential tools理解人类思维和人类行为的重要方法for understanding human thought and human behavior—这些问题涉及哲学计算机科学those issues connecting to philosophy, computer science,人类学文学神学anthropology, literature, theology,以及许多其他的科学领域and many, many other domains.因此这门课程涉及到的方面将相当的广泛So, this course will be wide ranging in that sense.到现在为止我一直都在进行一些概述At this point I've been speaking in generalities我想通过给出五个so I want to close this introductory class我们将会涉及到的一些主题的例子by giving five examples of the sorts of topics来结束这节导论课we'll be covering.我以我们下周一要讨论的主题And I'll start with the topic that we'll be covering作为开始next week on Monday大脑The brain.这是一个大脑This is a brain.实际上这是个特殊人物的大脑In fact, it's a specific person's brain,有意思的是大脑上有个白色的小标记and what's interesting about the brain is that little white mark there.这是个女人的大脑It's her brain.是特丽·夏沃的大脑It's Terri Schiavo's brain.你们能更好地从她的照片上认出她You recognize her more from pictures like that.想象一下这样的情况And what a case like this,某人正陷于昏迷之中where somebody is in a coma,由于脑部损伤而失去了意识is without consciousness as a result of damage to the brain,这是心理活动的生理属性毫无修饰的图解is a stark illustration of the physical nature of mental life.我们所拥有的一切的生理基础The physical basis for everything that we normally hold dear,如自由意志意识道德和情绪like free will, consciousness, morality and emotions,我们的课程将会以此作为开始and that's what we'll begin the course with,讨论生理的东西如何能产生心理活动talking about how a physical thing can give rise to mental life.我们会讨论很多与孩子有关的问题We'll talk a lot about children.这实际上是个特殊的小孩This is actually a specific child.是我儿子扎卡里It's my son, Zachary,我的小儿子my younger son,扮成蜘蛛侠的样子dressed up as Spider-Man,不过这是在万圣节but it is Halloween.不对不是万圣节No, it's not Halloween.这个还是有故事可说的Well, there's more to say about that.我主要研究儿童的发展I study child development for a living我对很多问题都感兴趣and I'm interested in several questions.其中一个便是发展的问题So, one question is just the question of development.这个教室里的所有人都能讲英语Everybody in this room can speak也能听得懂英语and understand English.大家对于这个世界是如何运作的Everybody in this room has some understanding身体是如何运作的of how the world works,多少都有一些了解how physical things behave.大家对于他人对于人类如何行动Everybody in this room has some understanding of other people,都多少有些了解and how people behave.发展心理学家们所关心的问题And the question that preoccupies developmental psychologists 就是我们如何获得这些知识的is how do we come to have this knowledge,特别是and in particular,这其中有多少是固有的how much of it is hard-wired,内在的天生的built-in, innate.又有多少是文化的产物And how much of it is the product of culture,语言的产物或是教育的产物of language, of schooling?发展心理学家们使用了许多巧妙的方法And developmental psychologists use many ingenious methods试图将这些因素分开to try to pull these apart试图找出人性的基本成分and try to figure out what are the basic components究竟是什么of human nature.还有一个连续性的问题There's also the question of continuity.这时的扎卡里To what extent is Zachary, at that age,会在多大程度上一直保持不变going to be that way forever?你的人生又有多少是由命运决定的呢To what extent is your fate sealed?又在多大的程度上可能To what extent could--如果在你五岁的时候我见过你if I were to meet you when you were five years old那我可以描述出现在的你吗I could describe the way you are now?诗人威廉·华兹华斯写道The poet William Wordsworth wrote,"三岁定终身""The child is father to the man,"意思是你可以从孩子儿时的身影中and what this means is that you can see within every child 看出他或她成人后的样子the adult he or she will become.我们会去探索并质疑此话的正确性We will look and ask the question whether this is true.你的人格真会是这样的吗Is it true for your personality?你的兴趣也是这样吗Is it true for your interests?你的智力是这样的吗Is it true for your intelligence?与发展有关的另一个问题是Another question having to do with development什么让我们成为了如今的样子is what makes us the way we are?我们在很多方面都有所不同We're different in a lot of ways.大家的口味不尽相同The people in this room differ according to their taste in food.他们的智商也不同They differ according to their IQs;他们自信还是害羞whether they're aggressive or shy;他们是否喜欢男人女人whether they're attracted to males, females,都喜欢还是都不喜欢both or neither;他们是否擅长于音乐whether they are good at music;他们是政治上的自由派还是保守派whether they are politically liberal or conservative.为什么我们会不同Why are we different?对我们为什么不同的解释又是什么What's the explanation for why we're different?再一次And again,这可以从基因和环境的角度this could be translated in terms of加以理解a question of genes and environment.在多大程度上我们被我们的基因所决定To what extent are things the result of the genes wepossess?在多大程度上我们的个性To what extent are our individual natures the result of被如何抚养所决定how we were raised?在多大的程度上这些区别And to what extent are they best explained可以从相互作用的角度得到最佳的解释in terms of an interaction?一个常见的理论例如One common theory, for instance,是我们的父母塑造了我们的人格is that we are shaped by our parents.这一点被一位英国诗人菲利普·拉金This was best summarized most famously很好地总结了他写道by the British poet Philip Larkin who wrote,他们害了你They mess you up,你爸和你妈your mum and dad.他们不是故意的但事实却如此They may not mean to but they do.他们将他们身上的毛病传给了你They fill you with the faults they had还有灌输了许多其他的毛病and add some extra just for you.他说得对吗Is he right?这是很有争议的It's very controversial.你有一系列的You-- It's been a series of--关于父母在多大程度上起作用a huge controversy in the popular culture在流行文化里是有很大争议的to the extent of which parents matter我们将会在这门课里用很多的时间and this is an issue which will preoccupy us来讲这个问题for much of the course.另一个问题A different question:是什么使一个人如此迷人What makes somebody attractive?这可以在很多层面上问及And this can be asked at all sorts of levels但一个简单的层面就是什么才是好看but a simple level is what makes for a pretty face?这些就是So, these are,根据投票according to ratings,非常迷人的面孔very attractive faces.它们不是真人的面孔They are not the faces of real people.屏幕上面的这些是电脑生成的What's on the screen are computer generated faces一个高加索男性和一个高加索女性的面孔of a Caucasian male and a Caucasian female他们在现实世界中并不存在who don't exist in the real world.但是通过使用电脑合成But through using this sort of computer generation,然后问人们他们觉得这个长相如何and then asking people what they think of this face,那个长相如何what they think of that face,科学家多少了解到scientists have come to some sense怎样才算是迷人的面孔as to what really makes a face attractive,无论是在一种文化下还是跨文化的both within cultures and across cultures.这是当我们谈到社会行为时And that's something which we're going to devote some time to 要花一些时间去讲的东西when we talk about social behavior,特别是当我们谈到性的时候and in particular, when we talk about sex.迷人或是美丽并非仅仅指性Not all attractiveness, not all beauty of course, is linked to sex.比如说熊猫So, pandas for instance,像这只熊猫就是公认的可爱like this panda, are notoriously cute,关于这我并没有什么可说的and I don't have anything to say about it really.这只是一张可爱的图片It's just a cute picture .道德在我们生活中是极为核心的Morality is extremely central to our lives,我们要在大部分课中探讨的and a deep question, which we will struggle with一个深入的问题throughout most of the course,就是善与恶的问题is the question of good and evil,恶与善evil and good.这三张图展示了不同种类的恶These three pictures exemplify different sorts of evil.你可以将此称作机构性邪恶What you could call institutional evil产生于某人残忍地对待他人by somebody behaving cruelly toward somebody else,或许不是出于恶意perhaps not due to malice而是由于她所处的境况而导致but because of the situation that she's in.这是一张奥萨马·本·拉登的照片It has picture of Osama bin Laden,他是个被政治原因所驱使的杀人狂a mass murderer driven by political cause?然后是底下的这个人And then there's this guy on the bottom.有人知道他是谁吗Anybody know who he is?泰德·邦迪谁看出来了Ted Bundy. Who got that?给这位同学一个特写Film that man .不用了No.没错就是泰德·邦迪Ted Bundy, exactly,这就像是在我们去了解and that's like, before we get into诸如邪恶事物的专业知识之前the technical stuff like crazy-evil,我们会先想到and we're going to have to come to terms为什么人们会那样with why some people are like that.同样的情况又再次出现了And again, the same situation comes up.人性究竟是善还是恶Is it part of your nature to be good or bad或者说是否应当更多地归因于所处的环境or is it largely due to the situation that you fall in?有许多非常引人注目的实验And there's a lot of some quite spectacular experiments试图把这两者分开that try to tease that apart.如果我们要谈论恶If we're going to talk about evil,那么我们也应该谈谈善we should also talk about good.这是些众所周知的好人的照片These are pictures of two notoriously good men,奥斯卡·辛德勒和保罗·卢斯赛伯吉纳Oskar Schindler and Paul Rusesabagina,两人在不同的历史时期each who at different times in history冒着生命危险挽救了很多人的生命saved the lives of many, many people at great risk to themselves.大屠杀中的辛德勒Schindler in the Holocaust,以及另外一个人and then the other guy,我不知道他的名字怎么发音in and I can't pronounce his name卢斯赛伯吉纳在卢旺达Rusesabagina, in Rwanda.关于这两个人都有很好的电影And they both had real good movies made about them.但这些例子所表明的就是But what's interesting with these cases is你不可能提前预知you couldn't have predicted ahead of time他们会成为英雄that they would be heroes.。

耶鲁大学公开课-心理学导论第3课中文课件上堂课我们探讨了大脑及其功能,接下来我们将进一步学习一些基础理论,所以在今天和星期一,我们将学习两大心理理论,其代表人物分别是,西格蒙特•弗洛伊德和,伯尔赫斯•弗雷德里克•斯金纳,这两个理论便是精神分析理论,和行为主义理论,今天我们先来讲讲精神分析理论,下周再谈行为主义理论,这些理论广阔的适用范围,则是它们能够吸引大家关注的原因之一.本课程中所学习的大部分理论,大部分学术观点,它们的应用范围都是狭隘的.我们会谈到某人所提出的,关于种族偏见的理论,但它却并不是语言获得的理论,我们会讲到关于精神分裂症的理论,但它们却并不能用来解释性吸引,大多数理论的适用范围都是有所限定的,但这两个理论则是大理论,它们试图对世间的一切做出解释,包括了日常生活,儿童发展心理疾病,宗教战争及爱情,弗洛伊德和斯金纳的理论解释了上述一切.当然这里并不是历史课堂,给你们介绍这两位心理学泰斗,并不只是想让大家了解心理学史,我想要向你们讲述的是他们的理论,因为它们是众多理论的基石,更重要的是,其中的很多观点对于我们如何理解当下,具有决定性的影响.就是这张,无论如何,弗洛伊德都深深的影响着我们的生活,如果我让大家选出一位,不是说出一位著名心理学家的名字,你们大家多数人会回答.弗洛伊德.他是史上最著名的心理学家,对20世纪与21世纪,的心理学界都有着深远的影响.据其传记记载,他生于19世纪50年代,他的大半生都是居住在奥地利的维也纳,却在伦敦去世,二战伊始随着纳粹侵占其家乡,他被迫背井离乡,后来逃到伦敦在那里终其余生,他也是史上最著名的学者之一,但他不是因为某一项发现而名扬四海,相反他却因为提出了极具包容性的,心理理论而闻名天下,这个理论是他通过数十年的研究才提出的,弗洛伊德在世时远近闻名,是个家喻户晓的名人纵观他的一生,他还是一个精力充沛的高产学者,部分原因是他是个十足的瘾君子,但总体而言,他是一个精力旺盛的人,他曾获得过诺贝尔医学奖和文学奖的提名,但却都未能最终获奖,没能获得诺贝尔医学奖则是因为爱因斯坦,大家都喜欢爱因斯坦,当时爱因斯坦确实写过一封信,因为大会曾征求其他获奖者的意见,爱因斯坦在信中写到,"请别把奖项颁发给弗洛伊德,他不配获得诺贝尔奖,他不过是个心理学家",事情就是这个样子,好了,他被公认为,极为重要的知识分子,但同时他也成为了别人唾弃的对象,这在一定程度上是由他的性格造成的,他的许多做法都有失妥当,他雄心勃勃,想要壮大精神分析,想要向世人展示他的观点,想要为其观点进行辩护,他还经常说谎,对朋友蛮不讲理,对竞争对手也毫不留情,他这人很有意思,我最喜欢的关于弗洛伊德的故事是这样的,他在纳粹兴起之际逃离欧洲,他正准备逃到英格兰去,我想应该是从德国或者是奥地利出发,盖世太保逼迫他签署了一份文件,盖世太保们拦住了他,要求他签署一份文件上面写着,他绝没有受到盖世太保的威胁或骚扰,他签署了文件并在下面写到,"盖世太保从不曾伤害我,实际上我要向大家强烈推荐他们",这里他表现出了一定的攻击性他还因其观点而遭到唾弃受到憎恨,他被认为是支持性本能论的,其观点试图毁掉,人是善良理性而又纯粹的这一概念,上世纪30年代纳粹势力崛起时,他被认为是一个,致力于摧毁基督教之中,最神圣的观念的犹太人,在某种程度上这是很多人对他的看法,而这一指责在某程度上,也的确是有几分道理的,弗洛伊德发表了许多关于人性的言论,很多人都并不愿相信他的这些言论,那他究竟说了些什么呢?,如果你去询问某个厌恶弗洛伊德言论的人,他们定会告诉你一些弗洛伊德说过的蠢话,而事实上弗洛伊德发表过很多言论,只是其中的部分言论不太合理而已,比如,他因对性器表征的解释而为人熟知,他认为某些建筑纪念碑,是潜意识中阴茎表征的展现,与此有关的是他提出了,臭名昭著的阴茎嫉妒论,根据弗洛伊德的理论,阴茎嫉妒是对女性所经历的,某一发展状态的解释,这个观点认为,女性会在发育的某个时期,发现自身缺少阴茎,这无疑是一场灾难,因此这个时候,女性便猜测自己是被阉割了,她们本来是拥有阴茎的,但却被某人夺去了,随后她们开始关注父亲,并爱上自己的父亲,因为父亲拥有阴茎,从此他成为了阴茎的替代品,同时女性会排斥母亲,原因是母亲没有阴茎所以也是卑贱的,女性的性心理发展随之成形.如果大家对于弗洛伊德的了解仅限于此,一定不会对他及其学说给予太高的评价,不过弗洛伊德理论的核心,也是更有价值的观点,是一系列关于人类理性的主张.其中的两个主要观点如图所示,这两个观点涉及了无意识动机的存在,以及导致心理疾病梦境,口误等心理过程的,无意识动力或无意识冲突的概念.第一个观点即关于无意识动机的观点The first idea – the idea of unconscious motivation –,拒绝承认人类行为受到意识的支配,假设你爱上了某人,想要与对方一同步入婚姻的殿堂,要是有人问你为什么想要与对方共度余生,你大概会说,"现在我已准备好要开始婚姻生活了",或"我真心的爱着他",或"他聪明有魅力","我想要小孩了" 等等,或许这是你的心里话,但精神分析的支持者会说,即使你是如实作答,并未向他人撒谎,但却依然存在着支配你行为的欲望和动机–still, there are desires and motivations that govern your behavior,只是你没有意识到罢了,所以事实上你想与约翰结婚,可能是因为他让你想起了你的父亲,或是因为你想要报复曾经背叛了你的人,如果有人这样对你说,你定会说"一派胡言",但精神分析的支持者并不会就此打住,他会说这些心理过程都是无意识的,所以你当然意识不到,由此引出的一个偏激的观点,你根本不知道自己为何要这么去做,这有点像我们获得视觉感知的过程,当我们环顾四周便会产生感知觉,明白这是一辆车,那是一棵树那边有一个人,你根本没有意识到知觉过程是如何发生的,但当你将无意识概念应用到很多事情中时,你便会感到不悦和恐惧,比如你为什么会来耶鲁求学,你为什么会觉得应当这样,去对待你的朋友和家人婚姻是一个极端的例子,但弗洛伊德还举了很多简单点的例子,来阐释无意识动机是如何发挥作用的,例如你是否曾经毫无理由地,喜欢或厌恶过某个人,你是否曾发现自己,在没有充分的理由的情况下做出某事,为某事争论或是做出了某个决定,你是否曾在最不应该的时候,忘掉了某人的姓名,你是否曾在与爱人激情时喊错了名字,这全都属于精神分析中的无意识范畴,所以这些事情可以通过,我们无法觉察到的认知系统,予以解释,如果无意识是台理智的计算机,它非常聪明,总在为你寻求最佳利益,那其实也倒没什么,但弗洛伊德告诉我们事实并非如此根据弗洛伊德的理论,在你的头脑中存在着,三种截然不同的人格结构,它们之间存在着强烈的内部冲突,你的行为模式与你的思维方式,并不是单一理性存在的产物,而是一系列冲突事件的产物,这三种结构分别是本我自我,和超我,它们随着个体的发展而逐渐出现弗洛伊德认为本我是与生俱来的,是自性中生物性的一面,本我追求吃喝拉撒保暖,和性欲的满足,它是盲目的,遵循弗洛伊德所说的"快乐原则" It works on what Freud called, "The Pleasure Principle.”,本我追求快乐的即时满足,根据弗洛伊德的理论,刚出生的婴儿就是这个样子,也就是说婴儿只有本我,弗洛伊德美其名曰"多形性反常",即追求纯粹的快乐,但不幸的是现实是残酷的,世事总难以尽如人意,快乐并不总是在你想要的时候得到满足,你只能通过设法满足欲望,或设法抑制欲望,来应对这样的事实,这个结构被称为自我或是自性,它所遵循的是"现实原则",它试图在现实中找到,满足本我要求的方法,找到追求快乐的方法,有时是去找寻放弃的方法,因而在弗洛伊德的理论中,自我的出现象征着意识的起源,最后如果只存在自我和本我,那么事情会简单得多,但弗洛伊德又提出了第三种结构超我,超我是社会家庭规范的内化,因此在成长过程中,你试图在现实中满足本我的要求,满足自己的欲望,但有时也会因此而受到惩罚,有些欲望是不适当的,有些行为是错的你会因此而受到惩罚,因为在你的脑海里会闪现出超我,一种道德良知,就像是电影里那些盘旋在头上的小天使,告诉你什么是不应该做的,而基本上自性或者说自我,是介于本我与超我之间的,需要注意的是,我之前说过本我是盲目的,它只知道"饿要吃饭性欲要满足,冷了要穿衣服" oh, let’s get warm, oh.”,但其实超我也是盲目的,超我并不是一位能够教你明辨是非的,伟大的道德哲学家,它只懂得说"你该为自己感到羞耻","你真恶心","别再那样做了","天啊" Oh.”,在这两个争执的声音之间的结构,一种声音要你去满足欲望,另一种声音却说"你应该感到羞耻",就是你就是自我,根据弗洛伊德的理论,人格结构的大部分是无意识的,我们可以看到,上面的部分是我们的感受,我们的经历,本我的驱力,本我和超我的力量,都存在于我们无法觉察的无意识之中,这就像是我们无法察觉,肾和胃的活动一样,你无法通过自省而感受到它们的存在,相反它们的活动都是无意识的,这就是弗洛伊德提出的理论,这就是弗洛伊德理论的大体框架,他在此基础上扩展并提出了,性心理发展理论,所以正如之前所说,弗洛伊德的理论不仅解释了日常生活,决策失误以及恋爱等现象,还解释了儿童的发展弗洛伊德认为人格发展,分为五个阶段,且每个阶段都与特定的动欲区有关,弗洛伊德还认为,如果你在某一阶段遇到了阻碍,没能得到满足你就会停留在这个阶段,所以根据弗洛伊德的理论,在座各位之所以展示出不同的人格,是因为你们停留在了口腔期或肛门期,这可不是什么好事第一阶段是口腔期,快乐来源于口腔的动作,包括吮吸咀嚼等活动,在弗洛伊德看来,问题就出在孩子过早断奶上面,过早断奶,会对他的人格发展造成严重影响,会使孩子形成所谓的口腔期人格,口唇期人格有一些具体的表现,弗洛伊德用口腔期人格,来解释为什么会有人暴饮暴食,嚼口香糖或是抽烟,他们想通过这种口腔运动,来获得本该在口腔期获得的满足感,口腔期人格也有一些抽象的表现,如果你的室友很依赖他人很粘人,你可以去告诉他,"你具有口腔期人格,你在出生的第一年里过的并不好"更为人所熟知的一个阶段则是肛门期,它出现在口腔期之后,如果没能正确掌握如厕训练,那么问题便出现了,据弗洛伊德的理论,如果你在那几年里你出了问题,那么你就会形成肛门期人格,你的室友会说"你就是肛门期人格" and your roommate could say, "Your problem is you’re too anal.”,根据弗洛伊德的理论,这就表示,你不愿意排泄粪便,书上就是这么写的,也确实就是这样的,这种人格表现为,强迫有洁癖和吝啬,这些都可从人们谈话方式看出,这就是肛门期人格接下来的阶段就稍微复杂点了,下一个阶段是性器官期,实际上这个阶段也并不是非常复杂,性器官成为了快乐的主要来源,固着在此阶段会导致女性或男性,过分男性化,或是导致女性产生对于关注或控制的欲求,这个时期会出现一个有趣的现象,叫做"俄狄浦斯情结" [恋母情结],名字来自于一个故事,一则国王弑父娶母的希腊神话,据弗洛伊德的理论,我们所有人都会产生这个情结,所有人,不过弗洛伊德指的是所有的男人,俄狄浦斯情结是这样的,你到了三四岁的年龄,处于性器官期,你会对什么感兴趣呢,你会对自己的性器官产生兴趣,之后你会去寻求外部客体,弗洛伊德对此描述的有些模糊,但其实你是在寻求某种满足,但全世界又有谁,是温柔体贴而又慈爱美丽的呢,妈妈,所以小男孩会推断,"妈妈很好我爱妈妈",到目前为止一切尚算正常,小男孩爱上了他的母亲,问题是父亲妨碍了他,现在事情变得越来越诡异,但我要说,我是两个儿子的父亲,我的两个儿子在性器官期时,都曾明确地说过要娶他们的妈妈,对我来说如果真有什么不幸And me – if something bad happened to me,也没有比儿子们弑父娶母更糟糕的事情了,就是这样,但这时会出现一些攻击性,男孩决心要去杀掉父亲,每个三四岁大的男孩都这么想过,但是据弗洛伊德的理论,由于儿童无法很好地,在心理和现实之间划清界限,这就是个问题which is a problem –the problem is they don’t –,即他们认为自己的父亲,能够看出他们在密谋弑父,而且他们还认为父亲非常生他们的气,之后他们会问自己,"爸爸对我施加的最坏的惩罚会是什么",答案就是阉割,所以他们最终总结出,父亲会因为他们对母亲,抱有非分之想而阉割他们,然后他们向父亲投降"爸爸赢了",随后几年他们不再对性感兴趣,也就是来到了潜伏期在潜伏期阶段,儿童不再纠缠于恋父或恋母情结,从"爱上母亲想要弑父,父亲要阉割我" 过渡到,"不再恋母不再对性感兴趣",在进入性器期之前,性欲一直是被压抑着的,性征期是我们大家都会经历的阶段And the genital stage is the stage we are all in –,它延续至成年,现在你成年了,经历了所有的发展阶段,那你现在又是处于什么阶段呢,你并没有脱离险境,因为无意识机制依然存在,即使你并没在任何阶段里发生固着,你的行为仍然会一直受到本我,自我和超我的驱使,大家记住你的超我是盲目的,超我不仅要求你别干坏事,还要求你不要有做坏事的想法,而你的本我则由赤裸裸的原始欲望构成,包括了疯狂的性欲和攻击欲,如"我要杀了他","我要那样做爱",或"我要再吃一份餐后甜点",超我则在打压这些欲望"不行",所以欲望受到了抑制,这个过程并不会出现在意识层面之中,问题在于,弗洛伊德用所谓的液压理论,解释了发生的事情,有些受到压抑的欲望,会通过梦境和口误而表现出来,在某些特殊情况下,受压抑的欲望,会通过特定的临床症状而表现出来弗洛伊德描述了,很多我们会在日常生活中使用的方法,我们用这些方法,来阻止来自本我的原始欲望,进入到意识之中,他把这些方法称为"防御机制",你通过抵制不适当的原始欲望来保护自己,其中有些防御机制是很有意义的,用并不专业的非精神分析的话语来表述,就是我们并不想知道某些事情的存在,有些欲望我们并不想承认,我们会设法将这些欲望隐藏起来,例如有一种叫做升华的防御机制,升华是你有很多的能量,可能是性能量也可能是攻击能量,但你并未将它们指向性目标或攻击目标,而是将这些能量以其他方式进行了释放,你可以想象像毕加索这样的艺术大师,通过绘画来释放他的性能量,还有移置,移置是你将自己某些不道德的想法或欲望,以安全的方式释放出去,屈于父亲权威下的男孩,可能会憎恨他的父亲想要伤害父亲,但这个想法是可耻的也是难以实现的,孩子可能会去踢狗觉得狗很可恨,因为狗是可以接受的替代性目标,还有投射机制,投射是指人们将自己不想拥有的,某种令自己不能容忍的冲动,投射到别人的身上,弗洛伊德举出的一个典型例子,就是同性恋的欲望,我对你产生了强烈的性欲,比如你们所有人你们三个,我为这种性欲感到羞耻,所以我会说,"你们干嘛色眯眯地看着我,你在对我暗送秋波吗太恶心了",因为我这样说不仅满足了自我欲求,还把想法投射到别人身上,弗洛伊德认为这或许不难理解,迷恋,迷恋其他男人性征的男人们,把他们自己的性欲投射到了别人的身上,还有合理化,是指当你做坏事或有不良想法时,你会将行为合理化,为行为寻找一个更为社会接受的解释,比如喜欢打孩子的父母,一般不会说"我就是喜欢打孩子",而是说"这都是为了孩子好,我只是想做一位好家长而已",最后来说说退行,意思是回归到发展的某个早期阶段,孩子们经常使用这种防御机制,在他们感到压力和受伤的时候,他们回到更加年幼的阶段,表现出年幼时的行为,他们可能会哭,吮大拇指或是去寻找毯子之类的弗洛伊德认为所有的机制,都绝非病态的表现,它们是日常生活的组成部分,一般来说我们会运用这些机制,去维持无意识系统的平衡,但有时防御机制也会不起作用,当防卫机制不起作用时,就会造成一种病症,其名称在如今的心理学领域已经不常用到,但在弗洛伊德的时代,这是个非常流行的名称,这就是癔症[歇斯底里症],癔症的临床表现包括,癔症性失明和癔症性失聪,它们是指你在并无器质性损伤的情况下,目不能视耳不能闻even though there’s nothing physiologically wrong with you –,此外还有瘫痪震颤恐慌症,健忘症之类的记忆缺失等等,上述这些都是实实在在的症状,这些就是试图将欲望抑制在无意识之中的,防御机制所产生的症状,电影中有很多这样的例子,电影中常见的情节是,有人会求助于精神分析师,他们都有一些严重的问题,比如失忆了或是意识丧失什么的,精神分析师会向他们进行解释,最后他们会理解这样的想法,明白自己为何会失明或失忆,对弗洛伊德来说事情就是这个样子弗洛伊德起初试图通过催眠,来唤起这些遗忘的记忆,但随后改用了自由联想机制,弗洛伊德认为,病人会抗拒自由联想,而精神分析学家的作用,则是克服病人的抗拒,帮助病人理解他们的内在想法,精神分析的关键假设在于,你所遇到的问题,实际上反映出了更深层次的冲突,这些冲突被你压抑起来,一旦你理解了更深层次的冲突究竟是什么,你的问题便会得到解决,现在我举一个心理辅导的例子,这并不是精神分析取向的心理治疗,稍后的课程我们会详细讨论,什么才是精神分析取向的心理治疗,该例子不是纯粹的精神分析取向心理治疗,在精神分析取向的心理治疗中,来访者躺在沙发上,看不到他们的心理治疗师,而心理治疗师也不会有任何暗示性的话语,但我之所以要举出这个例子,是因为它展示了大量精神分析理论的主题,特别是关于梦境梦的重要性,梦的压抑及其隐含意义这样的主题,例子摘自一段电视剧,在座可能已经有人看过,很多人可能还没看过,片中人物饱受恐慌症折磨,保罗•布罗姆教授曾在《黑道家族》中客串演出,尤其是在恐慌症发作的时候,他的首次恐慌症来自于这样一件事,他来到泳池边,看到鸭群飞离游泳池,他就这样患上了恐慌症,心脏剧烈跳动出汗,脸红几乎晕厥过去,恐慌症造成的压力越来越大,直到他去见了心理医生,进行了药物治疗恐慌症才得以治愈,这是他和心理医生的,一次会面弗洛伊德的贡献并不只是局限于,个体心理学和个体病理学的研究方面,正如幻灯片所示,弗洛伊德对梦境做了大量阐释,他认为梦是具有显性梦境的,"显性"是指醒后所能记忆的梦境,但梦还具有潜性梦境,潜性梦境是指梦所隐藏的含义,他认为所有的梦境都是愿望的满足,你做的每一个梦都是你所抱有愿望的展现,即使这是个你并不想拥有的,被禁止的愿望,在弗洛伊德之前就有观点指出,梦具有象征意义,梦境中的事物往往并不像,它们看上去那样的简单,它们通常是其他事物的象征,弗洛伊德认为文学作品童话故事,儿童读物之类的东西,都含有某个一般性的主题,某些方面的无意识冲突,以及某种无意识偏见,弗洛伊德还为宗教给出了大量解释,例如,他认为大部分人,想要寻求一位全知全能的神,其实质是在寻找在发展阶段,所缺失的父亲形象的替代品下面的课我想着重谈谈,对弗洛伊德的科学评价,前面我对弗洛伊德的理论进行了概述,接下来的时间我想来和大家讨论一下,弗洛伊德的理论是否可信,以及弗洛伊德的理论,在多大程度上是符合现代科学的,但在开始之前,先给大家几分钟的提问时间,你们对弗洛伊德,或是他的理论有什么问题吗你来,这问题不错,他提的问题是,弗洛伊德在描述性心理发展过程中,存在的冲突时,总是假设孩子是拥有父母的,是处于特定的家庭结构之中的,问题是,"要是孩子成长于单亲家庭会怎样",如果孩子从未接受过母乳喂养,而是从小就用奶瓶喂养那又会怎样,即便弗洛伊德的支持者们也对此存有疑问,弗洛伊德非常关注,与他接触之人的家庭生活,也就是一些欧洲的贵族们,对于这类问题,相信弗洛伊德本人也很难作答,我猜精神分析的支持者会说,你会看到系统的差异,你会看到由单身母亲抚养长大的孩子,或由单身父亲抚养长大的孩子,在某种意义上,会因此而形成心理创伤,从而无法正常地经历所有的性心理阶段下一个问题,这个问题是,"现代精神分析学家们仍然会认为,女性没有超我吗",正如你刚才指出的,弗洛伊德因一个观点的提出而臭名远扬,他认为与男性相比,女性在道德上是不成熟的,我想弗洛伊德会说女性也是有超我的,但她们的超我并没有男性的超我强大,我认为当今的精神分析学家们,和精神分析的学者们,对此的看法更为多元,有些人会坚持性别差异是根深蒂固的,其他人则想要抛弃精神分析理论,在这个方面的内容下一个问题,升华和移置相同吗,升华是否属于移置的一种形式,升华是指,这是一个好问题,这个问题其实在问什么是升华,它和其它防御机制有什么关系,很多的防御机制都涉及欲望和欲望的转换,移置是指将自己的欲望投放到他人身上,比如我在生你的气,但是可能由于某种原因我无法向你发脾气,所以我就迁怒到她身上,投射是指个体否认自己的欲望,并认为他人拥有此欲望,升华是指你放弃了具体对象,保存了能量,比如说你的室友通宵复习,你会对他说,"你是因为太久没做爱,却又很想做爱,所以你才会将全部的精力,都投入到数学考试之中",然后你总结一句"这叫升华,我在心理学导论课上学到的" I learned that in Intro Psych.”,想。

心理学导论第四课我想在这节课的开始先回头讲讲弗洛依德I actually want to begin by going back to Freud解决一下上节课遗留的几个问题and hitting a couple of loose ends.我周三上课的时候跳过了部分内容There was a point in my lecture on Wednesday where I skipped over some parts.我当时说"没时间讲了" 就跳过没讲I said, "We don't have time for this" and I just whipped past it.可整个周末我都因此而寝食难安And I couldn't sleep over the weekend. I've been tormented.我不该跳过它们所以现在我要讲一下I shouldn't have skipped that and I want to hit--先告诉大家我当时为什么跳过没讲Let me tell you why I skipped it.我所跳过的是关于The discussion I skipped was the discussion of"我们为何会有无意识" 的讨论why we would have an unconscious at all.我当时正在讲So, I was talking about在科学上颇有名望的弗洛依德理论the scientifically respectable ideas of Freud 我想给大家讲一些新的and I want to talk about some new ideas关于"无意识为何会存在"的理论about why there could be an unconscious.我之所以没讲是因为Now, the reason why I skipped it is我不能肯定这是考虑这个问题的最佳方式I'm not sure this is the best way to look at the question.正如我们将会在这门课中了解到的As we will learn throughout the course,尤其是绝大多数的大脑活动by far the vast majority of what our brains do, 绝大多数的心理活动the vast majority of what our minds do,其实都是无意识的是无法察觉到的is unconscious and we're unaware of it.因此问题或许不该是So the right question to ask may not be,"为什么有些心理活动是无意识的""Why are some things unconscious?"而应该是"为什么心理活动的一小部分but rather, why is this tiny subset of mental life--为什么这一小部分是有意识的"why is this conscious?另一方面On the other hand,这些关于无意识功能的主张these claims about the utility of unconsciousness, 是很具有煽动性很有趣的I think, are provocative and interesting.所以我想很快地来给你们大家讲一下So I just wanted to quickly share them with you.那么从进化的观点来看So, the question is, from an evolutionary standpoint,要问的问题便是"无意识为何得以进化""Why would an unconscious evolve?"一些心理学家与生物学家们所给出的答案And an answer that some psychologists and biologists have given是欺骗is deception.大多数动物都会有一些欺骗行为So, most animals do some deception.而广义上的欺骗是以愚弄的方式And deception defined broadly is simply使他人相信虚假之事to act or be in some way认为虚假之事是真实的that fools others into believing or thinking或是使他人对虚假之事做出反应or responding to something that's false.举一个欺骗的实例There's physical examples of deception.当黑猩猩受到威胁When threatened, chimpanzees--它们的毛发会竖起来their hair stands up on end使得他们看上去更加强壮and that makes them look bigger从而使其他黑猩猩误以为它们to fool others to thinking they're more dangerous 比原先想象中更加危险than they are.在深海中生活着琵琶鱼There's an angler fish at the bottom of the ocean这种鱼的头顶会长出鱼竿状的长刺that has a rod sticking up from the top of its head用于引诱和捕获其他鱼类with a lure to capture other fish让它们误认为那是食物to fool them in thinking that this is something edible 然后它们自己就被吃掉了and then to themselves be devoured.总的来说灵长类动物特别是人类But humans, primates in general but particularly humans,都是欺骗大师are masters of deception.我们不断地利用我们的心理We use our minds行为和动作and our behaviors and our actions去哄骗他人相信那些虚假的事情continually to try to trick people into believing what's not true.比如我们总是试着去欺骗他人We try to trick people, for instance,使他人相信我们比实际更加into believing that we're强壮聪明性感tougher, smarter, sexier,更加可靠或是更加值得信赖等等more reliable, more trustworthy and so on, than we really are.社会心理学中也有很大一部分内容And a large part of social psychology在关注我们向他人展现自己的方式concerns the way in which we present ourselves 人们会尽力使积极印象最大化to other people so as to make the maximally positive impression即使留下的印象是虚假的even when that impression isn't true.但同时At the same time,though,我们也进化出了很好的欺骗检测机制we've also evolved very good lie detection mechanisms.因此不仅存在着要求我对你说谎So not only is there evolutionary pressure for me的进化压力to lie to you,比如如果我们之间存有冲突 for me to persuade you for instance, that if we're going to have a conflict-当你威胁我时if you are threatening me我会说"别吓唬我我可不是吃素""Don't threaten me, I am not the sort of man you could screw around with"而且还存在着要求你辨别谎言的进化压力But there's evolutionary pressure for you to look你会说 "不你肯定不行and say, "No. You are the sort of man you could screw around with.我看得出来的"I can tell."那么怎样才能成为一个好骗子呢So how do you become a good liar?无意识在这里扮演了重要的角色And here's where the unconscious comes in.我们假定The hypothesis is:最好的谎言是能够骗到我们自己的谎言the best lies are lies we tell ourselves.一个行骗高手在通常情况下You're a better liar, more generally,会对自己所说的谎言深信不疑if you believe the lie that you're telling.阿尔弗雷德·希区柯克的一个故事 This could be illustrated很好地阐释了这个道理with a story about Alfred Hitchcock.故事是这样的The story goes--他痛恨与童星共事但又时常被迫合作He hated working with child actors but he often had to.有一次And the story goes--和他合作的一个小演员竟哭不出来He was dealing with a child actor who simply could not cry.最后他沮丧极了走到那个小演员身边And, finally frustrated, Hitchcock went to the actor,俯下身子凑到他耳边说leaned over, whispered in his ear,"你爸妈刚把你丢在这了"Your parents have left you他们再也不回来了"and they're never coming back."那孩子立刻泣不成声The kid burst into tears.希区柯克说"开拍" 录制顺利进行Hitchcock said, "Roll'em" and filmed the kid.如果你能看到那个孩子你一定会说And the kid, if you were to see him, you'd say, "天呐这孩子看起来真伤心啊""That's--Boy, he's--he really looks as if he's sad"因为他本来就伤心because he was.如果我在这里举行一个竞赛If I had a competition谁最能将痛苦表演的和真的一样where I'd give $100,000 to the person谁就能拿到10万美元who looks the most as if they are in pain,那么最好用的一招莫过于拿根笔it is a very good tactic to take a pen狠狠地戳进你的腹股沟and jam it into your groin因为此时的你看上去真的because you will look extremely persuasively足以使他人相信你非常痛苦as if you are in pain.如果我想让你相信我爱你If I want to persuade you that I love you,永远都不离开你你什么都可以信任我would never leave you, you can trust me witheverything,或许最好的策略便是我自己对此深信不疑it may be a superb tactic for me to believe it.所有对于无意识进化的解释And so, this account of the evolution of the unconscious便是某些动机和目标is that certain motivations and goals,尤其是那些邪恶的动机和目标particularly sinister ones,最好是无意识的are better made to be unconscious因为如果个体察觉不到because if a person doesn't know他们所拥有的动机和目标的话they have them这些动机和目标也就不会被他人识破they will not give them away.这个我们先放在这里等到我们探讨And this is something I think we should return to later on社会交往与社会关系的时候再回头来看when we talk about social interaction and social relationships.弗洛依德的另一个故事--One other thing on Freud--其实是个恶搞他的故事just a story of the falsification of Freud.周日我带我的小儿子去玩回家的路上I was taking my younger child home from a play date on Sunday他突然问我and he asked me out of the blue,"你为什么不能和你的父母结婚?""Why can't you marry your mother or your father?"向一个孩子解释这个问题其实挺困难的Now, that's actually a difficult question to ask-- to answer for a child,但我还是尽力给了他一个答案but I tried my best to give him an answer.之后我又想到弗洛依德的理论And then I said--then I thought back on the Freud lecture然后我就问他and so I asked him,"如果你谁都能娶你会选择娶谁?""If you could marry anybody you want, who would it be?"我想根据俄狄浦斯情结imagining he'd make explicit the Oedipal complex他会毫不犹豫地选择他的妈妈and name his mother.不过出乎意料的是他想了一会说Instead, he paused for a moment and said, "我想娶一只驴子"I would marry a donkey和一大包花生"and a big bag of peanuts."他的父母都是心理学家Both his parents are psychologists他恨透了这些问题and he hates these questions所以他会时不时的忽悠我们一下and at times he just screws around with us.好了Okay.上一堂课我们从弗洛依德讲起Last class I started with Freud现在我要开始讲斯金纳了and now I want to turn to Skinner.斯金纳的理论And the story of Skinner and science与弗洛依德的理论有些不同is somewhat different from the story of Freud.弗洛依德是精神分析的Freud developed and championed提出者与拥护者the theory of psychoanalysis by himself.就像是一个科学发明的专利享有者It is as close as you could find in science to a solitary invention.显然他利用了各种资源Obviously, he drew upon all sorts of sources还总结了前人的成果and predecessors但精神分析依然被认为but psychoanalysis is identified是由弗洛伊德提出的as Freud's creation.行为主义则不同Behaviorism is different.行为主义学派Behaviorism is a school of thought远在斯金纳提出他的理论之前就已经存在that was there long before Skinner,受到了众多心理学家的拥护championed by psychologists比如约翰·华生like John Watson, for instance.斯金纳算是这一学派中的晚辈了Skinner came a bit late into this但是何斯金纳能够被我们所熟知but the reason why we've heard of Skinner能够声名远播的原因就在于and why Skinner is so well known他将这些观点进行了一番整理is he packaged these notions.他扩展了先前的观点He expanded upon them;并将它们出版发行he publicized them;他科学地发展了这些观点he developed them scientifically并同时将这些观点呈现给了and presented them both to the scientific community 学术界和社会大众and to the popular community.在上世纪60到70年代之间的美国社会And sociologically in the 1960s and 1970s, in the United States,行为主义极为盛行behaviorism was incredibly well known斯金纳也得以名声大噪and so was Skinner.他就像现在上脱口秀的明星一样有名He was the sort of person you would see on talk shows.他的书登上了畅销榜首His books were bestsellers.言归正传行为主义的核心Now, at the core of behaviorism由三个非常极端又很有趣的观点组成are three extremely radical and interesting views.第一个观点是它非常强调学习的作用The first is a strong emphasis on learning.行为主义的观点认为The strong view of behaviorism你的知识你的一切is everything you know, everything you are,都是经验的产物is the result of experience.人性是根本不存在的There's no real human nature.相反人类是具有无限可塑性的Rather, people are infinitely malleable.约翰·华生有一段非常有名的话There's a wonderful quote from John Watson这段话是约翰·华生根据and in this quote john Watson is paraphrasing耶稣会所宣扬的一段著名鼓吹改写而来a famous boast by the Jesuits.耶稣会曾宣称The Jesuits used to claim,"给我一个孩子待他7岁之时"Give me a child until the age of seven我会将他锻造成一个男人"and I'll show you the man,"也就是说他们能够把一个孩子that they would take a child培养成他们想要的任何样子and turn him into anything they wanted.华生将此鼓吹加以扩展他说到And Watson expanded on this boast,给我一打健全的婴儿Give me a dozen healthy infants,只要给予合适的条件well-formed and my own specified world to bring them up 我就可以and I'll guarantee to take any one at random把他们变成and train them to become any type of specialist I might select 医生律师艺术家企业家—doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant,乃至乞丐和小偷chief, and yes, even beggar-man and thief,而不用去考虑他的天赋倾向regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, 能力祖先的职业与种族abilities, vocations and race of his ancestors.你们可以从中看出Now, you could imagine— you could see in this这是一个极具感染力的观点a tremendous appeal to this view因为在某种意义上because Watson has华生是一个极端的平等主义者an extremely egalitarian view in a sense.如果不存在人性If there's no human nature,那么一群人因种族或性别then there's no sense in which one group of humans 优于另一群的人的说法by dint of their race or their sex便纯属无稽之谈could be better than another group.华生明确地指出了这一点And Watson was explicit.人类的自然属性并不存在任何差异None of those facts about people will ever make any difference.个体差异源于他所受到的不同教育与待遇What matters to what you are is what you learn and how you're treated.因此华生断言And so, Watson claimed他只需通过一定的方式he could create anybody in any way simply便能将婴儿培养成各种类型的人by treating them in a certain fashion.行为主义的第二个观点A second aspect of behaviorism是反心理主义was anti-mentalism.我的意思是And what I mean by this is行为主义者沉迷于"科学"的理念之中the behaviorists were obsessed with难以自拔the idea of doing science他们主要针对的是弗洛依德and they felt, largely in reaction to Freud,他们认为那些所谓的内在心理状态that claims about internal mental states如欲望意愿目标情感等等like desires, wishes, goals, emotions and so on, 都是不科学的are unscientific.这些不可见定义模糊的东西These invisible, vague things不能被划入严谨的科学范畴里can never form the basis of a serious science.因此行为主义者的目标And so, the behaviorist manifesto是建立一门科学would then be to develop a science将一切不可观测的事情都排除在外without anything that's unobservable取而代之的是应用and instead use notions诸如刺激反应强化惩罚like stimulus and response and reinforcement and punishment以及表示现实世界和客观事件的环境and environment that refer to real world 之类的概念来进行研究and tangible events.最后行为主义者认为Finally, behaviorists believed生物种群之间并不存在太大的差别there were no interesting differences across species.行为主义者可能会承认人类能够做到A behaviorist might admit that a human can do things一些老鼠或鸽子无法做到的事情that a rat or pigeon couldn't但他们或许只会说but a behaviorist might just say,"它们只不过是在一般性联想学习能力上"Look. Those are just general associative powers有所差异而已"that differ"甚至他们干脆否认Or they may even deny it.他们会说 "人和老鼠根本没有区别They might say, "Humans and rats aren't different at all.只不过相较于老鼠It's just humans tend to live人类生活在刺激更加丰富的环境中罢了"in a richer environment than rats."从这个理论观点中From that standpoint, from that theoretical standpoint, 可以得出一种研究方法comes a methodological approach即如果人类与动物并无差别which is, if they're all the same那你就能通过研究非人类动物的学习过程then you could study human learning 来研究人类的学习过程by studying nonhuman animals.这也是行为主义者的常用研究方法And that's a lot of what they did.好了下面我们来讲讲Okay. I'm going to frame my introduction— my discussion 行为的三个主要的学习原则of behaviors in terms of the three main learning principles这三个学习原则被认为能够解释that they argue can explain所有的人类心理活动all of human mental life,所有的人类行为all of human behavior.之后我还想讲讲对行为主义的反对And then, I want to turn to objections to behaviorism但这三个原则是非常重要的but these three principles are powerful也是很有意思的and very interesting.第一个原则是习惯化The first is habituation.这是最简单的学习形式This is the very simplest form of learning.它在学术上被描述为And what this is is technically described as由于重复暴露在刺激环境中a decline in the tendency to respond to stimuli 而造成对该刺激反应倾向的降低that are familiar due to repeated exposure."喂""Hey!""喂""Hey!"突如其来的噪音吓了大家一跳The sudden noise startles but as it—但听到第二声的时候就没那么吃惊了as you hear it a second time it startles less.第三遍时就变成我自己在这犯傻了The third time is just me being goofy.这是因为你对这些事情已经习惯了It's just--It's--You get used to things.习惯化在我们的日常生活中随处可见And this, of course, is common enough ineveryday life.我们习惯了钟的滴答声和车来人往的噪音We get used to the ticking of a clock or to noise of traffic但这却是一种非常重要的学习形式but it's actually a very important form of learning我们不妨试想一下无法进行习惯化的情形because imagine life without it.试想你在生活中无法习惯任何事情 Imagine life where you never got used to anything,要有人突然跳出来向你挥手where suddenly somebody steps forward and waves their hand你肯定吓得惊叫 "哇"and you'd go, "Woah,"然后他们再跟你挥手你又惊叫"哇"and then they wave their hand again and you'd go, "Whoah,"然后你就不停地--and you keep--或是在你听到响亮的钟摆声后很惊奇地说And there's the loud ticking of a clock and you say,"嗯""Hmmm."但实际上人类和动物都不会这个样子And that's not the way animals or humans work.你会习惯于很多事情You get used to things.而习惯化实际上也是至关重要的And it's actually critically important to get used to things因为这是一种非常有用的适应机制because it's a useful adaptive mechanism可以让你注意到新鲜事物to keep track on new events and objects.能够注意到新鲜事物的出现是非常重要的It's important to notice something when it's new因为你需要确定它是否会对你造成伤害because then you have to decide whether it's going to harm you,需要确定如何去处理这个新鲜刺激how to deal with it, to attend to it,但你不能一直去注意它but you can't keep on noticing it.事实上And, in fact,如果它在环境中出现的时间足够长久的话you should stop noticing it你就不该再去一直注意它了after it's been in the environment for long enough.所以习惯化算是一种学习So, this counts as learning是因为这种学习是基于经验而发生的because it happens through experience.习惯化是通过经验而进行学习的一种方式It's a way to learn through experience, 是通过经验改变你思维方式的一种方法to change your way of thinking through experience.而且它还是非常有用的And also, it's useful因为危险刺激会吸引到你的注意because harmful stimuli are noticed但当某物被视为环境的一部分时but when something has shown itself to be part of the environment你便不会再去注意到该物体you don't notice it anymore.习惯化的存在非常重要原因有很多The existence of habituation is important for many reasons.原因之一就是One thing it's important for is聪明的发展心理学家们将习惯化clever developmental psychologists have used habituation作为研究人类as a way to study people,研究诸如非人类动物或是婴儿这样creatures who can't talk无法进行言语表达的生物like nonhuman animals,的一种方式and young babies.等我们在周三探讨发展心理学时And when I talk on Wednesday about developmental psychology我会向大家讲述心理学家们I'll show different ways应用习惯化in which psychologists have used habituation来研究婴儿心理的不同的方法to study the minds of young babies.学习的第二种形式The second sort of learning被称为经典条件作用is known as classical conditioning.一般来说And what this is in a very general sense经典条件作用是指在一个刺激is the learning of an association和另一个刺激之间形成联结between one stimulus and another stimulus,这里的刺激是一个专业术语where stimulus is a technical term意思是环境中出现的事件meaning events in the environment比如某种味道声音或景观like a certain smell or sound or sight.经典条件作用是巴甫洛夫提出的It was thought up by Pavlov.这便是巴甫洛夫的那条著名的狗This is Pavlov's famous dog这是一个科学研究中的意外and it's an example of scientific serendipity.在研究的最初巴甫洛夫Pavlov, when he started this research,对学习行为毫无兴趣had no interest at all in learning.他研究的是唾液的分泌He was interested in saliva.为了弄到唾液他找来了几条狗And to get saliva he had to have dogs.他给狗套上了一些装置And he had to attach something to dogs来收集狗的唾液用以研究so that their saliva would pour out so he could study saliva.他研究唾液分泌的初衷我们不得而知No idea why he wanted to study saliva,但他却因为这个研究而有所发现but he then discovered something.他的做法是What he would do is给狗喂食让狗分泌唾液he'd put food powder in the dog's mouth to generate saliva.他注意到But Pavlov observed that当给它喂食的人when somebody entered the room进屋时who typically gave him the food powder,狗便开始分泌唾液the dog--the food powder saliva would start to come out.稍后And later on if you—在喂食前或者喂食过程中right before or right during you give the dog some food 你摇铃you--you ping a bell铃声就会加速唾液的分泌the bell will cause the saliva to come forth.这是他在研究时所使用的仪器And, in fact, this is the apparatus that he used forhis research.他通过区分两种条件作用He developed the theory of classical conditioning两种刺激反应关系by making a distinction between two sorts of conditioning, 提出了经典条件作用理论two sorts of stimulus response relationships.一个是无条件作用One is unconditioned.无条件作用是指An unconditioned is when an unconditioned stimulus无条件刺激会引起无条件反应gives rise to an unconditioned response.这是我们的本能And this is what you start off with.如果有人用棍子戳你So, if somebody pokes you with a stick and you say,你会因为疼而叫出来"Ouch," because it hurts,戳的动作和你的喊叫the poking and the "Ouch"这就是无条件刺激引起了无条件反射is an unconditioned stimulus causing an unconditioned response.这些行为无需学习You didn't have to learn that.巴甫洛夫给狗喂食When Pavlov put food powder in the dog's mouth狗会分泌唾液and saliva was generated,这就是无条件刺激引起了无条件反应that's an unconditioned stimulus giving rise to an unconditioned response.但学习会在条件刺激与条件反应之间But what happens through learning is that another association develops建立起另一种联结that between the conditioned stimulus and the conditioned response.比如So when Pavlov, for instance--比如在条件作用形成之前Well, when Pavlov, for instance, started before conditioning只是简单的存在着无条件刺激即食物there was simply an unconditioned stimulus, the food in the mouth,以及无条件反应即唾液and an unconditioned response, saliva.此时的铃声什么都不是The bell was nothing.只是一个中性刺激The bell was a neutral stimulus.但是如果铃声和食物多次同时出现But over and over again, if you put the bell and the food together,很快铃声便也能促使狗分泌出唾液pretty soon the bell will generate saliva.开始时呈现无条件刺激And now the bell--When--You start off with the unconditioned stimulus,会出现无条件反应unconditioned response.当条件刺激与非条件刺激When the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus同时且多次反复出现are brought together over and over and over again,条件刺激很快也能引起条件反应pretty soon the conditioned stimulus gives rise to the response.这就是所谓的And now it's known as the conditioned stimulus条件刺激引起了条件反应giving rise to the conditioned response.这在教材中已有详细的叙述This is discussed in detail in the textbook但我还是想给你们but I also--I'm going to give you—如果一下子理解不了也不用担心Don't panic if you don't get it quite now.我会再多给你们举些例子I'm going to give you further and further examples.这里的意思是说So, the idea here is,无条件刺激与条件刺激的反复匹配repeated pairings of the unconditioned stimulus and the conditioned stimulus会引起条件反应will give rise to the response.但强化尝试和非强化尝试是不一样的And there's a difference between reinforced trials and unreinforced trials.强化尝试是指条件刺激A reinforced trial is when the conditioned stimulus 与无条件刺激同时出现的时候and the unconditioned stimulus go together.简单地说You're--and to put it in a crude way,你在让狗知道you're teaching the dog铃声和食物是一起出现的that the bell goes with the food.非强化尝试是只有食物而没有铃声的时候An unreinforced trial is when you get the food without the bell.这就不需要你去教了You're not teaching the dog this.事实上条件反射形成以后And, in fact, once you teach an animal something, 如果得不到强化if you stop doing the teaching条件反应就会逐渐消失the response goes away这就是消退and this is known as extinction.这里有张图标But here's a graph.图标记录了分泌出的唾液量If you get--They really count the number of cubic centimeters of saliva.经过训练当狗听到铃声The dog is trained so that when the bell comes on—我讲错了Actually, I misframed it.重讲一遍I'll try again.当铃声和食物形成了联系When the bell comes connected with food,狗会因为铃声的出现而分泌大量唾液there's a lot of saliva.非强化反应是有铃声但却没食物的时候An unreinforced response is when the bell goes on but there's no food.想想你就是那条狗So, it's like--Imagine you're the dog.有人喂你食物So, you get food in your mouth,"铃声食物"Bell, food,铃声食物"bell, food,"而现在只有"铃声"and now "Bell."但等到下次你再听到"铃声"的时候But next you get "Bell, bell, bell."你就不会再去等待食物You give it up.不再分泌唾液You stop.不再对铃声进行反应You stop responding to the bell.教材中讨论了一件奇怪的事情A weird thing which is discussed in the textbook is 如果你稍等一会if you wait a while在几个小时之后用铃声重新去尝试and then you try it again with the bell after a couple of hours,狗会重新开始分泌唾液the saliva comes back.这种现象叫做自发恢复This is known as spontaneous recovery.经典条件作用似乎是关于动物的So, this all seems a very technical phenomena 科学现象related to animals and the like但其实典条件作用发生but it's easy to see how it generalizes及其相关概念都简单易懂and how it extends.刺激泛化是个很有意思的概念One interesting notion is that of stimulus generalization.刺激泛化是And stimulus generalization is the topic《诺顿读本》中一篇文章的主题of one of your articles in The Norton Reader, 作者为约翰·华生著名的行为主义者the one by Watson, John Watson, the famous behaviorist,他记述了一项奇怪的实验who reported a bizarre experiment对象则是一名叫做小阿尔伯特的婴儿with a baby known as Little Albert.实验是这样的And here's the idea.小阿尔伯特原本喜欢老鼠Little Albert originally liked rats.实际上我要给你们看一段In fact, I'm going to show you a movie小阿尔伯特原先喜欢老鼠时的录像of Little Albert originally liking rats.看到吧他很好没问题See. He's okay. No problem.现在华生做了件有意思的事情Now, Watson did something interesting.小阿尔伯特正在和老鼠玩耍As Little Albert was playing with the rat,"噢我喜欢老鼠""Oh, I like rats, oh,"华生走到婴儿身后Watson went behind the baby—教材中是这么说的this is the--it's in the chapter—重击那里的金属棒and banged the metal bar right here .婴儿"啊"了一声开始大哭The baby, "Aah," screamed, started to sob.好了Okay.这里的无条件刺激是什么What's the unconditioned stimulus?有人知道吗Somebody.那个响声重击金属棒发出的声音The loud noise, the bar, the bang.无条件反应是什么What's the unconditioned response?哭泣悲伤以及痛苦Crying, sadness, misery.这样做导致的结果就是And as a result of this,小阿尔伯特开始惧怕老鼠Little Albert grew afraid of the rat.那么条件刺激又是什么老鼠So there--what would be the conditioned stimulus? The rat.条件反应又是什么恐惧很好What would be the conditioned response? Fear. Excellent.而且这种恐惧还会扩散到其他的事物上Moreover, this fear extended to other things.这段影片看上去很奇怪So, this is a very weird也没什么说服力and unpersuasive clip.但关键是这段影片试图说明But the idea is--the clip is to make the point 恐惧是会扩散到小白兔身上去的that the fear will extend to a rabbit, a white。

在这门课刚开始的时候We began the course我们讨论过一个现代心理学的基本观点by talking about one of the foundational ideas of modern psychology。

弗兰西斯·克里克称之为This is what Francis Crick described as”惊人的假说””The Astonishing Hypothesis,”我们的心理活动 the idea that our mental life，我们的意识我们的道德观念our consciousness， our morality，我们做出决定和判断的能力our capacity to make decisions and judgments皆由一个物质的生理大脑所产生is the product of a material physical brain。

今天我想讲的What I want to talk about today and introduce it,将会是and it's going to be a theme贯穿我们接下来课程的一个主题that we’re going to continue throughout the rest of the course,也是第二个同样惊人的观点is a second idea which I think is equally shocking，甚至可能更惊人perhaps more shocking.这个观点和我们的心理活动的来源有关And this has to do with where mental life comes from，重点不在于它的物质性not necessary its material nature，而在于它的起源but rather its origin.这又一"惊人的假说”And the notion, this other "astonishing hypothesis，”被哲学家丹尼尔·丹尼特称之为is what the philosopher Daniel Dennett has described达尔文的危险思想as Darwin's dangerous idea.这个观点解释了现代生物学中And this is the modern biological account生物现象的起源of the origin of biological phenomena包括心理现象including psychological phenomena。

耶鲁大学公开课-心理学导论第2课中文课件耶鲁大学开放课程心理学导论第2课基础：这是你的大脑今天我们开始正式上课，心理学导论，我们首先要来探讨的是大脑；我想先提到一种观点，这种观点的提出者是位诺贝尔奖得主,生物学家、费兰西斯.克里克；他将这种观点称为“惊人的假说”，这一惊人的假说大致观点如下：正如他在其著作《惊人的假说》中写道“你、你的喜悦、悲伤、回忆、抱负，你对人格同一性的感知、你的自由意志；事实上这一切都不过是大量神经细胞集与其缔合分子的生理反应而已；正如刘易斯.卡罗尔在《爱丽斯》中所描述的“你不过是一堆神经元罢了”，用“惊人”来形容这个观点是贴切的，这是个古怪又反常的观点：我并不奢望大家在一开始就能接受这个观点，即使到课程结束时能否接受这个观点，依然是你们的自由；相反、你们要现在就能接受，倒是会让我感到很奇怪，我知道多数人接受不了。

实际上、他们持有另外一种观点，大多数人都是二元论者，二元论则是一种截然不同的假说，你能够在有史以来的所有宗教和绝大多数哲学体系中找到这个假说，比如、柏拉图就曾明确提出过；但是最著名最有影响力的二元论拥护者则非哲学家勒奈.笛卡尔莫属，勒奈.笛卡尔明确地提出了一个问题“人类是否仅仅是生理机器、是生理客体而已”他的答复是“不”，他认为动物都是机器，实际上他将动物称之为“野兽机器”；他认为非人类动物全是机器人，但人类是不同的、人类具有二元性；我们和动物一样拥有有形的生理客体，但与动物不同，我们的本质却并非是生理的，我们是拥有生理客体的无形心灵，我们的心灵占据着生理客体，寄居其中与其形成紧密的联系，这便是二元论，因为它主张至少对于人类而言存在两种独立的成分，即有形的生理客体与无形的心理；笛卡尔为二元论提出了两点论据：第一点是基于对人类行为的观察，笛卡尔生活在一个人类社会发展相对成熟的时代，在他生活的年代已经出现了机器人，当然不是我们现代的电动机器人，当时的机器人需要用水力来带动，笛卡尔曾经在法国皇家园林中散步，当时的法国皇家园林被建造得犹如17世纪的迪斯尼乐园一般，园林中有很多人偶造型可以运用水流来控制他们的动作；当你踏上相应的踩踏板，一个剑客便会跳出来向你挥剑，如果你踩到了另一块，一个正在沐浴的美女便会藏到树丛里去；因此笛卡尔说“天呐、这些机器可以对特定的动作做出特定的反应，原来机器也是可以完成某些动作的”；实际上他说道“我们的身体也是这样运作的，如果你轻击某人的膝盖，小腿就会弹出去，或许这就是我们的本质”但是笛卡尔否定了这一观点，因为有些事情人类可以做到，机器永远不可能做到；人类的行为不光只有反射，相反、人类拥有协调能力、创造力以及发起自发性行为的能力；例如我们能够运用语言，当然有时我说出的话会是反射性的，比如有人问我“你好吗？”我会说“很好、你呢？”但有时、我可以选择那些我想要说的话“你好吗”“非常好”我完全可以进行选择;笛卡尔认为机器无法做出这种选择，因此我们不仅仅只是机器；当然、他的第二个论据非常的有名，在这里他用到了怀疑方法，他首先问自己一个问题“我究竟能够确信什么呢”之后他自答到“我相信上帝、但说实话、我不能确定上帝的存在，我相信我生活在一个富有的国度，但我可能是被愚弄了”；他甚至说“我相信我拥有朋友与家人，但或许我只是他们的一颗棋子罢了，或许是有个恶魔在戏弄我，让我产生错觉感受到了一些并不存在的东西”；《黑客帝国》便是这些怀疑的现代版演绎，《黑客帝国》的创意完全基于笛卡尔的哲学，笛卡尔对于恶灵的忧虑，或许你现在所经历的一切都不是真实的，而是某种邪恶生物制造出的幻觉；笛卡尔甚至同样怀疑自己身体的存在，事实上他注意到疯子有时会相信自己有额外的四肢或者相信他们的大小与形状是与实际不同的，笛卡尔问道“我如何让才能确定我不是个疯子，疯子们都认为自己是正常的，所以我觉得自己不是疯子，我又如何能确定我现在不是在做梦呢”；但迪卡尔认为有一点是他无法质疑的，那就是他无法怀疑自我思考的存在，而这又成为了对自己的反驳；因此、笛卡尔运用怀疑方法得出与拥有不可确定的身体不同、拥有心理是肯定的；他用这一论据来支持二元论、来支持身心二元的观点；因此他总结到“我知道我是个实体、是思考主体的本质或本性，而这种思考主体的存在，无需任何空间，也不依赖与任何有形实体；也就是说我的心灵、我的本质完全不同于我的身体”；我之前说过这是个普通观点，现在我要从几个方面来说明这个普遍观点：首先、二元论镶嵌于我们的语言之中，我们对我们所拥有的或是与我们有关的事物有着特定的表述模式，比如“我的胳膊、我的心脏、我的孩子、我的爱车”但我们对自己身体和大脑的表述，却也是如此在我们谈及我们拥有大脑时，似乎大脑是与我们相分的;二元论揭示了直觉上的人格同一性，这也就是在说普通观点告诉我们，一个人、即使经历了身体上的巨变也依旧是原先的那个人，很多虚构的故事非常能说明这个道理；我们完全能够看懂电影中，一个少女睡去一觉醒来却变成了詹妮弗.加纳一个成年人，没人会说“这就是纪录片、我相信这些全部是真的”但同时无论大人、青少年还是孩子、没有人会选择中途离开，说“我完全不知道电影在讲些什么”；相反、我们能够理解电影中的故事情节，我们也能理解很多包含更大转变的故事；比如某人死后又转世投胎到新生儿的身上，你可能有些不同的观点是关于对于转世投胎是否真的存在，在座的各位可能会有很多不同的看法；但我们可以想象一下，我们可以想象有这么个一个人死了，然后出现在另一个身体里；这并非是好莱坞首创上世纪最伟大的短篇小说之一，弗郎茨.卡夫卡所写的名篇是这样开头的“一天早晨，格里高尔.萨姆沙从不安的睡梦中醒来发现自己躺在床上变成了一只巨大的甲虫”这里卡夫卡再带次领我们去想象一觉醒来却变成一只甲虫的场景，而我们是可以想象到的；还有一个古老的例子，在公元前几百年荷马这样描述奥德赛的几个同样的命运，一个女巫将它们变成了猪，实际上这么说并不准确，他并未将它们变成猪，他的做法更加过分，女巫将它们封锁在猪的身体里，他们拥有猪的脑袋、声音、鬃毛和身体，但他们的心里却从未改变，他们被关在猪圈里轻声哭泣，在这里、作者再次邀请我们去想象，我们自己被困在其他动物身体里的场景，如果你能想象如此场景，那是因为你将自己当做了与所依肉体分离的心理实体；我们相信许多人是能够“灵魂附体”的，这是滑稽戏剧的一贯伎俩;同样也出现在经典电影《衰鬼上错身》中史蒂芬.马丁和莉莉.汤普林主演大力推荐，但很多人认为这种事情是真实存在的，对多重人格障碍的一种解释就是在你的身体中存在着多个心灵争夺对身体的控制权；我们将在本学期结束之前探讨多重人格障碍，到时大家会发现，事情要远比这复杂得多，但我想说的并非多重人格障碍究竟是什么，而是我们如何看待它，普通观点告诉我们，你的身体里可以拥有不止一个的心灵，这种普遍观点出现在许多不同的故事之中，也包括恶灵附体；许多信任系统都相信，个体行为，尤其是那些邪恶或非理性行为之所以会出现，是因为某种事物占据了他们的身体。