Chapter 11.What Is Applied Linguistics?1).What is applied linguistics? Why is there no consensus on its definition and scope?①Applied linguistics aimed to solve problems in various fields by applying the knowledge of linguistics.②As applied linguistics is a comparatively new discipline, there is as yet no consensus of opinions as to what its definition is and how wide its scope should be.2.What is the role of applied linguistics? Why does it play that role?① The role of applied linguisticsLinguistics, etc. ←→ Applied Linguistics ←→Language Teaching, etc.Figure---The role of applied linguistics as a mediator.②Applied linguistics thus not only provides principles and basic methodology for language teachers, etc., based on the theories and insights of linguistics, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, etc.; it also provides feedback to linguistics, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, etc., by summing up the experience from the practical areas such as language teaching.3.What is the nature of applied linguistics? What is the difference between applied linguistics and other applied sciences?Answer: the nature of applied linguistics(1) It is an independent discipline in its own right, because* it has its own object of study;* it has its own scientific system of theories and methodology; and* it has its own researchers.(2) It is an interdisciplinary science, because it draws upon theories not from a single science,but from several. Besides, its application is also interdisciplinary in the broad sense.(3) It is an applied science. Its goal is to solve problem, i. e. application, unlike pure science.But we should not understand application in a narrow sense. Applied linguistics is also concerned with implications of the theoretical fields such as linguistics, sociolinguistics and psycholinguistics.(4) It is an empirical science. Like natural sciences, it uses experiments as its basic way of research, emphasizing objectivity, systematicness, explicitness and economy.The goal of applied linguistics is to solve problem, i.e., application. But we should not understand application in the literal sense. Applied linguistics is also concerned with implications of the theoretical fields such as linguistics, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics.4.What is the relationship between applied linguistics and language learning and teaching? Answer: Good language teaching practice is based on good theoretical understanding, and a good language teaching theory will strive to provide a conceptual framework devised for identifying all factors relevant in the teaching of language and relationship between them and for giving effective direction to the practice of language teaching, supported by the necessary research and inquiry.5.Why is it necessary for the language teacher to learn applied linguistics?Answer: Applied linguistics aims to provide language teachers with good language teachingtheories, principles and methodology. The language teacher can benefit from applied linguistics in, at least, the following three areas: a comprehensive and up-to-date grasp of the theoretical foundations of language learning and teaching; an integrated understanding of the various factors affecting language learning and teaching, and a basic knowledge about different language teaching approaches, methods and techniques. In short, applied linguistics will help the language teacher teach more effectively.Chapter 2Language, Learning and Teaching1.What is the nature of language? Why is it necessary for the language teacher to know it?Language is systematic and generative. It is a set of arbitrary symbols and they have conventionalized meanings to which they refer. is used for communication. operates in a speech community or culture. language and language learning both have universal characteristics.By system: we mean the recurring patterns or arrangements or the particular ways or designs in which a language operates. Every language contains two systems: a system of sound and a system of meaning. This phenomenon is called duality.“arbitrary vocal symbols”: Anything that represents something else is a symbol.Language consists of another type of symbols, sound symbols or speech sounds.human communication: Language is a unique system of communication. It is the cement of society. It allows people to live, work and play together, to tell the truth or to tell lies.Teachers cannot hope to teach a part (the particular language) of reality without knowing how that part fits into the whole(language in general) Your understanding of the components of language will determine to a large extenthow u teach a language.2.What are the similarities and differences between human learning and animal learning？How do you understand language learning？Animal learning for simple communication .express the food source, very simple emotion like anger and happiness. human learning complex idea. hypothesis , give command, thinking. Language learning in a broad sense include both formal learning in the classroomstimulated by teaching and natural informal language learning without instruction from any teacher.Learning is the prerequisite and basis of teaching.A theory of teaching always implies a theory of learning.3.What is teaching? Can it be defined apart from learning? Why(not)?①Teaching can be defined as “activities which are intended to bring about learning. ”②Teaching cannot be defined apart from learning, because teaching presupposes learning. There will be no teaching if learning does not take place.4.Illustrate the relationship between language teaching and language learning?J. S. Bruner---1966 Toward a Theory of Instruction “Learning something withthe aid of an instructor should, if instruction is effective, be less dangerous or risky orpainful than learning on one’s own.”Teaching understand the learners’ development ,skill, motivation and gives formal instruction ,training, by media or different kind of supportive activities. thus makeslearning easier.5. Why is it necessary for the language teacher to have some knowledge not only of teaching but also of learning?Since the mid-1960s,the student-centered view has been widely accepted, This reflects the theory that the students play an active role in learning ,and that they are not only actively participating in classroom activities ,but are interacting with the teacher and their peers.Chapter 31. What are the characteristic features of human learning?conceptualization of learning has several implications:1）. Everything we learn is retained in some form in our brain, even though it may be forgotten. 2.）Learning cannot be equated with behavior or performance.3）. Learning includes not only deliberately acquired new associations but also those acquired without conscious awareness, when we are paying primary attention to something else.4）. The new associations which constitute learning vary in meaningfulness and complexity. 5）. All learning depends upon environmental input.6）. Learning is not restricted to new associations or insights that result from experience with purely external stimuli.2、What are the four general philosophical views of human nature? How are they related to human learning?The pessimistic viewAccording to this view, humans are inherently evil. Therefore, education must be designed to keep dangerous instincts under control. This philosophy leads to approaches which emphasize the will not engage in higher intellectual pursuit voluntarily, but they will learn if they are forced to.The hedonistic viewAccording to this view, people are selfishly preoccupied with the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain. This philosophy leads to approaches which emphasize the need to make learning experience as enjoyable and intrinsically rewarding as possible.The optimistic viewAccording to this view, people are naturally altruistic, humanistic and curious. This view leads to theories that picture people as thirsting for knowledge and actively processing information from the environment.The tabula-rasa or “blank-slate” viewThis is a neutral view. According to this view, humans have few if any natural predispositions. Development, therefore, is dependent upon the individual’s experiences, which are determined by the environment and are thus open to planning and control. In its strongest form, this approach pictures learners as almost entirely passive and reactive, so that their behavior can be controlled predictably and systematically through environmental manipulation. Teaching then becomes a matter of structuring learning environments so as to produce desired outcomes.3、What are the similarities and differences between classical behaviorism and neobehaviorism?Similarities: They are predominantly concerned with the relationship between stimulus and response. According to them, behavior is acquired or changed when the organism builds up associations between stimulus and response either because of the closeness of stimulus and response or by satisfaction which comes from giving a correct response to a given stimulus.Differences: classical behaviorism is related to association between stimuli and reflexive response, Classical conditioning, Reflex could also occur in response to stimuli that appear to be indirectly related to the reflex. neobehaviorism focuses on operant conditioning VS respondent conditioning (Classical conditioning). classical behaviorism stressed the environmental modifiability of behavior, as against determination by constitutional structure. Neobehaviorism : Guthrie stressed classical conditioning and the principle of contiguity over instrumental conditioning and the principle of reinforcement. Hull stressed one-trial learning. The whole process was controlled by reinforcement. Skinner stresses a particular kind of instrumental conditioning known as “operant conditioning” . Operants are any behavioral elements or series f related behaviors that organisms presently perform or are capable of performing, and the produce an effect or operate on the environment.4、What are the strengths and weaknesses of the behaviorist theories?Watson’s behaviorism: he stressed the environmental modifiability of behavior, as against determination by constitutional structure. He seek to make psychology a “purely objective experimental branch of natural science” by restricting it to the study of the relations between environmental events(stimuli) and behavior(response). But there will be an increase in both frequency and recency of successful responses until a correct S-R pattern appears.Guthrie’s S-R theory: He stressed classical conditioning and the principle of contiguity over instrumental conditioning and the principle of reinforcement. However, it has difficulty accounting for more complex kinds of learning.Hull’s S-O-R theory: Hull stressed one-trial learning. The whole process was controlled by reinforcement. Reinforced responses would be more likely to appear in the future, and punished or unreinforced responses were less likely to reappear.Skinner’s operant conditioning: he stresses a particular kind of instrumental conditioning known as “operant conditioning” . Operants are any behavioral elements or series f related behaviors that organisms presently perform or are capable of performing, and the produce an effect or operate on the environment. Otherwise, when there is a punishment(i.e a positive reinforcing stimulus is removed or a negative reinforcing stimulus is presented), the rate of responding decreases.5、What are the similarities and differences among the cognitive learning theories? Why are they cognitive?Gestalt psychology: eh emphasizes on innate organizing principles(gestalt) in human perception, recognition, sensorimotor skills, learning and even in social conduct . according to this theory, organisms are innately active in their interactions with the environment.Piaget’s developmental psychology: his basic concepts are assimilation and accommodation. Herefers to the learning process as the development of new schemata (the plural of schema) through assimilation and accommodation. Schemata are the cognitive or mental structures by which the individual intellectually adapts to and organizes the environment. These cognitive structures are used to process and identify incoming stimuli.Ausubel’s theory of meaningful learning: according to ausubel, meaning is a “clearly articulated and precisely differentiated conscious experience that emerges when potentially meaningful signs, symbols, concepts or propositions are related to and incorporated within a given individual’s cognitive structure on a non-articulatory and substantivebasis” human learning is a meaningful process of relating new events or items to already existing cognitive concepts or propositions. Meaning is therefore a process of relating and anchoring new material to relevant established entities in the learner’s cognitive structure. Meaningful learning takes place when the learner has a disposition to relate the new material to what he already knows or when the learning task is potentially meaningfulIf we can conceive of cognitive structure as a system of building blocks, then rote learning is the process of acquiring isolated blocks with no particular function in the building of a structure, and therefore with no relationship to other blocks. Meaningful learning is the process whereby blocks become an integral part of already established categories or systematic clusters of blocks.6、What do you think of the different learning theories? What is your own view of human learning?Cognitive theories place greater store by the functioning of the mind, and postulate internal mental thinking as well as processes including perception, memorizing and cognitive structures which can be acquired from learners’ experience and can modify their present behavior. Much greater emphasis is placed on learners being aware of the surroundings and being flexible in solutions they adopt.Chapter41.Is it easy for the child to acquire his mother tongue? Why (not)?No, it is not easy for the child to acquire his mother tongue.First of all, he must segment the sound stream into meaningful units (words or phrases). This requires his ability to analyze. Then, he must combine them to arrive at the intended underlying propositions. This requires his ability to synthesize.2.What questions must theories of L1 acquisition answer? Why?Psycholinguists who study child language are confronted with a more complex task than theoretical linguists whose major concern is competence (i.e. the system of language) and sociolinguists whose major concern is performance (i.e. the use of language). Psycholinguists have to be concerned with both competence and performance.Because they look at language from different angles, and because their purposes in the study of language are different.3.Sketch out Skinner’s behavioristic theory of L1 acquisition.Skinner’s behavioristic model is embodied in his classic Verbal Behavior. His theory of verbal behavior is in fact an extension of his general theory of learning by operant conditioning. According to Skinner, verbal behavior, like other human behavior, is controlled by its consequences. When consequences are rewarding the behavior is reinforced and maintained, andeven increased in strength and frequency. When consequences are punishing or when there is no reinforcement, the behavior is weakened and eventually extinguished. Therefore, effective language is the production of correct responses to external stimuli. The L1 acquisition process is one in which the child’s correct responses are repeatedly reinforced and finally a habit is formed.4.What are the main points of mediation theories? Why are they called mediation theories?Mediation theories are represented by O. H. Mowrer and C. E. Osgood. Their goal is to fill the “black box” with postulated internal psychological structures and processes in order to account for the observed behavior of organisms. They have developed a principle of mediated association, according to which two things associated with a third thing tend to be in association with each other. Once the association is established, an internal link is built up even when the third thing is not present.They need media. The internal mediating response is considered to be an internal replication of a “real” response. From a behavioristic point of view, meaning is an internal replica of an external response.5.How do the nativist theories account for L1 acquisition?Nativist theories are represented by N. Chomsky, E. H. Lenneberg, and D. McNeill. According to these theories, human babies are somehow predisposed to acquire a language. Lenneberg contends that language is a species-specific behavior which is biologically determined. The child is born with the biological basis for the acquisition of language. Chomsky claims the existence of a little black box which he calls the language acquisition device (LAD). He regards it as “the genetically determined language faculty”, “an innate component of the human mind that yields a particular language through interaction with presented experience.” McNeill describes four innate linguistic properties of the LAD and suggests that infants are born with a hierarchy of linguistic categories and the basic grammatical relations.6. What are the main arguments of the cognitive theories?Cognitive theories are represented by D. I. Slobin, J. Piaget and L. Bloom, who attempt to account for the linguistic knowledge of the child by a more general theory of cognitive development. Slobin suggests that the conceptual development of all human children is the same with regard to the order of attainment of conceptual categories and that a number of cognitive prerequisites lie behind the emergence of communicative speech. Slobin characterizes this development as new functions first expressed in old forms. Piaget outlines four major stages of intellectual development in the child, and claims that intelligence actually develops well before language. Stage One, the sensory-motor stage(ages 0-2). Stage Two, the preoperational stage(ages 2-7). In the first stage(ages 2 to 4 or 5) the child’s language is egocentric speech. In the second stage(by ages 6-7), the child’s language has become socialized speech, which is characterized by intercommunication and exchange of ideas. Stage Three, the concrete operational stage (ages 7-11). Stage Four, the formal operational stage(ages 11-16). Bloom concludes that the development of perception and cognition are keys to the understanding of the process of child language acquisition.7.What do you think of the different L1 acquisition theories?There is one common problem with all of the theories. They all ignore the social aspect of L1 acquisition. Just as Armstrong et al point out”…language acquisition studies show that language does not develop through an individual’s interaction with the natural environment. It emerges onlyout of social interaction, but social interaction within constrained limits…Without the introduction to words and seminal idea that words symbolize—without the initial acquisition process which is social—we would have no equipment with which to make linguistic inferences.”Chapter51. Illustrate the use of the terms second language and foreign languageIn the past, the term “foreign language” was most widely used in contrast to “native language”. But in recent decades, the term “second language” has been increasingly used to refer to all types of non-native language. In certain cases, they are distinguished from each other. According to Stern , “second language” is used to refer to a non-native language learned and used within one country or community where it has official status or a recognized function, whereas “foreign language” is used to refer to a non-native language learned and used outside the country or community where it has official status or a recognized function. In a second language context, the target language is spoken by the community outside the classroom, whereas in a foreign language context, the target language is generally not spoken by the community but is limited to the classroom.2. What does it mean to know a second language?Knowing a language means having acquired the competence ore proficiency in the language. The idea goal of competence or proficiency in a second language is the native speaker’s competence or proficiency in the language, which is necessary point of reference for the concept of second language proficiency.3. What is meant by second language proficiency ? How can the learner attain it?Knowing a language means having acquired the competence or proficiency in the language. The ideal goal of competence or proficiency in a second language is the native speaker’s competence or proficiency in the language, which is a necessary point of reference for the concept of second language proficiency. Stern conceptualizes this native speakers’ proficiency as follows: 1. The intuitive mastery of the forms of the language, 2. The intuitive mastery of the linguistic , cognitive , affective and sociocultural meanings expressed by the language forms, 3. The capacity to use the language with maximum attention to communication and minimum attention to form, and 4. The creativity of language use.4. Who is a better second language learner, the child or the adult? Why ?Adults and old children in general initially acquire the second language faster than young children(older id better for the early stage of acquisition), but child second language acquires will usually be superior in terms of ultimate attainment(younger is better in the long run). We can explain it from three main aspects: the biological explanation, the cognitive explanation, and the affective explanation.5. What does interlanguage refer to? What is the nature of interlanguage? Do you think we can apply this concept to foreign language learning? Why (not)?The term interlanguage was defined differently by different experts, but now we say that inter language is in fact a language system bordering on the first language and the target language. I don’t think we can apply it to foreign language learning, because it has only a minor impact on L2 pedagogy.6. How do you understand Kranshen’s monitor theory? Do you think it is applicable toforeign language learning ? Why （not)?Krashen’s monitor theory is considered the best known most ambitious most influential of all L2 theories. It has brought together research findings from a number of different domains, is closely tied to recommendations for classrooms practice and is readily understandable to L2 teachers. So I think it can be applied to foreign language learning.7. How do Burt and Dulay account for the internal processing of second language ? Is foreign language learning also a creative construction process? Why (not)?The creative construction model is developed by Burt and Dulay in 1977 to account for the internal processing of second language. It is based on Chomsky’s linguistic theory of creative aspects of language use. Foreign language learning is also a creative construction process. Creative construction in language acquisition refers to the process by which learners gradually reconstruct the rules for speech they hear, guided by innate mechanisms which cause them to formulate certain types of hypotheses about the language system being acquired, until the mismatch between what they are exposed to and they produce is resolved.Chapter 61. How are different types of learning related to learning English as a foreign language? Learning has been classified in many different ways .The most useful classification is based on the task of learning (i.e. what is being learned).Based on the nature of the learning task, three types of learning are identified :skill learning ,affective and social learning, and cognitive learning .Type 1,signal learningThis is a somewhat specialized type of learning.It is called signal learning to emphasize that the learner is associating an already available response with a new signal or stimulus .One important characteristics of this type of learning is that it involves the Pavlovian conditioned response ,which is general ,diffuse ,and emotional.This kind of response has a truly “involuntary”character .A fear response ,for example,involves general ,diffuse activity including speeded heartbeat,constriction of blood vessels and other internal involuntary behavior .In our daily life, learning to respond to alarm clock bells or automobile horns falls into this type of learning .Type 2,stimulus-response learningType 3 chainingType 4 verbal association (or sequence)Type 5 multiple discriminationType 6 concept learningType 7 principle learningType 8 problem-solvingLanguage learning is a complex task which involves all these types of learning . For example,in learning the pronunciation of a second language,the learner is concerned with how to produce the appropriate sound patterns –a sensorimotor skill or part of a skill.If the learner cannot distinguish two sounds and therefore cannot pronounce them,he needs to know the articulatory description of the two sounds .This involves conceptual learning.The actual learning of a second language is accompanied by emotional reactions, and entire learning experience may lead to a fixed constellation of likes and dislikes directed towards the language and the people speaking that language.2.Illustrate the general learning strategies with examples from yourself or your Students in learning English.ways in which a learner attempts to work out the meanings and uses of words, grammatical rules, and other aspects of a languagemetacognitive strategies :1.thinking about the mental processes used in the learning process2.monitoring learning while it is taking place, 3.evaluating learning after it has occurred A. advance organizersB. directed attentionC. selective attentionD. self-managementE. functional planningF. self-monitoringG. delayed productionH. self-evaluationcognitive strategies:processes and behavior which learners use to help them improve their ability to learn or remember something, particularly those which learners use with specific classroom tasks and activitiesA. repetitionB. ResourcingC. translationD. groupingsocioaffective strategies:social-mediating activity and transacting with others3.What are the major strategies employed by good students in your class?Tarone defines learning strategy as attempts to develop linguistic and sociolinguistic competence in the target language. The motivation for the use of learning strategy is the desire to learn the target language rather than the desire to communicate .Production strategies are used to accomplish communication goals;they reflect an interest in using the language system efficiently and clearly without excessive munication strategies are an adaptation to the failure to realize a language production goal.They therefore serve an important role in negotiating meaning between individuals.Rubin suggests that the good language learner :1)is a willing and accurate guesser2) has a strong drive to communicate3)is often uninhibited about his weaknesses in the L2 and ready to risk making mistakes4)is willing to attend to form5)practices6)monitors7)attends to meaning in its social contextStern identifies four basic sets of strategies from the basic considerations and research of language learning:1)Active planning strategy Good language learners will select goals and subgoals,recoginize stages and developmental sequences and actively participate in the learning process2)”Academic “(explicit)learning strategy Good language learners are prepared to study and practice .They pay attention to the features of language as a formal system with rules and regular retationships between forms and meaning.3)Social learning strategy Good language learners seek communicative contact with target language users and are active participants in authentic language use4)Affective language Good language learners can cope effective with the emotion and motivational problems of language learning .They approach the task of L2 learning in a positive frame of mind and cultivate positive attitudes towards themselves as language learner s, towards language and language learning in general,and towards the target language and its society and culture.。
