当代美国社会与文化

学习了美国社会与文化后，我对美国的传统价值观有了更深更好的理解一般而言，美国的传统价值观共包括六个方面，即：individual freedom, equality of opportunity, material wealth 和self-reliance, competition, hard work. 其中，前三个方面集中代表了世界各地的人们移民到美国的原因，亦即我们通常所讲的“美国之梦”所包含的主要内容；而后三个方面则是为了实现这些梦想所应付出的代价。

在美国人看来，individual freedom 和self-reliance, equality of opportunity 和competition, material wealth 和hard work 是一一对应的。

你要想实现前一个梦想，就必须付出后边那个代价。

个性自由起源于美国祖先追求宗教信仰自由的传统。

包括自主动机，自主抉择，自力更生，尊重他人，个性自由，尊重隐私等层面。

美国的自由观"不仅指免除对肉体的约束，而且指个人有权签订契约；有权从事任何一种普通谋生职业；有权获取有用的知识；有权结婚、建立家庭和抚养孩子；受自己良心的支配崇拜上帝，以及普遍地享有历来被认为是自由和平等地追求幸福所必不可少的那些特权自力更生每一个人生下来就是自由的，但要真正享受自由就必须要靠自己。

这种观念体现在语言上就是在与美国人交谈时，他们很少通过炫耀自己的家庭或社会关系来抬高自己；如果你要那么做了只能让别人觉得你是个孩子，一个没有自己生活的人永远只能是个孩子。

机会平等美国人永远愿意倾听别人的意见，给别人机会；一个人在一方面犯了错误，并不剥夺他在其他方面出色的权利。

美国人认为在大自然面前，人人有生存权利，只要有力气，有能力，谁都可以获得自然，谁都可以发财当富翁；在政治上，他们主张投票箱面前人人平等，也就是说，人人有选举权；在受教育上，资产阶级进步思想家提倡人人有受教育的机会，公立学校人人均可上学；运动场上，美国人也有他们的标准，只要有体育才能和技术的人，都可以参加竞争；在社交场合，美国人喜欢平等待人，也喜欢被别人平等相待，摆架子、高人一等的表现为人们所不取；在官兵关系方面，美国人认为，官兵之间应该是平等的，指挥官不能向士兵摆资格，不能把权威当宝杖使用；在宗教方面，美国人认为人人有信仰宗教的权利，只要是新教徒，不要经任何神职人员作中介，都可以与上帝相通。

当代美国社会与文化细读王恩铭老师的《当代美国社会与文化》确实收获很多，惊叹于作者对全书系统有序且相当全面的介绍了美国的民族构成、政治制度、经济发展、教育体系、大众传媒、劳工组织、企业管理、社会保障、电影艺术和体育活动，并对美国的宗教信仰、区域文化、价值观念、家庭婚姻、妇女运动和社会矛盾等问题。

和其他书籍来比，譬如我以前读过的《纽约地标》、《裸视美国》等，该书作者的逻辑更加清晰，篇章安排也比较合理。

比如说就整体结构而言，本书分为十九个篇章，分别从美国社会的各个层面出发板块式分别叙述了诸如地理、人口、区域划分，历史，民族构成，政治制度，经济概貌，教育概貌，宗教价值观，大众传播媒介，美国劳工及劳工运动，美国工业组织及企业管理，妇女与妇女运动，家庭与婚姻，美国社会保障制度，美国社会问题，以及美国人的娱乐活动，主要节日等。

条理清晰，分类严谨，给人以清新，简单的印象。

而就每一个篇章来说，作者在一开始都会有一个概括性的引言。

这样的引言简明扼要，提纲挈领性的告诉我们这一章将要讲的内容，使读者对作者的思路有了一个简明的了解。

然后在下文的叙述中，不同于有些书籍的是作者分了好多小标题，又一次简明的作为提示性的关键词放在显著位置，使得读者读起来更加方便，也调动了读者的积极性。

其实如此学术性的书籍常常会失于乏味，但是读这本书时，每每看完作者的引言和小标题，我常常会想象作者接下了会怎样写，如果是我会怎样写，就这一方面我已经了解了哪些问题等等，这样就提高了我阅读的积极性。

我想分类明了，思路严谨，行文脉络清晰是本书最大的特征之一。

就是利用这种方法，作者很明白的把整个美国社会的组成以文化现象说的很清楚。

这种行文方式，也是我们以后写作时应该效仿学习的。

给我印象最深的一节是关于美利坚民族构成的介绍，和以前看过的书相比，作者明了的分类方式，抓住纲领的行文可见一斑。

该章开始，作者用简短不足一千字的六小段，简单的介绍了这个多民族的移民国家的形成，组成，文化特征勾勒出了美利坚民族的基本特色。

英美社会与文化名词解释1.American Indians美国印第安人It is considered as native inhabitants of North America.2.Mayflower CompactIt is the first document of self-government in American,and it is the seed of American democracy.3.The Civil Rights MovementIt is the blacks' struggle against racial discrimination and demand for equal rights with the whites. The movement was characterized by major campaigns of civil resistance.4.Separation of powersDue to the structural principle of U.S. federal government.The doctrine that political power should be divided among separate and independent bodies as a precaution against tyranny or arbitrary excesses by government.Three branches of government are created and power is shared among them.5.baby boom婴儿潮，生育高峰It is a period marked by a greatly increased birth rate.It most often refers to the post-WWⅡhigher birth rate in the United States.It is a period from 1946 to 1964.It is estimated that 78.3 million Americans were born.it has been described variously as a "shockwave" and as "the pig in the python."6.McCarthyismAnti-Communist hysteria in US during the 1950 launched by McCarthy. The campaign of widespread persecution of many people as Soviet spies.Its effects lasted for decades.7.A salad bowlIt is alternative metaphors to describe the current American society , the trend is toward multiculturalism.It just like ingredients in a real salad,each culture keeps its own special "taste" and characteristics.8.Electoral CollegeAmerican way to elect the President.The President is not elected directly by the voters but by "presidential electors".9.Uncle SamIt is a figure symbolizing the United States.It is portrayed as a tall,white-haired man with a goatee.He often dressed in red ,white,and blue, and wears a top hat."Uncle Sam" to the United States is "John Bull" to UK.10.Muckrakers黑幕揭发者They were a group of reform-minded journalists,novelists and critics in America at the turn of the20th century.They exposed various dark sides of the seemingly prosperous society.They gave rise to the Progressive movement.11.Rosa Parks IncidentRosa Parks is a middle-aged black woman.She refused to give up her seat on the bus to a white passenger who had just gotten on.Then Rosa was arrested and fined 10 dollars.This insident led to a 1956 Supreme Court decision banning segregated buses.12.A nation of nations万民之邦The US has long been known as a nation of immigration,a multinational and multiracial country.The vast majority of its population is immigrants or descendants of immigrants coming from all over the world.13.New EnglandIn 1620,pilgrims from England first settled in New England to form plymouth Colony.But now,it is a region in the northeastern comer of the United States consisting of the 6 states.14.WASPsIt refers to the White Anglo-Saxon Protestants and their descendants.They are Americans of English ancestry.Until quite recently,to many peopie the WASPs had been the Americans.Their culture had represented the American culture.The WASPs still dominate every aspect of American life.。

美国社会的移民同化与文化多元化美国社会的移民同化与文化多元化【作者】张薇薇内容提要：美国是一个基本上由移民组成的国家，其文化发展史就是移民不断涌入、相互撞击、相互融合的历史。

从早期殖民时代到二十世纪的今天，移民潮或急或缓，始终没有间断过。

“美国人”这个概念是随着美国诞生而产生的。

如今，美国的疆界已定，而美国人的定义难写。

究其原因，就在于其移民来源的复杂性及其文化的多元性。

本文就美国社会的移民同化与文化多元化理论作简单介绍，或许对国内研究多元一体格局的中华民族文化有所启发。

关键词：移民同化盎格鲁化熔炉模式文化多元化（一）美国最初主要由白人中的盎格鲁·萨克逊（Anglo-Saxon ）新教教徒组成，它吸收了4100多万不同来源的移民及其后代，并把他们熔结成现在的美国人。

在解释美国的民族性时，有三种意识形态或概念化模式竞相引起人们的注意，这就是盎格鲁化模式（Anglo-comformity）、熔炉模式（melting pot）和文化多元化模式（cultural pluralism ）。

这些模式服务于不同时代并经常同时作为“描述模式”（descriptivemodels）和“目标模式”（goal models）来解释“已发生的事”和“要发生的事”〔1〕。

下文将首先对盎格鲁化模式和熔炉模式作简要介绍。

（二）1607年，第一批英国合同工共104人，从英格兰出发，在美洲的弗吉尼亚海岸登陆。

最后存活下来的人建造了一个固定的居所—Jamestown.Jamestown的成功吸引、鼓舞着欧洲这个旧世界里的人们，而随后实施的劳力合同制（indentured labour system）使得更多的英国人能够去美洲。

1620年，为逃避在英格兰受到的宗教迫害，the Pilgrim Fathers（朝圣者）乘“五月花”号轮船跨越大西洋，作为永久居民，而不是合同工人，来到新大陆。

他们建立了自己的聚居点—新英格兰的普利茅斯（plymouth）。

美国文化，从某种意义上说，是欧洲文化的延伸，因为美国人的语言、她的人口构成，以及她的立国精神都源于欧洲。

另一方面，美国文化又与欧洲不同，因为欧洲移民在北美大陆上驱赶走印第安人后，在一片荒芜旷野之地创造了令人赞叹不已的灿烂文明。

所以，在谈论美国文化习俗与社交礼义时，既要顾及欧美文化的相同性，又要注意两者的相异性。

文化习俗是个范围广泛、内容复杂的题目，涉及人在社会生活和交往中的方方面面。

笔者拟定以杂谈的形式，就美国人的文化习俗作一粗浅概述。

宽容性美国是个移民之国，它的祖先来自于全球各地。

人们移居美国时，不仅仅在地理位置上挪动一下，而且还把他们所在国的评议和风俗习惯带到了新的居住地。

因为杂，人们各自的差异十分突出；因为差异十分普遍，人们就不特别注重统一性。

久而久之，美国人的文化习俗中形成了较高程度的宽容性（tolerance），对异质文化和不同评议持容忍、可接受的态度。

在这一点上，美国社会里可行的习俗要比世界上其他国家来得宽泛。

从政治上讲，这种宽容性表现在对自由的追求和对自由权利的维护。

从宗教上说，它体现在不同信仰的和谐共存。

从生活范围上看，它显现在不同和族、不同族裔社区的平安相处。

一言以蔽之，在美国，每个人基本上可以任意选择不同的观念、信仰、生活方式和传统习惯；人们也可以在相当程度上保持自己的习俗和仪。

譬如，犹太人可以庆祝他们的宗教节日，而基督教徒则能够他们的圣诞节和复活节。

再譬如，美国华人可以在唐人街用华语生活和工作；同样的道理，越南移民能够在他们的“小西贡”按越南的方式经营业务，从事各种活动。

美国人的容忍性，除了上面的美国是个移民国这个因素以外，还与美国人的频繁迁徙有关。

众所周知，美国历史发展中的一个重要部分是她的西部开发史。

那时，美国拓荒者或徒步跋涉，或骑马坐车，从东到西，从南到北，哪里有机遇，就往那里移居。

频繁的迁移和不断地更换居处使人们始终处于“流动”状态，对暂面临的种种不同现象更易于宽容和接受。

Unit One American BeginningsQuestions1. How is an American defined biologically according to J. Hector St.John de Crevecoeur? And what is the cultural identity of an American?2. How much do you know about American Indians?3. What are the four basic patterns of colonies and their respective features?4. Make a comment on the importance of New England in the development of America.5. What are the reasons for American Revolution?6. What are the major ideas of the Declaration of Independence?I. Introduction to Americans1. Definition of American: biologically, mixture of bloods; culturally, American Creed (democracy, liberty,individualism, rule of law, etc)2. J. Hector St. John de Crevecoeur: Letters from an American Farmer: mixture of blood; melting pot (WASP)?3. Other terms: salad; kaleidoscopeII. A New Land1. Aboriginal people: American Indians2.Discovery of the “New” World: by Christopher Columbus in 1492; Spain3. North America: John Cabot (from Italian) in 1497; England4. Background of colonization: the development of capitalism; the Renaissance; the Religious Reformation (Christianity: Roman Catholic; Protestantism; Eastern Orthodoxy)5. Roman Catholic: Pope, hierarchyProtestantism (protest + ant + ism): the BiblePuritan (purify the Church of England): working hard; living a moral life; thriftInfluence of Puritan beliefs: individualism; hard work; respect of education.III. Four Patterns of Colonies1. 13 colonies: New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland,Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia.2. Virginia: adventurous English gentlemen; for economic reasons; Jamestown (the first English permanent settlement); tobacco; the House of Burgesses (representative assembly) and the enslavement of blacks in 16193. New England (Massachusetts 马萨诸塞, Connecticut康涅狄克, New Hampshire新罕布什尔, Vermont佛蒙特, Maine缅因, Rhode Island罗德岛):Mayflower (1620); English puritans; for religious freedom; the Mayflower Compact (a civil government自治政府）; a city upon hill （山巅之城）; the core of American resistance in the War of Independence; evolved representative government（代议制）; religious persecution3. Maryland: Catholics; religious freedom4. Pennsylvania: Quaker（quake + er 贵格派）; equality; brotherhood; religious freedom; separation of state and church; a liberal self-governmentIV. American Revolution1. Reasons: new taxes on sugar, coffee, textiles and other imported goods; the Stamp Act（印花税）; the Quartering Act（驻军食宿法）; “No taxation without representation”2. Beginning: the Boston Tea Party（波士顿倾茶党）in 1773; the First Continental Congress in 1774; the first shot in Concord in 17753. Process: the Second Continental Congress（第二届大陆会议）in 1775; the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776;4. End: came to an end in 1781; theTreaty of Paris（《巴黎和约》）in 1783Unit 2 The American Political SystemArticles of Confederation●Relationships between the 13 colonies after the War of Independence: like 13 independent states (with their own government, their own laws and responsibility for handling their own internal affairs)●Articles of Confederation: a loose union, which could deal with only problems and needs beyond the power of individual states (i.e., raise money to pay off debts of the war, establish a money system, make treaties with foreign nations); obvious disadvantagesConstitution●Constitutional Convention: began in May of 1787, with delegates from 12 states (except Rhode Island); from making changes necessary to strengthen the Articles of Confederation to making a new constitution●Constitution: 1. federal system: share power between the federal government and state governments; 2. division of power: the executive, the judicial, the legislative; 3. checks and balances●Weakness: no explicit guarantees of the freedoms or the basic rights of citizens●Checks and balances: a principle of government under which separate branches are empowered to prevent actions by otherbranches and are induced to share power. This system was enacted through the Constitution of the United States in order to prevent any of its three branches from dominating the Federal government.Division of Power●The legislative: make federal laws, levy federal taxes, declare war, put foreign treaties into effect.●The executive (the president): formulate public policy, propose legislation to Congress, veto a bill, appoint federal judges, act as commander in chief of the armed forces, be responsible for foreign relations, negotiate treaties with other countries.●The judicial: jurisdiction over cases arising out of the Constitution; national laws and treaties; maritime cases; issues involving foreign citizens or governments; and cases in which the federal government itself is a party; judicial review（司法复审, the power to determine whether congressional legislation or executive action violates the Constitution）.Formation of the Three Branches●The legislative branch (Congress): the House of Representatives (two-year terms, and varying numbers of seats for different states based on population) and the Senate (for six-year terms, two seats for each state); lobby●The executive branch: the President and the Cabinet (composed ofsecretaries of different departments); federal workers●The judicial: the Supreme Court / 最高法院(composed of 1 chief justice / 首席大法官and eight associate justices大法官), 11 federal courts of appeal（联邦上诉法院）, and 91 federal district courts（联邦地方法院）.●To assure the independence of federal judges: work for life or voluntary retirement.Bill of Rights●Bill of Rights: adopted in 1791; consisting of 10 amendments to the Constitution, guaranteeing freedom and individual rights and forbidding interference with lives of individuals by the government.●Freedom: of speech, of religion, of the press.●Rights: to assemble in public places, to pretest government actions, to demand change, to own weapons, to a speedy trial by a jury and to be represented by a lawyer and to call in witnesses.Political Parties●Bipartisan system: the Democratic Party (the more liberal party, symbolized by the donkey) & the Republican Party (the more conservative party, symbolized by the elephant).●High cost of campaigning for public officesQuestions1. What kind of government was established based on the Articles ofConfederaion?2. What is the Constitution mainly about?3. What are the major principles for the establishment of American government?4. What is the definition of federal system?5. Why was it necessary to establish “Bill of Rights”?6. What are the major responsibilities of the legislative branch?7. What are the procedures to make a law?8. What does lobby mean?9. What power does American President have?10. What are the major responsibilities of the judicial branch?11. How do you und erstand the principle of “checks and balances”？12. How was American party politics developed?American economyUnit 3 American EconomyIndustrial Revolution●Change from an agricultural country to an industrial country●Debate about the road to development: agriculture (represented by Thomas Jefferson) vs industry (represented by Alexander Hamilton) ●Thomas Jefferson’s ideas about farmers (see p. 74)●Alexander Hamilton（亚历山大·汉密尔顿）: the first Secretary of the Treasury（财政部长）and the co-author of The Federalist Papers （《联邦党人文集》）; believe in a strong central government and a strong national bank.●Hamiltonian measures: “Report on the Public Credit”; “Report ona National Bank”; “Report on Manufactures” (protective tariff).●Industrial revolution in America: 1. the introduction of the factory system (Samuel Slater); 2. the American system of mass production (Eli Whitney) and scientific management (by Frederick Tylor); 3. the application of new technologies to industrial tasks; 4. the emergence of new forms of business organizations (represented by bank and corporation); 5. the construction of railroads.●Scientific management: a theory of management that analyzes and synthesizes workflows, with the objective of improving labour productivity. It is composed of job design (to ensure that employees will not be asked to perform work beyond their abilities) anddividion of labor. It can be used to refer to any system of organization that clearly spells out the functions of individuals and groups.●Post-industrial era: a period in the develop-ment of an economy or nation in which the relative importance of manufacturing lessens and that of services, information, and research grows. Five primary characteristics: 1. the domination of service, rather than manufacturing or industry; 2. the preeminence of the professional and technical classes; 3. the central place of theoretical knowledge as a source of innovations; 4. the dominating influence of technology; 5. levels of urbanization higher than anywhere else in the world.Free EnterpriseLaissez faire（自由放任）: An economic doctrine that opposes governmental regulation of or interference in commerce beyond the minimum necessary for a free-enterprise system to operate according to its own economic laws.●Disadvantages: monopoly, elimination of competition, higher price, poor quality products●Adam Smith: author of An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, (abbreviated as Wealth of Nations 《国富论》), founder of free market economics (markets are driven toward the public good by an "invisible hand" ).Roots of Affluence●Bountiful resources; geographical size; population trends; religious, social and political traditions; the institutional structures of government and business; hard work.Agriculture●The foundation of American economy●Major crops: soybeans, corn, cotton, wheat, tobacco, vegetable oils ●Agribusiness: the entire complex of farm-related businesses, including farmer cooperatives, rural banks, shippers of farm products, commodity dealers, firms that manufacture farm equipment, food processing industries, grocery chains, and many other businesses.●Problems: environmental pollutionUnit Four American ReligionI. Importance of Religion●A religious people: 94% believe in God; 90% pray; 57% are members of a church; 40% attend a church weekly.●A major purpose of colonization: religious freedom (in a relative sense, i.e., greater religious freedom in America than in European countries); the elect of God●A major factor of America’s ra pid development●An important aspect of American identity: WASP (White Anglo-Saxon Protestant)●Basic documents and religion: The Declaration of Independence (Creator; Nature’s God); the First Amendment to the Constitution (free practice of religion; no state or national religion)●Definition of faith heeling: curing of an illness or disability by recourse to divine power, without the use of traditional medicine. Example: “Faith-Healing Parents Given Jail Sentence” (Oct. 7, 2009): A couple from Wisconsin, who prayed rather than seeking medical care for their 11-year old daughter who died of an undiagnosed but treatable form of diabetes（糖尿病）, were sentenced to 6 months in jail and 10 years probation.II. Christianity●The actual national religion, with a population of 87%●Protestantism: 60% of the population; major sects: Baptist（洗礼教派）; Methodist（卫理公会教徒）; Presbyterian（长老会教友）; Episcopalian（新教圣公会教徒）●Roman Catholics: ¼ of all Americans; Anti-Catholic prejudice; John F. Kennedy, the first Roman Catholic presidentIII. Civil Religion●Bring together secular politics and religious society●Four major elements: 1. the religious basis of the American system of government (President Eisenhower: “Recognition of the Supreme Being is the first, the most basic expression of Americanism. Without God, there could be no American form of government, nor an American way of life.” 2. the beliefs that Americans are God’s chosen and that American people have a special destiny under God (Manifest Destiny). 3. the prevalence of religious allusions and symbols in American public rhetoric, rituals, and ceremonies. (the use of the Bible and the invocation of God in Presidents’ inaugural addresses; the appearance of “In God We Trust” in American currency, bills and coins; the use of prayer in opening the daily sessions of Congress.) 4. the religious aura in national ceremonies and activities (Memorial Day, Thanksgiving Day, presidential inaugurations and funerals)IV. Religious Diversity●1,000 denominations, sects, and cults●Judaism: 1. characteristics (its monotheism; its belief in a special covenant with God making it His ‘chosen people’; ethnic and territorial identity, i.e., “the promised land”; specific laws and practices; and Messianism); 2. anti-Jewish prejudice /anti-semitism;3. intellectual leaders●Islam●BuddhismV. American Character of Religion●1. The harmonious co-existence of various religions●2. The co-existence of strong religious beliefs and social progress●3. Independence of church in terms of finance and building, and little concentration on doctrine or religious argumentVI. Religion and American Political Culture●The covenant theology and the right to revolt●Puritanism and democracy●One nation under God: a sense of mission (Manifest Destiny)Unit Five Education in the United StatesI. Importance of Education●A long history of higher education (longer than the history of the nation): the establishment of universities before the independence of America (three oldest universities in the colonial period, i.e., Harvard College in 1636, the College of William & Mary in 1693, and Y ale University in 1701); reasons for the development of higher education (well-educated early immigrants; the necessity to read the Bible)●An important factor contributing to the rapid development of America: teaching knowledge and skills●The basis of democracy: equal opportunity based on education; enhancing social mobility●Base of national unity: assimilation and Americanization.II. Constitutional Status of Public Education●According to the Tenth Amendment to the Constitution: The power for public education is reserved to the states or the people●No federally controlled and administered school system (the establishment of the U.S. Office of Eduation in 1867 as a part of the Department of Health, Education and Welfare, and the establishment of U.S. Department of Education in 1979): diversity in American educationIII. Two School Systems●Public school: supported by state governments; attended by 90% of American students; controlled by boards of education; sources of income: government funding; student tuition; endowments by wealthy benefactors.●Private school: supported by religious groups or non-religious individuals /organizations; attended by 10% of American students; run privately; sources of income:student tuition; endowments by wealthy benefactors; government funding.IV. Structure of American Education●1. Elementary school: including grades kindergarten through 8; also known as grammar school●2. Secondary school: includi ng grades 9~12; popularly called “high school” (junior high school & senior high school): Junior high school: a school in the U.S. system which generally includes the seventh, eighth, and sometimes ninth grades; Senior high school: a high school usually constituting grades 10, 11, and 12●3. Higher education: the two-year college (junior college or community college); the technical training institution; the four-year undergraduate institution (the college); the university (granting a master’s or doctoral de gree).●Academic degrees: associate degree (granted by community colleges); bachelor’s degree; master’s degree; doctoral degree.V. Criteria for Selecting Applicants1. High school records2. Recommendations from high school teachers3. Impression during the interview at the university4. Scores on the Scholastic Aptitude Tests (a kind of standardized test VI. Affirmative Action●Definition: a program that seeks to redress past discrimination through active measures to ensure equal opportunity, as in education and employment.●Two purposes: eliminate discrimination & redress the effects of past discrimination●Reverse discrimination（反向歧视）: discrimination against members of a dominant or majority group, especially when resulting from policies established to correct discrimination against members of a minority or disadvantaged group.Unit Six Social Movements in the 1960sI. Criteria of Social Movements●Ideas for social change●Collective action●organizationII. Major Social Movements: 1. Civil Rights Movement●Definition: a movement for racial equality in the U.S. that, through nonviolent protest, broke the pattern of racial segregation in the South and achieved equal rights legislation for blacks.●Origin of the movement: Rosa Parks’ refusal to give her seat in the front of a bus to a white man in 1955.●Formal beginning of the movement: sit-in in 1960●Nonviolent tactics (advocated by Martin Luther King): boycotts; Sit-in (first used by black students in Greensboro, North Carolina in 1960); freedom rides; vote registration●Violent tactics (advocated by Malcom X): armed organization (the Black Panther Party); separatism; black power●Sit-in（静坐示威）: an organized protest demonstration in which participants seat themselves in an appropriate place and refuse to move.●Teach-in（大学师生举行的讨论会或宣讲会）: an extended session, as on a college or university campus, for lectures and discussions onan important, usually controversial issue.●Freedom ride（自由乘车运动）: civil rights activists’ ride on interstate buses into the south of the United States to fight racial segregation.●Black Power（黑人权力）: a movement among African Americans emphasizing racial pride and social equality through the creation of Black political and cultural institutions.●NAACP (the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People /全国有色人种协进会): the oldest and largest U.S. civil rights organization which was founded in 1909 to secure political, educational, social, and economic equality for African Americans.●SNCC (the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee /学生非暴力统一行动委员会)●CORE (the Congress of Racial Equality /争取种族平等大会)●SCLC (the Southern Christian Leadership Conference /南部基督教领导联合会)●The Black Panther Party for Self-Defense（黑豹党）: an organization of African American militants for the purpose of protecting African Americans from acts of police brutality.●Martin Luther King, Jr.: an African-American clergyman who advocated social change through non-violent means; the Nobel Peace Prize winner in 1964; assassinated in 1968.●Malcom X: a black Moslem leader who advocated black separatism and was against nonviolence in fighting discrimination and racism.II. Major Social Movements: 2. The Youth Movement / Anti-War Movement●The Beat Generation: a group of American writers and artists popular in the 1950s and early 1960s, influenced by Eastern philosophy and religion and known especially for their use of nontraditional forms and their rejection of conventional social values.●Counterculture（反文化）: a culture, especially of young people, with values or lifestyles in opposition to those of the established culture or the social mainstream.●Hippies（嬉皮士）: a person who opposes and rejects many of the conventional standards and customs of society, especially one who advocates extreme liberalism in sociopolitical attitudes and lifestyles.●Flower children: a hippie, especially one advocating universal peace and love as antidotes to social or political ills●Anti-Vietnam War: teach-ins, protest marches and rallies, destroying draft recordsIV. Major Social Movement s: 3. The Women’s Movement●Three groups of women: professional women; white housewives and mothers; young activists in the civil rights and anti-warmovements.●The Civil Rights Act of 1964: Discrimination in employment based on race or sex is illegal.●Goals: equal pay for equal work; equality in job opportunities; recognition of equality in intelligence or ability.V. Achievements●The end of legal segregation●US withdrawal of troops from the Vietnam War and the signing ofa peace treaty in 1973●The im provement of women’s status both at home and in societyUnit Seven Social ProblemsI. Racial Problems●Mainstream / majority: WASP●Minority groups: African Americans, Native Americans (American Indians), the Hispanics, Asian Americans●Involuntary citizens: Native Americans, African Americans, Mexican Americans and Puerto Ricans●Native Americans: forcibly conquered with their homelands taken away; reservations●African Americans: captured, transported, enslaved; lynched; segregated (ghetto); discrimination; myth of racial inferiority: irresponsibility (childish); promiscuity (myth of black rapist and anti-miscegenation laws); laziness; lower intelligence●Mexican Americans and Puerto Ricans: occupied through wars●Racial profiling（种族成见/种族脸谱化/种族定型化）: a form of racism consisting of the (alleged) policy of policemen who stop and search vehicles driven by persons belonging to particular racial groups; the inclusion of racial or ethnic characteristics in determining whether a person is considered likely to commit a particular type of crime or an illegal act or to behave in a "predictable" manner.II. Poverty●Percentage of poor people: 12.5% in 2003●Poverty threshold / poverty line: the minimum level of income deemed necessary to achieve an adequate standard of living in a given country●Absolute poverty: the absence of enough resources (such as money) to secure basic life necessities●Relative poverty (moderate poverty): a standard of living or level of income that is high enough to satisfy basic needs, but still significantly lower than that of the majority of the population under consideration●Influential scholars: John Kenneth Galbraith（约翰·肯尼斯·加尔布雷斯）: “People are poverty-stricken when their income, even if adequate for survival, falls markedly behind that of the community.” (The Affluent Society, 1958); Michael Harrington（迈克尔·哈林顿）: Americans living without adequate nutrition, housing, medical care, and education—people deprived of the standard of living shared by the rest of society (The Other America: Poverty in the United States, 1960)●Poor people: children; the elderly, single-parent families; rural Americans; nonwhites●Measures: the welfare system; day care for children, health care, work-training, special programs for agricultural workers, and freelegal assistance●Historical efforts: President John F. Kennedy's support of antipoverty proposals; “War on Poverty” in President Lyndon B. Johnson’s 1964 inaugural speech and his Great Society program. III. Drug Abuse●A major threat to American society●Kinds of drugs: heroin, cocaine, marijuana●Typical examples: President Obama; Michael Phelps（迈克尔·菲尔普斯）●Serious consequences: crime; automobile accidents; suicide; infectious diseases; economic lossesIV. Crime●One of the most serious social problems●Traditional crimes: rape, murder, robbery, arson, burglary, aggravated assault, auto theft, larceny, prostitution.●Features of criminals: male; young; members of racial minority groups; city residents●white-collar crime: fraud, false advertising, corporate price fixing, bribery, embezzlement, industrial pollution, tax evasion.●Features of criminals: older, wealthier, whiter, more suburbanV. Abuse of Power●Watergate: a series of scandals occurring during the Nixonadministration in which members of the executive branch organized illegal political espionage against their perceived opponents and were charged with violation of the public trust, bribery, contempt of Congress, and attempted obstruction of justice.●Monicagate / Levinsky scandal: the sexual scandal between President Bill Clinton and Monica S. Lewinsky, an unpaid intern and later a paid staffer at the White House in 1995-96.●Lobby / interest groups / pressure groups: a group whose members share certain goals and work to bring about the passage, modification, or defeat of laws that affect these goals.Unit Eight American Foreign PolicyI. Foreign Policy Concepts / Theories1. Idealism（理想主义）: aim to use the state's influence and power to promote higher liberal ideals like peace, justice and co-operation between nations; collective security and the equality of nations.2. Realism（现实主义）: stress the promotion of a state's "narrow" and amoral self-interest; balance of power;II. US foreign policy concepts●Idealism: the elect of God; a city upon hill; manifest destiny; a tool of foreign policy, i.e., used to sell foreign policy to the American people and the wider world.●“American exceptionalism”: a term used to describe the belief that the United States is an extraordinary nation with a special role to play in human history; a nation that is not only unique but also superior.●Manifest Destiny（显然天命）: the 19th-century doctrine that the United States had the right and duty to expand throughout the North American continent.●President Woodrow Wilson (during World War I) as a typical example of idealism: doctorate & president of Princeton College, Nobel Peace Prize winner in 1919; make the world safe for democracy; fourteen points; the League of Nations.III. Features of US Foreign Policy●Duality: to protect national interests and the nation from external threats in a hostile world and to stand for ideals worthy of emulation ●The Truman Doctrine（杜鲁门主义）: Ideally, to establish a safer democratic world in which people could live free of communist tyranny; realistically, to contain Communism.●The Gulf War: Ideally, to promote democracy and improve human rights; realistically, for oil.●President Clinton: “Democracies don’t attack each other.” (1994) ; strengthen American power and push for worldwide acceptance of the democratic virtues that underpin America's liberal political culture.IV. US Foreign Policy：Isolationism（孤立主义）●Definition: opposition to intervention in a war outside the western hemisphere, particularly in Europe; to involvement in permanent military alliances; and to participation in organizations of collective security; seeking to preserve the United State’s freedom of action.●Development of isolationism: Thomas Paine called for an independent foreign policy in Common S ense (1776); John Adam’s Model Treaty of 1776 envisioned a purely commercial treaty with the French, not a binding military alliance; George Washington’s farewell address of 1796 advised his countrymen “to steer clear ofpermanent Alliances”; Thomas Jefferson’s first inaugural address of 1801 sought “peace, commerce and honest friendship with all nations, entangling alliances with none”; The Monroe Doctrine (1823): “In the wars of the European powers in matters relating to themselves we have never taken par t, nor does it comport with our policy to do so”; Woodrow Wilson (a transitional figure): “we need not and we should not form alliances with any nation in the world.” (before World War I)IV. US Foreign Policy: Internationalism（国际主义）/ Interventionism （干涉主义）●Definition: political commitments or “entanglements” through multinational treaties as well as membership in international organizations●Woodrow Wilson’s League of Nations●Collective security●The United Nations●Cultural internationalism: Fulbright programV. Key Terms of Foreign Policy●Containment（遏制政策）: a policy of checking the expansion or influence of a hostile power or ideology, as by the creation of strategic alliances or support of client states（附庸国）in areas of conflict or unrest; the American effort, by military, political, and economic。