新编简明英语语言学教程 第二版 戴炜栋9 Language and Culture知识讲解

第10章语言习得10.1 复习笔记本章要点：1. Theories of child language acquisition儿童语言习得的理论2. Cognitive development in child language development儿童语言发展中的认知因素3. Language environment and the Critical Period Hypothesis语言环境和临界期假说4. Stages in child language development儿童语言发展的阶段5. Atypical development非典型发展本章考点：行为主义者预言习得观；语法天生主义者的习得观；语言环境和临界期假说。

本章内容索引：I. Theories of child language acquisition1. A behaviourist view of language acquisition2. An innatist view of language acquisition3. An interactionist view of language acquisitionII. Cognitive development in child language developmentIII. Language environment and the Critical Period HypothesisIV. Stages in child language development1. Phonological development2. Vocabulary development3. Grammatical development4. Pragmatic developmentV. Atypical developmentI. Theories of child language acquisition（儿童语言习得的理论）1. A behaviourist view of language acquisition（行为主义者的语言习得观）(1) Main content（主要观点）①A behaviourist view of language acquisition Traditional behaviorists view language as behavior and believe that language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation. A child imitates the sounds and patterns of the people around him; people recognize the child’s attempts and reinforce the attempts by responding differently, the child repeats the right sounds or patterns to get the reward(reinforcement)②So imitation and practice are preliminary, discrimination and generalization are key to language development in this theory. Imitation: word for word repetitionof all or part of an utterance.①传统的行为主义者把语言看作是行为，并且相信语言学习仅仅只是一个模仿和习惯形成的问题。

第10章语言习得1. Try to explain the terms:Language AcquisitionLanguage Acquisition DeviceCritical Period HypothesisKey: (1) Language acquisition refers to the child’s acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community.(2) Chomsky referred to children’s innate ability to learn their native language as Language Acquisition Device (LAD). The LAD was described as an imaginary “black box”existing somewhere in the human brain. The “black box”is said to contain principles that are universal to all human languages. Children need access to the samples of a natural language to activate the LAD, which enables them to discover his language’s structure by matching the innate knowledge of basic grammatical system to that particular language.(3) This hypothesis was put forward by Eric Lenneberg in 1967. It states that children have a special propensity for acquiring language, especially between the ages of 2 to 13. There are two versions of CPH. While the strong one suggests that children must acquire their first language by puberty or they will never be able to learn from subsequent exposure, the weak one holds that language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty.2. Among the language acquisition theories mentioned in this chapter, which one do you think is more reasonable and convincing? Explain why.Key:There are three language acquisition theories mentioned in this chapter. Traditional behaviorists view language as behavior and believe that language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation. According to innatist view, human beings are biologically programmed for language and that the language develops in the child just as other biological functions such as walking. The interactionist view holds that language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which the child develops.Behaviorists view sounds reasonable in explaining the routine aspects, the innatist accounts most plausible in explaining children’s acquiring complex system, and the interactionist description convincing in understanding how children learn and use the language appropriately from their environment.In my opinion, I think that the interactionist view is more reasonable, because environment plays a great role in our acquisition of language. Only when conversations provide the right level of language that children are capable of processing can they facilitate children’s language acquisition, otherwise, it is insufficient for children to learn the language’s structure.（答案不唯一，言之成理即可）3. Which of the following statements are TRUE and which are FALSE? Why?a. All normal children have equal ability in learning their first language.b. It is easy for parents to teach their children grammar.c. The young child is not taught to speak, or to understand his language. There isno formal learning of grammar or pronunciation practice.d. At first children do not inflect nouns or verbs.e. Children learn their native language well whenever they start and whateverkinds of language samples they receive.f. The ability to learn a second language as an adult may vary considerablybetween individuals.g. For a child to acquire his mother tongue the most basic requirement is that hehears people speaking this language. He will then begin to learn the language.h. Phonology and grammar are finite, tightly structured systems, the child mustmaster them before puberty in order to be a native speaker of the language. Key: a) True. (Language acquisition device explains it.)b) False. (Grammatical development is partly a matter of growing “competence”and partly a matter of increasing “performance”capacity. Some subtle grammatical distinctions may not be mastered much before the age of ten.)c) True. (Young children acquire their mother tongue.)d) True (At the beginning, children’s acquisition focuses on content.)e) False (Critical Period Hypothesis can explain it.)f) True (Different individuals are exposed to different language learning environment; and their learning abilities are affected by different motivation and personalities.)g) True. (When a child begins acquire his mother tongue, he must be exposed to the language environment.)h) True. (Critical Period Hypothesis can explain it.)4. Each of the following utterances comes from the speech of a child in thetwo-word state. Identify the semantic relation expressed by each of these utterances.Key:a) The child’s utterance “Jimmy swim”may have a lot of different semantic meanings such as “Jimmy can swim”, “Jimmy swims”, or “Jimmy is swimming”. For children have no concepts of tense at this age, he/she only use two words “Jimmy swim”to express his/her intended meaning “Jimmy is swimming?”, a interrogative question.b) The semantic meaning of “Ken book”is “Ken’s book”. The part which is omitted by the child is the possessive case of Ken, but it still can imply the meaning of “Ken’s book”.c) When the child sees his/her father in the office, the child may say “Daddy office”, which means “Daddy is at his office”.d) By omitting the subject of the sentence “You”, the child expresses the meaning using “Push baby”. Obviously the meaning is synonymous with “You push the babies”.e) When the child sees his/her mother reading, he/she simply says “Mommy read” instead of using the present tense.第11章第二语言习得1. To what extent is second language learning similar to first language learning? Can you list some proof from your own learning experiences?Key: Theoretically the new findings and advances in first language acquisition especially in learning theories and learning process are illuminating in understanding second language acquisition. The techniques used to collect and analyze data in first language acquisition also provide insights and perspectives in the study of second language acquisition. For example, we started to learn our native language from listening, then speaking.（答案不唯一，自由发挥即可）2. Try to observe yourself and pay attention to your own learning experience, what conclusions are you more likely to use or depend on Chinese in learning and using English?Key: When I first contacted with English, I often used Chinese to help me learn it. According to the pronunciation of some English words, I picked an approximate accent to mark an English word. Chinese played a great role as interlanguage in such an English learning process. Those Chinese markers helped me remember the English words better.（答案不唯一，自由发挥即可）。

Chapter 1nguage can be generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Language is a system. Systematic---- rule-governed, elements in it are arranged according to certain rules; can’t be combined at will. e.g. *bkli, *I apple eat.Language is arbitrary. Arbitrary---- no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it denotes, e.g. “pen” by any other name is the thing we use to write with.Language is symbolic in nature. Symbolic---- words are associated with objects, actions ideas by convention. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet”----Shakespeare2. The design/defining features of human language(Charles Hockett)⑴ArbitrarinessNo logical (motivated or intrinsic) connection between sounds and meanings①Onomatopoeic words (which imitate natural sounds) are somewhat motivated ( English: rumble, crackle, bang, …. Chinese: putong, shasha, dingdang… )②Some compound words are not entirely arbitrary, e.g. type-writer, shoe-maker, air-conditioner, p hotocopy…⑵Productivity/CreativityPeculiar to human languages，users of language can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before, e.g. we can understand sentence like “ A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the hotel bed”, though it does not describe a common happening in the world.①A gibbon call system is not productive for gibbon draw all their calls from a fixed repertoire which is rapidly exhausted, making any novelty impossible.②The bee dance does have a limited productivity, as it is used to communicate about food sources in any direction. But food sources are the only kind of messages that can be sent through the bee dance; bees do not “talk” about themselves, the hives, or wind, let alone about people, animals, hopes or desires⑶Duality①Lower level----sounds (meaningless)②Higher level----meaning (larger units of meaning)③A communication system with duality is considered more flexible than one without it, for a far greater number of messages can be sent. A small number of sounds can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning (words), and the units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences. (We make dictionary of a language, but we cannot make a dictionary of sentences of that language.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things, which are not present: real or imagined matters in the past, present or future, or in far-away places.①A gibbon never utters a call about something he ate last year②There is something special about the bee dance though. Bees communicate with other bees about the food sources they have found when they are no longer in the presence of the food. In this sense, the bee dance has a component of displacement. But this component is very insignificant. For the bees must communicate about the food immediately on returning to the hive. They do not dance about the food they discovered last month nor do they speculate about future discoveries.⑸Cultural transmissionLanguage is culturally transmitted (through teaching and learning; rather than by instinct).①Animal call systems are genetically transmitted. All cats, gibbons and bees have systems which are almost identical to those of all other cats, gibbons and bees.②A Chinese speaker and an English speaker are not mutually intelligible. This shows that language is culturally transmitted. That is, it is pass on from one generation to the next by teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.③The story of a wolf child, a pig child shows that a human being brought up in isolation simply does not acquire human language.3. Some important distinctions in linguistics⑴Prescriptive vs. Descriptive①Descriptive ---- describe/analyze linguistic facts observed or language people actually use (modern linguistic)②Prescriptive ----lay down rules for “correct” linguistic behavior in using language (traditional grammar)⑵Synchronic vs. diachronic①Synchronic study---- description of a language at some point of time (modern linguistics)②Diachronic study---- description of a language through time (historical development of language over a period of time)⑶Speech vs. writing①Speech ---- primary medium of language②Writing ---- later developed⑷Langue vs. parole (F. de Saussure)①Langue ---- the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of the speech community.②Parole ---- the realization of langue in actual use.Saussure takes a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions.⑸Competence and performance (Chomsky)①Competence ---- the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language②Performance ---- the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.Chapter 21. Speech organs: three important areasPharyngeal cavity ---- the throat;The oral cavity ---- the mouth;Nasal cavity ---- the nose.2. The diagram of speech organsLips Tip of tongueTeeth Blade of tongueTeeth ridge (alveolar) Back of tongueHard palate Vocal cordsSoft palate (velum) Pharyngeal cavityUvula Nasal cavity3.Minimal pai r----when two different forms are identical (the same) in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair, e.g. beat, bit, bet, bat, boot, but, bait, bite, boat.4. Phone, phoneme, allophoneA phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, some don’t, e.g. [ bI:t ] & [ bIt ], [spIt] & [spIt].A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme /p/ can be represented differently in [pIt], [tIp] and [spIt].Allophones ---- the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments5. The features that a phoneme possesses, making it different from other phonemes, are its distinctive features. Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair6. Suprasegmental features⑴Stress①Word stressThe location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, e.g. a shift in stress in English may change the part of speech of a word:Verb: im’port; in’crease; re’bel; re’cord …Noun: ’import; ’increase; ’rebel; ’record …Similar alteration of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements:Compound: ’blackbird; ’greenhouse; ’hotdog…Noun phrase: black…bird; green ’house; hot ’dog…The meaning-distinctive role played by word stress is also manifested in the combinations of -ing forms and nouns:Modifier: ’dining-room; ‟readingroom; ‟sleepingbag…Doer: sleeping ’baby; swimming ’fish; flying ’plane…②Sentence stressSentence stress----the relative force given to the components of a sentence. Generally, nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs, numerals and demonstrative pronouns are stressed. Other categories like articles, person pronouns, auxiliary verbs prepositions and conjunctions are usually notstressed.Note: for pragmatic reason, this rule is not always right, e.g. we may stress any part in the following sentences.He is driving my car.My mother bought me a new skirt yesterday.⑵ToneTones are pitch variations,which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. English is not a tone language, but Chinese is.mā妈(level)má麻(the second rise)mǎ马(the third rise)mà骂(the fourth fall)⑶IntonationWhen pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather than to the word, they are collectively known as intonation.English has three types of intonation that are most frequently used:falling tone (matter of fact statement)rising tone (doubts or question)the fall-rise tone (implied message)For instance,“That‟s not the book he wants.”7. The manner of articulationStops/plosives: [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g];Fricatives: [f], [v], [s], [z], [W], [T], [F], [V], [h];Affricates: [tF], [dV]; Liquids: [l](lateral), [r];Nasals: [m], [n], [N]; Glides/semivowels: [w], [j].Chapter 31.Morpheme--the minimal unit of meaningWords are composed of morphemes. Words may consist of one morpheme or more morphemes, e.g.1-morpheme boy, desire 2-morpheme boy+ish, desir(e)+ble3-morpheme boy+ish+ness 4-morpheme gentle+man+li+ness, un+desir(e)+abl(e)+ity 5-morpheme un+gentle+man+li+ness 6-morpheme anti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism ⑴Affix①Prefix ---- morphemes that occur only before others, e.g.un-, dis, anti-, ir-, etc.②Suffix ---- morphemes that occur only after others, e.g.-ful, -er, -ish, -ness, -able, -tive, tion, etc.⑵Free morpheme & bound morpheme①Free morpheme----is one that may constitute a word (free form) by itself, such as bed, tree, sing, dance, etc.②Bound morpheme----is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme. They can not stand by themselves, such as “-s” in “dogs”, “al” in “national”, “dis-” in “disclose”, “ed” in “recorded”, etc.2. Derivational morpheme & inflectional morpheme①Derivational morphemes---- the morphemes which change the category, or grammatical class of words, e.g. modern---modernize, length---lengthen, fool---foolish, etc.②Inflectional morphemes---- the morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case and so on; they never change their syntactic category, never add any lexical meaning, e.g.a) number: tables apples carsb) person, finiteness and aspect: talk/talks/talking/talkedc) case: John/John’s3. Some points about compounds⑴Noun compoundsdaybreak (N+V) playboy (V+N) haircut (N+V) callgirl (V+N) windmill (N+N)⑵Verb compoundsbrainwash (N+V) lipread (N+V) babysit(N+V)⑶Adjective compoundsmaneating (N+Ving) heartfelt (N+Ved) dutyfree (N+adj.)⑷Preposition compoundsinto (P+P) throughout (P+P)⑸①When the two words are in the same grammatical category, the compound will be in this category, e.g. postbox, landlady, icy-cold, blue-black…②When the two words fall into different categories, the class of the second or final word will be the grammatical category of the compound, e.g. head-s trong, pickpocket…③Compounds have different stress patterns from the non-compounded word sequence, e.g. red coat, green house…④The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.Chapter 41.Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. The most central categories to the syntactic study are the word-level categories (traditionally, parts of speech)⑴Word-level categories①Major lexical categories: N, V, Adj, Prep.②Minor Lexical categories: Det, Deg, Qual, Auxi, Conj.⑵Phrase categories and their structures①Phrase categories----the syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called ⑵phrase categories, such as NP(N), VP(V), AP(A), PP(P).②The structure: specifier + head + complement③Head---- the word around which a phrase is formed④Specifier---- the words on the left side of the head s⑤Complement---- the words on the right side of the headsChapter 51. The conceptualist viewThe conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i.e. between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.2. The contextualism①Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behavior. Two types of contexts are recognized:②Situational context: spatiotemporal situation③Linguistic context: the probability of a word’s co-occurrence or collocation.④For example, “black” in black hair& black coffee,or black sheep differs in meaning; “The president of the United States” can mean either the president or presidency in different situation.3. Behaviorism①Behaviorists attempted to de fine meaning as “the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”.②The story of Jack and Jill:Jill JackS_________r--------s_________R4. Sense and referenceSense and reference are both concerned with the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning.①Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.②Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.5. Major sense relationsSynonymySynonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.1) Dialectal synonyms---- synonyms used in different regional dialects, e.g. autumn - fall, biscuit - cracker, petrol –gasoline…2) Stylistic synonyms----synonyms differing in style, e.g. kid, child, offspring; start, begin, commence…3) Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning, e.g. collaborator- accomplice…4) Collocational synonyms, e.g. accuse…of, charge…with, rebuke…for; …5) Semantically different synonyms, e.g. amaze, astound…Antonymy1) Gradable antonyms----there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair,e.g. old-young, hot-cold, tall-short …2) Complementary antonyms----the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other, e.g. alive-dead, male-female …3) Relational opposites----exhibits the reversal of the relationship between the two items, e.g. husband-wife, father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, let-rent, employer-employee, give-receive, above-below …6. Sense relations between sentences(1) X is synonymous with Y①X: He was a bachelor all his life. Y: He never got married all his life.②X: The boy killed the cat. Y: The cat was killed by the boy.If X is true, Y is true; if X is false, Y is false.(2) X is inconsistent with Y①X: He is single. Y: He has a wife.②X: This is my first visit to Beijing .Y: I have been to Beijing twice.If X is true, Y is false; if X is false, Y is true.(3) X entails Y①X: John married a blond heiress. Y: John married a blond.②X: Marry has been to Beijing. Y: Marry has been to China.Entailment is a relation of inclusion. If X entails Y, then the meaning of X is included in Y.If X is true, Y is necessarily true; if X is false, Y may be true or false.(4) X presupposes Y①X: His bike needs repairing. Y: He has a bike.②Paul has given up smoking. Paul once smoked.If X is true, Y must be true; If X is false, Y is still true.(5) X is a contradiction*My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.*The orphan‟s parents are pretty well-off.(6) X is semantically anomalous*The man is pregnant.*The table has bad intentions.*Sincerity shakes hands with the black apple.7. Analysis of meaning⑴Componential analysis---- a way to analyze lexical meaning. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features. For example,Man: [+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE]Boy: [+HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE]Woman: [+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, -MALE]Girl: [+HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMATE, -MALE]⑵Predication analysis1) The meaning of a sentence is not to be worked out by adding up all the meanings of its component words, e.g. “The dog bites the man” is semantically different from “The man bites the dog” though their components are exactly the sam e.2) There are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical meaning and semantic meaning, e.g. *Green clouds are sleeping furiously.*Sincerity shook hands with the black apple.Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called selectional restrictions.3) Predication analysis---- a way to analyze sentence meaning (British G. Leech).4) Predication----the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. A predication consists of argument(s) and predicate.①An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal elements in a sentence.②A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.5) According to the number of arguments contained in a predication, we may classify the predications into the following types:①One-place predication: smoke, grow, rise, run …②Two-place predication: like, love, save, bite, beat…③Three-place predication: give, sent, promise, call …④No-place predication: It is hot.Tom smokes.→ TOM (SMOKE) The tree grows well.→ TREE (GROW)The kids like apples.→KIDS (LIKE) APPLE I sent him a letter.→I (SEND) HIM LETTER Chapter 61. Context---- a basic concept in the study of pragmatics. It is generally considered as constituted knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer, such as cultural background, situation (time, place, manner, etc.), the relationship between the speaker and the hearer, etc.….Context determines the speaker’s use of language and also the hearer’s interpretation of what is said to him.2. Speech act theorySpeech acts is a term derived from the work of the philosopher J. L. Austin (1962) and now used to refer to a theory which analyzes the role of utterances in relation to the behavior of the speaker and the hearer in interpersonal communication. It aims to answer the question “What do we do when using language?”⑴Austin’s new model of speech act sAccording to Austin’s new model, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act.①The locutionary act----an act of saying something, i.e. an act of making a meaningful utterance (literal meaning of an utterance);②The illocutionary act----an act performed in saying something: in saying X, I was doing Y (the intention of the speaker while speaking).③The perlocutionary act----an act performed as a result of saying something: by saying X and doing Y, I did Z.Ⅰ.For example,“It is cold in here.”①Its locutionary act is the saying of it with its literal meaning the weather is clod in here;②Its illocutionary act can be a request of the hear to shut the window;③Its perlocutionary act can be the hearer’s shutting the window o r his refusal to comply with the request.Ⅱ.Analyze one more example: “You have left the door wide open.”Note: Of the three acts, what speech act theory is most concerned with is the illocutionary act. It attempts to account for the ways by which speakers can mean more than what they say.Ⅲ.Analyze the illocutionary acts of the following conversation between a couple:----(the telephone rings)----H: That‟ the phone. (1)----W: I‟m in the bathroom. (2)----H: Okay. (3)Ⅳ.This seemingly incoherent conversation goes on successfully because the speakers understand each other’s illocutionary acts:① Making a request of his wife to go and answer the phone.② A refusal to comply with the request; issuing a request of her husband to answer the phone instead.③Accepting the wife’s refusal and accepting her request, meaning “all right, I‟ll answer it.”⑵Searle’s classification of speech acts (1969)①Assertives/representatives(陈述) Stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true, e.g.I think the film is moving.I‟m certain I have never seen the man before.I solemnly swear that he had got it.②Directives(指令) Trying to get the hearer to do something, e.g.I order you to leave right now.Open the window, please.Your money or your life!③Commissives(承诺) Committing the speaker himself to some future course of action, e.g.I promise to come.I will bring you the book tomorrow without fail.④Expressives(表达) Expressing the speaker’s psychological state about something, e.g.I‟m sorry for being late.I apologize for the sufferings that the war has caused to your people.⑤eclarations(宣布) Bringing about an immediate change in the existing state or affairs, e.g.I now appoint you chairman of the committee.You are fired.I now declare the meeting open.Note: (1) All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose but differ in their strength or force, e.g.I guess / am sure / swear he is the murderer.Note: (2) In order to get someone open the door, we can choose one from a variety of the forms in below:Could you open the door, please!Can you open the door!Do you mind opening the door?Open the door!The door please!3. Principle of conversation (Paul Grice)Cooperative principle (CP)---- According to Grice, in making conversation, there is a general principle which all participants are expected to observe. It goes as follows:Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.Four maxims of CP①The maxim of quality----Do not say what you believe to be false.----Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.②The maxim of quantity----Make your contribution as informative as required for the current purpose of the exchange.----Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.③The maxim of relation----Be relevant ( make your contribution relevant).④The maxim of manner----Avoid obscurity of expression.----Avoid ambiguity.----Be brief.----Be orderly.Chapter 71. Addition of new words①coinage(创新词)----A new word can be coined outright to fit some purpose, e.g.Walkman Kodak Xerox Ford Benz Toyota②clipped words(缩略词) ----The abbreviation of longer words or phrases, e.g. Gym—gymnasium memo—memorandum disco—discotheque fridge—refrigerator③blending(紧缩法) ----A blend is a word formed by combining parts of other words, e.g. Smog—smoke + fog motel—motor + hotel camcorder—camera + recorder④acronyms(词首字母缩略词) ----Acronyms are words derived from the initials of several words,e.g. CBS---- Columbia Broad casting systemISBN----International Standard Book NumberWTO WHO PLA AIDS UNESCO APEC OPEC CAD SARS⑤back-formation(逆构词法) ----New words may be coined from already existing words by “subtracting” an affix thought to be part of the old word.Edit ⇐ editor hawk ⇐ hawker beg ⇐ beggar baby-sit ⇐baby-sitter⑥functional shift ----Words may shift from one part of speech to another without the addition of affixes, e.g. Noun⇒verb: to knee, to bug, to tape, to brake…Verb⇒noun: a hold, a flyby, a reject, a retreat…Adj⇒verb: to cool, to narrow, to dim, to slow…Adj⇒noun: a daily, a Christian, the rich, the imposs ible…⑦borrowing ----When different cultures come into contact, words are often borrowed from one language to another. The following are some of the loan words in English (see more in P100-101). Latin bonus education exitGerman beer waltz quartzChinese tea kowtow sampanRussian sputnik commissar vodkaArabic zero algebra alcohol2. Loss of wordsWords can be lost from a language as time goes by. The following words, taken from Romeo and Juliet, have faded out of the English language.Beseem →to be suitableWot →to knowGyve →a fetterWherefore →why3. Changes in the meaning of words①Widening of meaningHoliday: [+specific] holy day[+general] any rest dayTail: [+specific] tail of a horse[+general] tail of any animal②Narrowing of meaningHound: any doga special kind of dogGirl: young person of either sexyoung people of female sex③Meaning shiftinn: a small, old hotel or pubwell-known, nice hotelnice: ignorant (1000 years ago)good, fineChapter 81. The relatedness between language and societyThere are many indications of the inter-relationship between language and society.①Language is often used to establish and maintain social relationships. (e.g. greeting)②The use of language is in part determined by the user’s social background. (social class, age, sex, education level, etc.)③Language, especially the structure of its lexicon, reflects both the physical and the social environments of a society. (“snow” for Eskimo)④As a social phenomenon language is closely related to the structure of the society in which it is used, the evaluation of a linguistic form is entirely social ( the postvocalic [r] ).2. Speech community and speech variety①Speech community---- the social group that is singled out for any special sociolinguistic study is called the speech community.②Speech variety or language variety---- any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker ora group of speakers. In sociolinguistic study three types of speech variety are of special interest,i.e. regional dialects, sociolects and registers.3. Two approaches to sociolinguistic studies①Macro sociolinguistics, i.e. a bird’s-eye view of the languages used in society;②Micro sociolinguistics, i.e. a worm’s-eye view of language in use.4. Sociolect is a linguistic variety characteristic of a particular social class. (e.g. Received Pronunciation)5. Ethnic dialect----a social dialect of a language that cuts across regional differences; it is mainly spoken by a less privileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation such as racial discrimination or segregation (e.g. Black English).6. Register, in a restricted sense, refers to the variety of language related to one’s occupation.In a broader sense, according to Halliday, “language varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations.” The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register.Halliday further distinguishes three social variables that determine the register: field of discourse, tenor of discourse, mode of discourse.Three social variables:①Field of discourse: what is going on: to the area of operation of the language activity. It is concerned with the purpose (why) and subject matter (about what) of communication. It can beeither technical or non-technical.)②Tenor of discourse: the role of relationship in the situation in question: who are the participants in the communication and in what relationship they stand to each other. (customer-shop-assistant, teacher-student, etc.)③Mode of discourse: the means of communication. It is concerned with how communication is carried out. (oral, written, on the line…)7. Standard dialect①The standard variety is a superimposed, socially prestigious dialect of a language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system, used by the mass media, and taught in educational institutions, including school settings where the language is taught as a foreign or second language.②The standard variety has a number of featuresFirst of all, the standard dialect is based on a selected variety of the language, usually it is the local speech of an area which is considered the nation’s political and commercial center.Second, the standard dialect is not a dialect a child acquires naturally like his regional dialect. It is a superimposed variety; it is a variety imposed from above over the range of regional dialects. Then the standard dialect has some special functions.Chapter 91. The relationship between language and culture①The same word may stir up different associations in people under different cultural background,e.g. the word “dog”.②Language expresses cultural reality, reflects the people’s attitudes, beliefs, world outlooks, etc.③The culture both emancipates and constrains people socially, historically and metaphorically.④Culture also af fects its people’s imagination or common dreams which are mediated through the language and reflected in their life.⑤On the one hand, language as an integral part of human being, permeates in his thinking and way of viewing the world, language both expresses and embodies cultural reality; on the other, language, as a product of culture, helps perpetuate the culture, and the changes in language uses reflect the cultural changes in return.2. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis⑴①Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf, proclaimed that the structure of the language people habitually use influences the ways they think and behave, i.e. different languages offer people different ways of expressing the world around, they think and speak differently, this is also known as linguistic relativity.②Sapir and Whorf believe that language filters people’s perception and the way they categorize experiences. This interdependence of language and thought is now known as Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.⑵Strong version & weak versionStrong version bel ieves that the language patterns determine people’s thinking and behavior; Weak version holds that the former influence the latter.----The study of the linguistic relativity or SWH has shed two important insights:①There is nowadays a recognition that language, as code, reflects cultural preoccupations and constrains the way people think.②More than in Whorf’s days, however, we recognize how important context is in complementing。

戴炜栋《新编简明英语语⾔学教程》（第2版）课后习题详解（中）【圣才出品】第4章句法学1. What is syntax?Key: Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that governs the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?Key: The special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is calleda phrase structure rule.3. What is category? How to determine a word’s category?Key: Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. T o determine a word’s category, three criteria are usually employed, namely, meaning, inflation and distribution.4. What is coordinate structure? What properties does it have?Key: The structures that are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction are called coordinate structures. It has four properties: first, there is no limit on the number of coordinated categories. Second, a category at any level can be coordinated. Third, coordinated categories must be of the same type. Fourth, the category type of the coordinate phrase isidentical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what rule does each element play? Key: The phrase elements are specifiers, complements and modifiers. Specifiers help make more precise the meaning of the head. They typically mark a phrase. The complements provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head. Modifiers specifies optionally expressible properties of heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?Key: The structure that formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties is called the deep structure. The structure that corresponds to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformation is called surface structure.7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.b) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.c) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the school.d) This cloth feels quite soft.Key:8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) rich in mineralsb) often read detective storiesc) an augment against the proposalsd) already above the windowKey: a) rich in mineralsb) often read detective storiesc) the argument against the proposalsd) already above the window9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.Key: (The modifiers are represented by italics.)a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.Key: a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function ascomplements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.b) Gerry can’t believe the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.c) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.d) The children argued over whether bats had wings.Key: a) You know that I hate war.。

新编简明英语语言学教程戴伟栋版第1章导言本章要点：1. The definition and main branches of linguistics study语言学的定义和研究范围2. Important distinction in Linguistic语言学的一些重要区分3. The definition and the design features of language语言的定义和识别特征4. Function of language语言的功能本章考点：语言学考点：语言学的定义，语言学中几组重要的区别，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义；普通语言学的主要分支及各自研究范畴；宏观语言及应用语言学的主要扥只及各自的研究范畴。

语言的考点：语言的定义；语言的识别特征（任意性，能产性，二重性，移位性，文化传递性）；语言的功能1,The definition of linguistics语言的定义：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language(based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to general theory of language structure)2.The scope of linguistics语言学的范围A：micro-linguisticsPhonetics（语音学）: the study of the sounds used in linguistic communication.Phonology（音系学）: the study of how sounds put together and used to convey meaning in communication.(语音分布和排列的规则及音节的形式) Morphology（形态学）: the study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words.Syntax（句法学）: the study of rules in the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in language.Semantics（语义学）: the study of meaning.Pragmatics（语用学）: the study of the meaning in the context of language use. B：macro-linguisticsSociolinguistics: the study of all social aspects of language and its relation with the society form the core of the branch.Psycholinguistics: the study of language and its relation with psychology.Applied linguistics: the study of application of language to the solution of practical problems. Narrowly it is the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.3. Some important distinctions in linguistics 语言学中的重要区分A: Descriptive vs Prescriptive 描写式与规定式Descriptive: if a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use.Prescriptive: if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for ―correct and standard‖ behavior in using lan guage, i.e. to tell people what should they say and what they should not say, it is said to be Prescriptive.B: Synchronic vs Diachronic 共时性和历时性Synchronic: the description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study.Diachronic: the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.C: Speech vs writing 言语和文学These are major media of communication.D: Langue vs parole 语言与言语(Saussure 索緖尔)Langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by the all the members of a speech community.Parole: refers to the realization of language in actual use.E: Competence vs performance 语言能力和语言应用(Chomsky乔姆斯基) Competence: refers to a user’s underlying knowledge about the system of the rules.Performance: refers to the actual use in concrete situations.乔姆斯基和索绪尔的区别：索绪尔采用的是社会学的观点，他的语言观念是社会惯例性的。

06422英语语言学—新编简明英语语言学教程,戴炜栋06422英语语言学—新编简明英语语言学教程, 戴炜栋ContentsChapter 1 Introduction (1)Chapter 2 Phonology (5)Chapter 3 Morphology (8)Chapter 4 Syntax (9)Chapter 5 Semantics (12)Chapter 6 Pragmatics (16)Chapter 7 Historical linguistics (19)Chapter 8 Sociolinguistics (24)Chapter 9 Psycholinguistics (29)Chapter 10 Language Acquisition (32)Chapter 1 Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。

《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版练习题参考答案Chapter 1 Introduction1. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.答： Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study? 答： The major branches of linguistics are:(1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;(2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication;(3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words;(4) syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages;(5) semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language;(6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use.3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar? 答： The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “traditional grammar.” Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways.Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?答： In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?答： Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speec h is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is o nly the “revised” record of speech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.6. How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance?答： Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.7. What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?答： First of all, language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound. Fourth, language is human-specific, i. e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess.8. What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?答：The main features of human language are termed design features. They include: 1) ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.3) DualityLanguage consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of unitsof meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.4) DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the spe aker. This is what “displacement” means.5) Cultural transmissionWhile human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e., we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.9. What are the major functions of language? Think of your own examples for illustration.答： Three main functions are often recognized of language: the descriptive function, the expressive function, and the social function.The descriptive function is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified. For example: “China is a large country with a long history.”The expressive function supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences, prejudices, and values. For example: “I will never go window-shopping with her.”The social function serves to establish and maintain social relations between people. . For example: “We are your firm supporters.”Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1. What are the two major media of linguistic communication? Of the two, which one is primary and why?答： Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication.Of the two media of language, speech is more primary than writing, for reasons, please refer to the answer to the fifth problem in the last chapter.2. What is voicing and how is it caused?答： Voicing is a quality of speech sounds and a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English. It is caused by the vibration of the vocal cords.3. Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ? 答： The transcription with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription. This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes. The latter, i.e. the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called narrow transcription. This is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose.In broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the sounds [l] in the four words leaf [li:f], feel [fi:l], build [bild], and health [helθ]. As a matter of fact, the sound [l] in all these four sound combinations differs slightly. The [l] in [li:f], occurring before a vowel, is called a dear [l], and no diacritic is neededto indicate it; the [1] in [fi:l] and [bild], occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, is pronounced differently from the clear [1] as in “leaf”. It is called dark [?] and in narrow transcription the diacritic [?] is used to indicate it. Then in the sound combination [helθ], the sound [l] is followed by the English dental sound [θ], its pronunciation is somewhat affected by the dental sound that follows it. It is thus called a dental [l], and in narrow transcription the diacritic [、] is used to indicate it. It is transcribed as [helθ].Another example is the consonant [p]. We all know that [p] is pronounced differently in the two words pit and spit. In the word pit, the sound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent. In the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated and in the case of spit, the [p] sound is unaspirated. This difference is not shown in broad transcription, but in narrow transcription, a small raised “h” is used to show aspiration, thus pit is transcribed as [ph?t] and spit is transcribed as [sp?t].4. How are the English consonants classified?答： English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation. In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals and glides. In terms of place of articulation, it can be classified into following types: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal.5. What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?答： Vowels may be distinguished as front, central, and back according to which part of the tongue is held highest. To further distinguish members of each group, we need to apply another criterion, i.e. the openness of the mouth. Accordingly, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels. A third criterion that is often used in the classification of vowels is the shape of the lips. In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unfounded vowels, i. e., without rounding the lips, and all the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are rounded. It should be noted that some front vowels can be pronounced with rounded lips.6. A. Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions:1) voiced palatal affricate2) voiceless labiodental fricative3) voiced alveolar stop4) front, close, short5) back, semi-open, long6) voiceless bilabial stopB. Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:1) [ t ] 2) [ l ] 3) [?] 4) [w] 5) [?] 6) [?]答：A. (1) [?] (2) [ f ] (3) [d ] (4) [ ? ] (5) [ ?:] (6) [p]B. (1) voiceless alveolar stop (2) voiced alveolar liquid(3) voiceless palatal affricate (4) voiced bilabial glide(5) back, close, short (6) front, open7. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do you think will be more interested in the difference between, say, [l] and [?], [ph] and [p], a phonetician or a phonologist? Why?答： (1) Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspect of language –– the speech sounds. But while both are related to the study of sounds,, they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.(2) A phonologist will be more interested in it. Because one of the tasks of the phonologists is to find out rule that governs the distribution of [l] and [?], [ph] and [p].8. What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophones related to a phoneme?答： A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example, the phoneme /l/ in English can be realized as dark [?], clear [l], etc. which are allophones of the phoneme /l/.9. Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule.答： Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.There are many such sequential rules in English. For example, if a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. That is why [lbik] [lkbi] are impossible combinations in English. They have violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. Assimilation of neighbouring sounds is, for the most part, caused by articulatory or physiological processes. When we speak, we tend to increase the ease of articulation. This “sloppy” tendency may become regularized as rules of language.We all know that nasalization is not a phonological feature in English, i.e., it does not distinguish meaning. But this does not mean that vowels in English are never nasalized in actual pronunciation; in fact they are nasalized in certain phonetic contexts. For example, the [i:] sound is nasalized in words like bean, green, team, and scream. This is because in all these sound combinations the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n] or [m].The assimilation rule also accounts for the varying pronunciation of the alveolar nasal [n] in some sound combinations. The rule is that within a word, thenasal [n] assumes the same place of articulation as the consonant that follows it. We know that in English the prefix in- can be added to ma adjective to make the meaning of the word negative, e.g. discreet – indiscreet, correct – incorrect. But the [n] sound in the prefix in- is not always pronounced as an alveolar nasal. It is so in the word indiscreet because the consonant that follows it, i.e. [d], is an alveolar stop, but the [n] sound in the word incorrect is actually pronounced as a velar nasal, i.e. [?]; this is because the consonant that follows it is [k], which is a velar stop. So we can see that while pronouncing the sound [n], we are “copying”a feature of the consonant that follows it.Deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. We have noticed that in the pronunciation of such words as sign, design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by the letter g. But in their corresponding forms signature, designation, and paradigmatic, the [g] represented by the letter g is pronounced. The rule can be stated as: Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. Given the rule, the phonemic representation of the stems in sign –signature, resign –resignation, phlegm –phlegmatic, paradigm – paradigmatic will include the phoneme /g/, which will be deleted according to the regular rule if no suffix is added.10. What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features of English function in conveying meaning?答： The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. There are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress. For example, a shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun, to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged. Tones are pitch variations which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English. When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings.Chapter 3 Morphology1. Divide the following words into their separate morphemes by placing a “+” between each morpheme and the next:a. microfile e. telecommunicationb. bedraggled f. forefatherc. announcement g. psychophysicsd. predigestion h. mechanist答：a. micro + file b. be + draggle + edc. announce + mentd. pre + digest + ione. tele + communicate + ionf. fore + fatherg. psycho + physics h. mechan + ist2. Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: -orsuffix: -ormeaning: the person or thing performing the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: actor, “one who acts in stage plays, motion pictures, etc.”translator, “one who translates”答：(1) suffix: -ablemeaning: something can be done or is possiblestem type: added to verbsexamples: acceptable, “can be accepted”respectable, “can be respected”(2) suffix: -lymeaning: functionalstem type: added to adjectivesexamples: freely. “adverbial form of ‘free’ ”quickly, “adverbial form of 'quick' ”.(3) suffix: -eemeaning: the person receiving the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: employee, “one who works in a company”interviewee, “one who is interviewed”3. Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specify the types ofstem they may be prefixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: a-prefix: a-meaning: “without; not”stem type: added to adjectivesexamples: asymmetric, “lacking symmetry” asexual, “without sex or sexorgans”答：(1) prefix: dis-meaning: showing an oppositestem type: added to verbs or nounsexamples : disapprove, “do not approve”dishonesty, “lack of honesty”.(2) prefix: anti-meaning: against, opposed tostem type: added to nouns or adjectivesexamples : antinuclear, “opposing the use of atomic weapons and power”antisocial, “opposed or harmful to the laws and customs of anorganized community. ”(3) prefix: counter-meaning: the opposite ofstem type: added to nouns or adjectives.examples: counterproductive, “producing results opposite to those intended”counteract, “act against and reduce the force or effect of (st h.) ”4. The italicized part in each of the following sentences is an inflectional morpheme. Study each inflectional morpheme carefully and point out its grammatical meaning. Sue moves in high-society circles in London.A traffic warden asked John to move his car.The club has moved to Friday, February 22nd.The branches of the trees are moving back and forth.答：(1) the third person singular(2) the past tense(3) the present perfect(4) the present progressive5. Determine whether the words in each of the following groups are related to one another by processes of inflection or derivation.a) go, goes, going, goneb) discover, discovery, discoverer, discoverable, discoverabilityc) inventor, inventor’s, inventors, inventors’d) democracy, democrat, democratic, democratize答：(略)6. The following sentences contain both derivational and inflectional affixes. Underline all of the derivational affixes and circle the inflectional affixes.a) The farmer’s cows escaped.b) It was raining.c) Those socks are inexpensive.d) Jim needs the newer copy.e) The strongest rower continued.f) She quickly closed the book.g) The alphabetization went well.答：(略)Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP → (Det) N (PP) ...VP → (Qual) V (NP) ...AP → (Deg) A (PP) ...PP → (Deg) P (NP) ...The general phrasal structural rule ( X stands for the head N, V, A or P):The XP rule: XP → (specifier) X (complement)3. What is category? How to determine a word's category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution. A word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures.Conjunction exhibits four important properties:1) There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.2) A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3) Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4) The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role of each elementHead:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary.Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure (or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences. a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det N Advb) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det N Adv V P Det Nc) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools.Det A N Aux V Det N P Det Nd) This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A（以下8-12题只作初步的的成分划分，未画树形图, 仅供参考）8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) rich in mineralsXP(AP) → head (rich) A + complement (in minerals) PPb) often read detective storiesXP(VP) → specifier (often) Qual + head (read) V + complement (detective stories) NPc) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) →specifier (the) Det + head (argument) N + complement (against the proposals) PPd) already above the windowXP(VP) → specifier (already) Deg + head (above) P + complement (the window) NP 9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.（划底线的为动词的修饰语，斜体的为名词的修饰语）a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences. （划底线的为并列的范畴）a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence. （划底线的为补语从句）a) You know that I hate war.b) Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.c) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.d) The children argued over whether bats had wings.12. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences. （划底线的为关系从句）a) The essay that he wrote was excellent.b) Herbert bought a house that she lovedc) The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of these sentences. a) Would you come tomorrow? (surface structure)you would come tomorrow (deep structure)b) What did Helen bring to the party? (surface structure)Helen brought what to the party (deep structure)c) Who broke the window? (surface structure)who broke the window (deep structure)Chapter 5 Semantics1. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning?答：(1) The naming theory proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.(2) The conceptualist view has been held by some philosophers and linguists from ancient times. This view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i. e., between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.(3) The contextualist view held that meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context –– elements closely linked with language behaviour. The representative of this approach was J.R. Firth, famous British linguist.(4) Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the “situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.” This theory, somewhat close to contextualism, is linked with psychological interest.2. What are the major types of synonyms in English?答： The major types of synonyms are dialectal synonyms, stylistic synonyms, emotive or evaluative synonyms, collocational synonyms, and semantically different synonyms.Examples（略）3. Explain with examples “homonymy”, “polysemy”, and “hyponymy”.答：(1) Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones.When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms (2) While different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning. This is what we call polysemy, and such a word is called a polysemic word. There are many polysemic words in English, The fact is the more commonly used a word is, the more likely it has acquired more than one meaning.(3) Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive。

戴版语言学Chapter One----IntroductionPart one----What is linguistics?1. Definition----linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.Scientific means it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.No Article before language in this definition means that linguistics studies language in general. Linguists‘ task: basically study and understand the general principles upon which all languages are built.I nterest of linguists is ―what is said‖2. The scopes of linguisticsGeneral linguistics----the study of language as a whole-----the core of linguistics理论语言学Phonetics----the study of sounds used in linguistic communication.语音学Phonology----the study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meanings in communication.音韵学Morphology----the study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words.形态学Syntax-----the study of the rules for sentence formation句法学Semantics-----the study of meaning.语义学Pragmatics----the study of meaning in the context of language use.语用学Above are made up of the core of linguisticsSociolinguistics-----the study of all social aspects of language and its relation with society from the core of the branch.社会语言学Psycholinguistics-----the study of language processing, comprehending and production, as well as language acquisition.心里语言学Applied linguistics-----the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching , especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.应用语言学3. Some important distinctions in linguistics.(1) prescriptive vs. descriptiveprescriptive----the linguistic stud y aims to lay down rules for ―correct and standard‖ behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say. 规定性Descriptive----the linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use. 描写性Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive.(2) Synchronic vs. diachronicSynchronic----the description of a language at some point of time in history.共时性Diachronic----the description of a language as it changes through time----the historical development of language over a period of time----another name: historical linguistics.历时性A synchronic approach enjoys priority over a diachronic one.(3) Speech vs. writing言语和文字Two major media of linguistic communicationSpeech is prior to writing:(1)writing syste m is always ―invented‖ by its users to record speech.(2)speech plays a greater role than writing in information conveyance.(3)speech is acquired as mother tongue while writing is learned and taught.(4)speech reveals true features of human speech while w riting language is only the ―revised‖ record of speech.(4) Langue vs. paroleProposed by Swiss linguist----F. de Saussure----sociological view.Purpose: discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.Langue----the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of s speech community.----abstract & stable.语言Parole-----the realization of language in actual use----concrete & varied话语(5) Competence vs. performanceProposed by American linguist Noam Chomsky----psychological viewPurpose: discover and specify the internalized sets of rules.Competence----the ideal user‘s knowledge of the rules of his language.语言能力Performance----the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言应用(6) Traditional grammar and modern linguistics传统语法和现代语言学The beginning of modern linguistics-- the publication of Saussure‘s ―Course in General Linguistics‖ in early 20thModern linguistics differs traditional grammar:(1) descriptive vs. prescriptive.(2) spoken language vs. written language.(3)ML doesn‘t force languages into a Latin-based framework.Part Two----What is language?1. Definition----language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.System----elements of language are combined according to rules.Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what symbol stands for.V ocal----the primary medium for all language is sound.Human----language is human-specific.2. Design features识别性特征----proposed by American linguist Charles Hockett.(5/12) Design features: the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication-----human-specific.(1) Arbitrariness----there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.任意性Exceptions: Onomatopoeic words and some compound words are not entire arbitrary.(2) Productivity----language is creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users----users can produce and understand sentences that they have never heard before.能产性(3) Duality----(another name: double articulation.) Language is a system which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. The lower lever is the structure of meaningless sounds and the higher level is the structure of meaning.----sound & meaning双层性(4) Displacement----language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, realor imagined matters in the past, present, or future, in a faraway places------ It doe sn‘t matter how far away the topic is of conversation is in time or space-----free from the barriers caused by separation in time and place.移位性(5) Cultural transmission----the capacity for language is genetically based while the details of and language system should be taught and learned.-----language is passed down from one generation to the next through t eaching and learning, rather than by instinct.文化传承3. The functions of language.(1) Informative: The main function of language that when people use language to communicate with each other, their experience in the real world, record or describe the ―content‖ of the reality, they are actually taking advantage of this function.----the most important function.(2) Interpersonal: people establish and maintain their identity in the society by this function.(3) Performative: this is a function whereby the language influences directly on the reality, such as the sentence of imprisonment by the judge, the naming of a certain ship and the curses as believed by the ancient people.(4) Emotive: this function is performed by those linguistic elements used to express strong feelings, such as exclamatory expressions.(5) Phatic: this is function realized by those ―Phatic language‖, aiming to establishing a harmonious and intimate relationship among people. Examples in Chinese:吃了没？in English: Good norning. & A nice day, isn‘t it?(6) Recreational: This function means that sometimes people may enjoy language for language‘s sake, i.e. no using language in any practical purposes, such as tongue-twisters and children‘s babbles and chanter‘s chanting.(7) Metalingual: people may use language to talk about, explain or even change language itself. This is the metalingual function of language. For example, we may use ―book‖ to ref er to the existing object in the real world, and yet may also use ―the word book‖ to stand by the concept ―book‖ as embodied in language.Chapter 2: PhonologyPart One: The phonic Medium of LanguageLinguists concern only with the sounds that are produced by humans through their speech organs and have a role to play in linguistic communication.phonic medium : The meaningful speech sound in human communication.Speech sounds: the individual sounds within phonic medium are the speech sounds.Part Two: Phonetics1. What is phonetics?phonetics : The study of phonic medium of language and it is concerned with all sounds in the world‘s languages.Classification:articulatory phonetics : It studies sounds from the speaker‘s point of view, i.e. how a speaker use s his speech organs to articulate the sounds. -------speakerauditory phonetics: The studies sounds from the hearer‘s point of view, i.e. how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.-----heareracoustic phonetics: It studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves, the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.-----physical properties2. Organs of Speech1 the pharyngeal cavity----throat.2 the oral cavity-------------mouth.------tongue: most flexible.3 the nasal cavity-----------nose. In English, there are three nasal sounds, namely, [m], [n], [η]. voicing: the way that sounds are produced with the vibration of the vocal cords.voiceless: the way that sounds are produced with no vibration of the vocal cords.3. Orthographic representation of speech sounds----broad and narrow transcriptions.IPA: short for International Phonetic Alphabets, a system of symbols consists of letters and diacritics, used to represent the pronunciation of words in any language.broad transcription: The use of letter symbols only to show the sounds or sounds sequences in written form.narrow transcription: The use of letter symbol, together with the diacritics to show sounds in written form.diacritics: The symbols used in the narrow transcription to show detailed articulatory features of sounds.aspiration: A little puff of air that sometimes follows a speech sound.4. Classification of English Speech SoundsClassification:consonant: a speech sound in which the air stream is obstructed in one way or another.vowel : a speech sound in which the air stream from the lung meets with no obstruction.1 Classification of English consonants:1 Manner of articulation: The manner in which obstruction is created.Stops: [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g].Fricatives: [f], [v], [s], [z], [θ], [], [∫] [3], [h].Affricates: [t∫],[d3]Liquids: [l], [r].Nasals: [m], [n], [η]Glides: [w], [j].------semi-vowels2 place of articulation : The place where obstruction is created.Bilabial: [p], [b], [m], [w].Labiodental: [f], [v]Dental: [θ], [ ]Alveolar: [t], [d], [s], [z], [n], [l], [r]Palatal: [∫] [3], [t∫],[d3], [j].Velar: [k], [g], [η]Glottal: [h].Manner of articulation, place of articulation and voicing/ voiceless help describe a consonant.2 Classification of English V owels.1 the position of the tongue:front: [i:], [i], [e], [ε], [æ], [a]central: [з:], [з], [/\]back: [u:], [u], [o], [o:], [a:]2 the openness of the mouth.Close vowels: [i:], [i], [u:], [u],Semi-close: [e], [з:]Semi-open: [з], [o:]Open vowels: [æ], [a], [/\],[o], [a:]3 shape of the lips:unrounded: [i:], [i], [e], [ε], [æ], [a], [з:], [з], [/\],[a:]rounded: [u:], [u], [o], [o:].4 length of the sound:long vowels: [i:], [з:], [u:], [o:], [a:]short vowels: [i], [e], [ε], [æ], [a], [з], [/\],[u], [o].5 monophthong : the individual vowel.-----above vowels are all monophthongs.diphthong : The vowel which consists of two individual vowels, and functions as a single one. [ei], [ai], [oi], [iз], [au], [зu], [eз], [uз]----eight diphthongs.Part Three: Phonology1. Phonology and Phoneticsphonetics : The study of phonic medium of language and it is concerned with all sounds in the world‘s languages.phonology : The description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning.Similarity: all concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds.Differences: approach and focus.1 Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages-----how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified.2 Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language from patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.E.g. allophones clear [l] and dark [l]:Phonetically speaking, they are interested in the differences how they are pronounced. Phonologically speaking, they are the same in functioning conveyance of the meanings.2. Phone, Phoneme, and Allophonephone : The speech sound we use when speaking a language, which does not necessarily distinguish meaning in the English language.phoneme : The smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two sounds. allophone : any different forms of the same phoneme in different phonetic environments, e.g. clear [l] and dark [l] of the same [l], aspirated [p] and unaspirated [p] of the same [p] in different phonetic environments.3. Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pairphonemic contrast : two similar sounds occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning.E.g. [b] in [bit] and [p] in [pit] form phonemic contrast.complementary distribution : allophones of the same phoneme and they don‘t distinguish meaning but complement each other in distribution. E.g. clear [l] and dark [l] respectively in thepronunciation of light and feel.minimal pair: two different forms are identical in every way except one sound and occurs in the same position. The two sounds are said to form a minimal pair. E.g. bat and bet are a minimal pair.4. Some Rules in Phonology1 sequential rules: The rules to govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.2 assimilation rule: The rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.3 deletion rule: The rule that a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. 5. Suprasegmental Features----stress, tone, intonationsuprasegmental features: The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments----syllable, word, sentence are called suprasegmental features, which include stress, tone and intonation.1 Stress:Classification: word stress & sentence stress.Word Stress:1 The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.A shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged. E.g. ‗impott (n)----im‘port (v), ‗record (n)-----re‘cord (v)‗blackbird (compound)-----‗black‗bird (noncompound)2 The meaning-distinctive role played by word stress is also manifested in the combinations of –ing forms and nouns. E.g. ‘dining room(compound)----sleeping ‘baby (noncompound) Sentence Stress:Sentence stress: It refers to the relative force given to the components of a sentence.he parts of speech that are normally stressed in an English sentence are: N, V, Adj., Adv., Numerals, demonstrative pronouns. E.g. He is driving my car.------He drive, my, car.2 Tone:tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.Tone (pitch variation) can distinguish meaning in such languages as Chinese, but English is not a tone language.3 Intonation:intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.Intonation plays a very important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English. ------four basic types of intonation, namely, the falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone, the rise-fall tone.The falling tone------what is said is a straight forward, matter-of-fact statement.The rising tone-------make a question of what is said.The fall-rise tone----indicate that there is an implied message in what is said.Chapter 3: MorphologyPart One: Morphology1. Open class and closed classopen class: A group of words, which contains an unlimited number of items, and new words can be added to it.----content words. E.g. beatnik: a member of the Beat generation, or a person who rejects or avoids conventional behaviour.closed class: A relatively few words, including conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns, and new words are not usually added to them.------function words.2. Internal structure if words and rules for word formationmorphology: A branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words and rules for word formation.Part Two: Morphemes----the minimal units of meaningmorpheme: The smallest unit of meaning of a language. It can not be divided without altering or destroying its meaning.bound morpheme: Morpheme that can not be used alone, and it must be combined wit others. E.g. –ment.free morpheme: a morpheme that can stand alone as a word.affix: a letter or a group of letter, which is added to a word, and which changes the meaning or function of the word, including prefix, infix and suffix.suffix: The affix, which is added to the end of a word, and which usually changes the part of speech of a word.prefix: The affix, which is added to the beginning of a word, and which usually changes the meaning of a word to its opposite.Part three: Derivational and inflectional morphemesderivational morpheme: Bound morpheme, which can be added to a stem to form a new word. inflectional morpheme: A kind of morpheme, which are used to make grammatical categories, such as number, tense and case. E.g. –ed and –ing endings are inflectional morphemes. inflection: the morphological process which adjusts words by grammatical modification, e.g. in The rains came, rain is inflected for plurality and came for past tense.Part Four: Morphological rules of word formationmorphological rules: The ways words are formed. These rules determine how morphemes combine to form words.Part Five Compoundscompound words: A combination of two or more words, which functions as a single wordsthe noteworthy:1 When two words are in the same grammatical category, the compound will be in this category:E.g. post box, landlady (n+n=n), blue-black, icy-cold (adj.+adj.=adj.)2 In many cases, the two words fall into different categories, then the class of second or final word will be the grammatical category if the compound.E.g. under ‗take (v), in‘action (n), up‘lift (v)3 It is often the case that compounds have different stress patterns from the noncompounded word sequence.E.g. ‗redcoat, ‗greenhouse are compounds, but red coat and green house are not.4 The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.E.g. bigwig, highbrow, jack-in-a-box, turncoatConclusion: Morphological rules reveal the relations between words and provide the means forforming new words. It is these rules that enable us to coin new words. Compounding is a very common and frequent process for enlarging the vocabulary of the English language.Chapter 4: SyntaxPart One: What is Syntax?syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.Part Two: Categories1. Word-level categoriescategory: It refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.syntactic categories: Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories.Major lexical categories: (as heads) N, V, A, VWord-level categoriesMinor lexical categories: det. Deg. Qua. Aux. con.major lexical category: one type of word level categories, which often assumed to be the heads around which phrases are built, including N, V, Adj, and Prep.minor lexical category: one type of word level categories, which helps or modifies major lexical category.Three criteria to determine a word‘s category?1 Meaning:1 Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning:■Nouns typically denote entities such as human beings and objects.■Verbs, characteristically designate action, sensation and states.2 The meaning associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways:■The property or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives.■The properties and attributes of the actions, sensations and states designated by verbs can typically be denoted by adverbs.3 It is misleading to assume that a word‘s category can be told straightforward from its meaning.■ Nouns such as dilemma and friendship do not concretely reveal their entities.■ Some words such as love and hate which indicate actions tend to be verbs but they can also be used as nouns.■ Words with the same or similar meanings sometimes belong to different word categories, such as be aware of and know about.2 Inflection:1 Words of different categories take different inflections. Words of different categories take different inflection.■ Nouns such as boy and desk take the plural affix –s.■ Verbs such as work and help take –ed and –ing.■ Adjectives such as quiet and clever take –er and –est.2 Although inflection is very helpful in determining a word‘s c ategory, it does not always suffice.■ Nouns like moisture, fog, do not take plural form –s.■ Adjectives like frequent and intelligent do not take –er or –est.3 Distribution:Distribution is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word.■ Nouns can typically appear with a determiner like the girl and a card.■ Verbs with an auxiliary such as should stay and will go.■ Adjectives with a degree word such as very cool and too bright.Conclusion: Thus, a word‘s distributional facts together with inf ormation about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify is syntactic category.2. Phrase categories and their structuresphrase: syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase, the category of which is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.phrase category: the phrase that is formed by combining with words of different categories. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, NP, VP, PP, AP.Whether formed of one or more than one word, phrases consist of two levels, phrase level and word level.NP VP AP PP <---------- phrase levelN V A P < ---------- word levelPhrase that are formed of more than one word usually contain head, specifier and complement. head: The word round which phrase is formed is termed head.specifier: The words on the left side of the heads are said to function as specifiers. complement: The words on the right side of the heads are complements.Part Three Phrase Structure Rulephrase structure rule: The special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.NP----- > (Det) N (P P)…. AP---- > (Deg) A (PP)….VP ---- > (Qual) v (NP)…. PP---- > (Deg) P (NP)….1. XP RuleIn NP, AP, VP, PP phrases, the specifier is attached at the top level to the left of head while complement is attached to the right. These similarities can be summarized with the help of the template , in which X stands for the head N, V,A,P.: The XP rule: XP-----> (specifier) X (complement)XP rule: In all phrases, the specifier is attached at the top level to the left of the head while the complement is attached to the right. These similarities can be summarized as an XP rule, in which X stands for the head N,V,A or P.2. X▔ TheoryX▔theory: A theoretical concept in transformational grammar which restricts the form of context-free phrases structure rules.The intermediate level formed by the head and the complement between word level and phrase level is represented by the symbol X▔. Thus the new three-level structures can be written as follows:a. XP----- > (specifier) X▔b. X▔----> X (complement)3. Coordination Rulecoordination: Some structures are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and or or. Such phenomenon is known as coordination. Such structure are called coordination structure.Four important properties:1 There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.2 A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3 Coordinated categories must be of the same type4 The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.Coordination Rule: X------ > X *Con XPart Four: Phrase elements1. Specifiersspecifier: The words on the left side of the heads and which are attached to the top level, are specifiers.Specifiers have both special semantic and syntactic roles:■ Semantically, they help make m ore precise the meaning of the head.■ Syntactically, they ty pically make a phrase boundary.The syntactic category of the specifier differs depending on the category of the head.2. Complementscomplement: The words on the right side of the heads are complements.Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head. They are attached to the right of the head in English.subcategorization: the information about a word‘s complement is included in the head and termed suncategorization.XP ----- > (Specifier) X (Complements*)― * ‖ means the fact that complements, however many there are, occur to the right of the head in English.Miss Hebert believes that she will win.―that‖ ------ complementizer: Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed complementizer.―she will win‖ ---- complement clause: The sentence introduced by the complementizer.―that she will win‖ ---- complement phrase: the elements, including a complementizer and a complement clause.―Miss Hebert believes‖ ---- matrix clause: the contrusction in which the complement phrase is embedded.3. modifiersmodifier: the element, which specifies optionally expressible properties of heads is called modifier.XP------ > (Spec) (Mod) X (Complement*) (Mod)This rule allows a modifier to occur either before the head or after it. Where there is a complement, amodifier that accurs after the head will normally occur to the right of the complement as well. Part Five : Sentences (The S Rule)1 The S rule : S ----> NP VP (This analysis is based on the assumptionn that unlike other phrases, which contains a head, a complement and a pecifier, S does not have an internal structure.)2 Another view : Many linguists beliebve that sentences, like other phrases, also have their own heads. They take abstract category inflection as their heads, which indicates the sentence‘s tense and agreement, Like other phrases, Infl takes an NP as its specifier and a VP as its complement.1 Infl realized by a tense label-----The boy found the book.2 Infl position realized by an auxiliary----A boy will find the book.Part Six : Transformations1. Auxiliary movementtransformation : a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another.The yes-no question structures are built in two steps :1 The usual XP rule is used to form a structure in which the auxiliary occupies its normal position in Infl, between subject and the VP.2 In forming a yes-no question requires a transformation known as inversion to move the auxiliary from the Infl position to a position to the left of the subject, C position.inversion : the process of transformation that moves the auxiliary from the Infl position to a position to the left of the subject, is called inversion.Such type of inversion operation involving the movement of a word from the head position in one phrase into the head position in another is known as head movement.2. Do InsertionHow to form a yes-no question that does not conta in an overt Infl such as ― Birds fly.‖Linguists circumvents this problem by adding the special auxiliary verb do. So we can formulate an insertion rule:Do insertion: Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position.Do insertion : In the process of forming yes-no question that does not contain an overt Infl, interrogative do is inserted into an empty Infl positon to make transformation work.3. Deep structure and surface structuredeep structure : A level of abstract syntactic representation formed by the XP rule.surface structure : A level of syntactic representation after applying the necessary syntactic movement, i.e., transformation, to the deep structure.The XP rule---> Deep structure ---> Transformation ---> Surface structure. (Subcategorization restricts choice of complements.)4. Wh MovementWh question : In English, the kind of questions beginning with a wh- word are called wh question. Wh movement :The transformation that will move wh phrase from its position in deep structure to a position at the beginning of the sentence. This transformation is called wh movement. 【Practice】Draw a tree diagram of the sentence:She has finally found the man who she loves.5. Moveａand constraints on transformationsmove α: a general rule for all the movement rules, where ‗alpha‗ is a cover term foe any element that can be moved from one place to another.Constraints: 1 Inversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the nearest C position, but not to a more didtant C position.E.g.: Deep structure: Mike should know that the train might be late.。

新编简明英语语言学教程（重点笔记-赶考秘籍）新编简明英语语言学教程(重点笔记-赶考秘籍)1.1 Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.It is a scientific study because it (a) is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data. It (b) discovers the nature and rules of the underlying language system. It (c) collects language facts that display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them.The study of language as a whole if often called general linguistics.phonetics(语音学): the study of soundsphonology(音位学): how sounds are put together and used to convey meaningmorphology(形态学): how morphemes(词素) are arranged and combined to form wordssyntax(句法学): the study of rules that govern the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentencessemantics(语义学): the study of meaningpragmatics(语用学): the study of meaning in the context of language useinterdisciplinary branches: sociolinguistics(社会语言学), psycholinguistics(心理语言学), applied linguistics(应用语言学) Important distinctions in linguisticsprescriptive(规定性old linguistics) vs. descriptive(描述性modern linguistics)synchronic(共时性) vs. diachronic(历时性): most linguistic studies are of synchronic descriptions, which is prior in modernlinguisticsspeech and writing: speech is prior to writing in modern linguisticslangue(语言系统abstract linguistic system) and parole(话语/言语realization of langue in actual use): Swiss linguist F. de Saussure----forefather of modernlinguisticscompetence(语言能力ideal user’s knowledge of rules of his language) and performance(语言运用actual realization of this knowledge): American linguist N.Chomskytraditional grammar and modern linguistics: Saussure’s book “Course in General Linguistics” marked the beginning of modern linguistics1.2 Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.LAD: Language Acquisition Device -----ChomskyArbitrariness (任意性): Different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.Productivity/creativity (能产性): Construction and interpretation of new signals are possible, so that large number of sentences can be produced.Duality (双层性): Two levels enable people to talk about anything within their knowledge.lower level(sounds)---higher level(words)Displacement(移位性): enable people to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time or place.Cultural transmission(文化传承): We are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of language system have to betaught and learned.2.1 Speech and writing are the two media for communication, of which speech ismore basic/primary.The sounds which are produced by humans through their speech organs and meaningful in communication constitute the phonic medium of language. The individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds.2.2 Phonetics is the study of the phonic medium of language, which concerned with all thesounds that occur in the world’s languages.articulatory phonetics, auditory phonetics, acoustic phoneticsSpeech organs:pharyngeal; cavity---throat; oral cavity---mouth; nasal cavity---noseIPA: 国际音标 diacritics: 变音符broad transcription: 宽式标音(used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks)narrow transcription: 严式标音(used by phoneticians in their study)vowels(the air stream meets with no obstruction) and consonants(obstructed)stops(塞音), fricatives(擦音), affricates(塞擦音), liquids(流音), nasals, glides, bilabial(双唇音), laviodental(唇齿音), dental(齿音), alveolar(齿龈音), palatal(腭音), velar(软腭音), glottal(喉音) close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, open vowels(openness)unrounded vowels, rounded vowels(shape of the lips)long/tense vowels----short/lax vowelsmonophthongs(单元音), diphthongs(双元音) (single or combined)2.3 Phonology and phonetics differ in their approach and focus.phonology: how speech sounds form patterns and are used to convey meaningconcerned with sound system of a particular languagephonetics: of a general nature, interested in all the speech soundsA phone(音素) is a phonetic unit or segment.(speech sounds are all phones)a phone does not necessarily distinguish meaningA phoneme(音位) is a phonological unit.(an abstract unit of distinctive value)not particular sound, but is realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones(音位变体) of that phoneme.Rules in phonology:Sequential rules(序列规则)---rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.Assimilation rule(同化规则)---assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. for easeof articulation(清晰发音) e.g. green, screamDeletion rule(省略规则)---e.g. desi g nationSuprasegmental features(超切分特征): the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments.stress(重音)---word stress and sentence stressThe location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.E.g. ‘import (n.) im’port (v.) // blackbird vs. black bird tone(语调)---pitch variation(音高变体) distinguish meaning E.g. 汉语四声Intonation(音调)---English tones: falling tone, rising tone, fall-rise tone, rise-fall toneE.g. That’s not the book he wants.3.1 Morphology: study of the internal structure of words, and rules by which words are formed 3.2 open class words(开放类): new words can be added—nouns, verbs, adjective and adverbs closed class words(封闭类): “grammatical” or “functional” words3.3 Word is the smallest free form found in language.Morphemes are the minimal units of meaning.Free and bound morphemes(自由词素can be a word by itself 粘着词素must be attached to another one---affix)3.4 V----teachN Af----er3.5 Derivational and inflectional morphemes(派生词素和屈折词素)Free morphemes Bound morphemesRoot Root Affixdog, cat -ceive Prefix Suffixgrammar -vert Derivational Derivational Inflectional… -mit un-, dis- -ment -s, -ing, -‘s, -er3.6 Morphological rules determine how morphemes combine to form words. E.g. un-accept-able3.8 Another way to form words is compounding. E.g. bittersweetWord Formations: compounding, blending, backformation, shortening4.1 Syntax studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.4.2 Category is a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functionsin a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.Syntactic categories—word-level categories:major lexical categories (often assumed as the heads around which phrases are built) ---Noun (N) Verb (V) Adjective (A) Preposition (P)minor lexical categories---Determiner (Det) Degree words (Deg) Qualifier (Qual) Auxiliary (Aux) Conjunction (Con) Three criteria(条件) determining a word’s category: meaning, inflection (变形) and distribution (分布)A word’s category can be determined only by all three criteria.Phrase category is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.noun phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP), adjective phrase (AP), prepositional phrase (PP)phrases that are formed of more than one word usually contain : head, specifier, complement4.3 Phrase structure rule---special type of grammatical mechanism regulating thearrangement of elements that make up a phraseNP→(Det) N (PP) an NP consists of a determiner, an N head, and a PP complementVP→(Qual) V (NP) a VP consists of a qualifier, a V head, and an NP complementAP→(Deg) A (PP) ……PP→(Deg) P (NP) ……XP rule: XP→(specifier) X (complement)Coordination rule: coordinate structures (consist a conjunction “and”/”or”)X→X *Con XEither an X or an XP can be coordinated; one or more categories can occur to theleft of the Con.4.4 Phrase elements: specifiers, complements, modifiersspecifiers determiner qualifier degree wordheads N V A / Pcomplementizers (Cs)—words introducing the sentence complementcomplement clause—sentence introduced by the complementizer complement phrase(CP)matrix clause—construction in which the CP embeded嵌入As, Ns, Ps can all take CP. Adjectives: (heads) afraid, certain, aware Nouns: (heads) fact, claim, belief Prepositions: (heads)over, aboutmodifiers: all lexical categories can have modifiers.AP(+Ns): precedes the head e.g. a very careful girl PP(+Vs): follows the head e.g.open with care AdvP(+Vs): precedes or follows the head e.g. read carefully/carefully readThe Expanded XP rule: XP→(Spec) (Mod) X (Complement*) (Mod)4.5 The S rule: S→NP VP ------ Inflp (=S)→NP Infl VP ------Infl can be taken by an abstractcategory encoded in a verb indicating tense or an auxiliary(助动词)4.6 Transformation a special rule that can move an element from one position to anotherauxiliary movement(助动词移位) inversion: move Infl to the left of the subject NP.within larger CPs (embedded or not): inversion: move Infl to C. P53 Figure 4-8do insertion(插入): insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position, than move Infl to C.deep and surface structure: e.g. Will the train arrive?Deep: S Surface: Will the train ____ arrive?NP VPDet N Infl Vthe train will arriveThe XP rule→D structure→transformations→S structure wh movement: move the wh phrase to the beginning of the sentence/the specifier position under CPP57 Figure 4-16 P58 Figure 4-18move αand constraints on transformationsmove α: general rule for all the movement rules α: any element that can be moved limits: inversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the nearest C position no element may be removed from a coordinate structure5.1 Semantics is the study of meaning (from a linguistic point of view.)5.2 The naming theory: The words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for.The limitations of this theory are obvious. There’s verbs, adjectives, etc. and alsoabstract nouns.The conceptualist view: Words and things are relatedthrough the mediation of concepts in the mind.Contextualism: The meaning of a word is its use in the language.Behaviorism: The meaning of a language form is the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.5.3 Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of word meaning, whichare related but different aspects of meaning.Sense: e.g. “dog”---a domesticated mammal... refer to any animal that meets the features describedReference: “dog”---A said to B:”The dog’s barking.” refer to a certain dog known to both A&BMajor sense relations:synonymy---words that are close in meaningdialectal syn.(autumn in BE & fall in AE), stylistic syn.(daddy & father), syn. that differ in emotive or evaluative meaning(same meaning, different emotions)collocational syn.(different usage), semantically different syn.(differ slightly in meaning)polysemy(one word may have more than one meaning)homonymy (homophones--- two words same in sound, homographs---same in spelling, complete homonyms---same in both sound and spelling)hyponymy(relation between a general word—superordinate, and a specific word--hyponyms)antonymy(words that are opposite in meaning)gradable ant.---e.g. hot vs. cold complementary ant.---e.g. male vs. female relational ant.---e.g. husband vs. wife5.4 Sense relations between sentences:X is synonymous with Y. E.g. He was a bachelor all his life. / He never ma rried….X, True—Y, True; X, False---Y FalseX is inconsistent with Y. E.g. John’s married. / John’s a bachelor. X, T—Y, F; X, F—Y, TX entails Y. E.g. He’s been to France. / He’s been to Europe. X, T—Y, T; X, F—Y, may be T or FX presupposes Y. E.g. John’s bike needs repairing. / John has a bike. X, T—Y, T; X, F—Y, TX is a contradiction. E.g. My unmarried sister married a bachelor. X is always false.X is semantically anomalous. (absurd in the sense)5.5 componential analysis----lexical meaning E.g. man---+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE predication(谓项) analysis---sentence meaning E.g. The kids like apples. ---KID, APPLE (LIKE)Tom smokes. ---TOM (SMOKE) It is hot. --- (BE HOT)6.1 Pragmatics studies how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successfulcommunication (meaning in a certain context).Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaningUtterance is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication or context, it is context-dependent.6.2 Speech act theory: aim to answer “What do we do when using language?”----John Austinin late 1950slocutionary act(言内行为—字面意思), illocutionary act(言外行为—目的), perlocutionary act(言后行为—结果)John Searle: classification of illocutionary acts---five generaltypes of things we do with languageSpecific acts that fall into each type share the same illocutionary point1. representatives/assertive: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believesto be trueE.g. The earth is a globe.2. directives: trying to get the hearer to do something E.g. Close the door. / Willyou close the door?3. commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of actionE.g. I promise to come. / I will bring you the book tomorrow without fail.4. expressive: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing stateE.g. It’s kind of you to ... / I’m sorry for the mess I’ve made.5. declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying somethingE.g. I now declare the meeting open. / I appoint you chairman of the committee. Indirect speech act--primary speech act (goal of communication) + secondary speech act (means by which he achieves the goal) ----Searle6.3 Conventional implicature(暗示) & nonconventional implicature-----GriceCon. imp. E.g. He is rich but he is not greedy. imp. Rich people are usually greedy. The participants must first of all be willing to cooperate to converse with each other.The general principle is called the Cooperative Principle. (CP)Four maxims(准则) under CP: The maxim of quantity (informative but no more than required), quality (don’t say what you believe to be false or what you lack adequateevidence), relation (be relevant), manner (avoid obscurity or ambiguity & be briefand orderly)These maxims can be violated. (when misleading, lying, etc.) Chap. 7 Language change (diachronic 历时的) Historical linguisticsphonological changes: vowels---the most dramatic change morphological and syntactic change:morphological: Addition of affixes (Fusion 融合word word---base +suffix /prefix +base)Loss of affixes---some are via sound changessyntactic: change of word order Old English: subject-object-verbchange in negation rule Old English: I love thee not.lexical and semantic change:lexical: Addition of new words---takes place obviously and quicklyCoinage (coin for new things and objects), Clipped words (缩略构词), Blending (combine parts of other words, e.g. brunch), Acronyms (首字构词 e.g. WTO),Back-formation (subtract affixes from old words, e.g. donate---from “donation”)Functional shift /Conversion (shift without adding affixes, e.g. to knee/cool; a reject)Borrowing (borrow from other languages, e.g. bonus from Latin, cycle from Greek…)Loss of words---takes place gradually over severalgenerationsSome words are short-lived because of the discontinuation of the object they name.semantic: three processes of semantic change---semantic broadening: e.g. holiday =holy day in the past, but any rest day todaysemantic narrowing: e.g. girl = young person of either sex in the past semantic shift: e.g. nice = ignorant a thousand years ago recent trends: moving towards greater informality, influence of American English, influence of science and technology (space travel, computer and internet lang. etc.)causes of language change: development of science &tech., social & political changesand needs, the way children acquire language, grammarsimplification, elaboration & complication, etc. No singlecauseChap. 8 Language and societySociolinguistics is the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation betweenlanguage andsociety, between the uses of language and the social structures in whichthe users of language live. (社会语言学) Halliday & HudsonLanguage is used to communicate meaning, and to establish and maintain social relationships.Social background determines the kind of language one uses, and language reflects one’s info.speech community---the social group that is singled out for any special studyVarious social groups exist within a speech community. Asocial group may distinguish itself from the rest of the community by the educational background,the occupation, the gender, the age , of the ethnic affiliation of its members. speech variety(变体)---any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakersthree types of speech variety of special interest: regional dialects, sociolects, registersTwo approaches to sociolinguistic studies: macro-sociolinguistics & micro-sociolinguisticsThe varieties of language are related to the users and the use to which the language is put.Dialectal varieties: regional dialect (linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region---geographical barrier), sociolect(characteristic of a particular social class---different social conditions),language and gender (female speech is less assertive and thus sounds morepolite), language and age (old people are more conservative and like using oldwords more), idiolect (personal dialect), ethnic dialect (social dialect ofa language cutting across regional differences e.g. Black English)Register: the type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation linguistic repertoire---the totality of linguistic varietiespossessed by an individualthree social variables that determine the register(the features appropriate to the situation):field of discourse (语场purpose and subject-matter of communication non-technical or technical, determines the vocabulary used and the phono.& gramm. features),tenor of discourse (语旨 who the participants are and therelationship between them determines the formality and the level of technicality),mode of discourse(语式 the means of communication)E.g. a lecture on biology in a technical collegeField: scientific (biological) Tenor: teacher—student (formal, polite) Mode: oral (lecturing)Degree of formality: intimate—casual—consultative—formal—frozenStandard dialects (employed by government, used by mass media, taught in edu.institutions, based on a selected variety of lang., usually local speech ofpolitical or commercial centers, for official purposes or any formal occasions) Pidgin (a variety that mixes or blends languages) and Creole (a pidgin becoming the primary lang. of a speech community of which the children acquire the pidgin as native lang.)Chap. 9 Language and culture are interdependent on each other and have evolved together. Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief, & behavior. (material & spiritual cult.) Relationship between lang. &cult. : Language symbolizes cultural reality, plays a major role in perpetuating of a culture, is related to what the culture is andaffects a culture’s way of thinking. Language is to culture what part isto whole.discourse communities--- members of the social group use similar lang. to meet their needsdiscourse accents---unique uses of each group’s language, the ways and the style of their talkingSapir-Whorf Hypothesis (SWH): Language filters people’s perception and the way they categorize their experiences.Language reflects cultural preoccupations and constrains the way people think. Context is important in complementing the meanings encoded in the language.Any linguistic sign has a denotative (指示意义—内含), connotative (暗涵意义—外延), or iconic(图像意义) kind of meaning. All these types of meanings are boundwith cultural encodings or associations.some cultural differences in language use: greeting and terms of address, gratitude and compliments, color words, privacy and taboos(禁忌), rounding off numbers,words and cultural specific connotations, cultural-related idioms, proverbsand metaphorsCulture contact--- acculturation(文化移入 political conquests and expansions), assimilation (吸收 immigration), amalgamation (合并 ethnical mix / synthesisrather than the elimination or absorption)Cultural overlap (文化重叠owe to similarities in natural environ. and human psychology)Cultural diffusion (文化扩展e.g. loan words gradually and unceasingly)cultural imperialism (文化帝国主义)---owe to linguistic imperialismspecial language policy protecting the purity of their languages---linguisticnationalismChap. 10 Language acquisition---child’s acquisition of his mother tongueThree theories: the behaviorist (行为主义语言习得观), the innatist(语法天生…),the interactionist (互动主义…)Behaviorist: language is a kind of behavior, language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation. Children imitate words selectively andaccording to their own understanding of the sounds or patterns, which is basedon what the children have already known instead of what is “available” inthe environment. This theory fails to explain how they acquire more complexgrammatical structures of the languageInnatist: LAD was described as an imaginary “black box” existing somewhere in the human brain. It is said to contain principles that are universal to allhuman languages.Universal Grammar: innate knowledge of basic grammatical system Children ‘s acquisition of grammatical rules is guided by principles of an innate UG.Interactionist: language is a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which he grows.child directed speech (CDS)(slow rate, high pitch音高, rich intonation抑扬, shorter and simpler sentence structure)The cognitive development relates to language acquisition mainly in two ways: First, as children’s conceptual development leads to their language development, their language development also helps in the formation andenhancement of the concept.Second, the cognitive factors determine how the child makes sense of the linguistic system himself instead of what meanings the child perceives (理解) and expresses.Two factors remarkably relevant to children’s language developmentLanguage environment is essential in providing input for language acquisition:Behaviorist: language environment plays a major roleInnatist: environment is a stimulus that triggers the pre-equipped LADInteractionist: call for the quality of the language samples available in the ling. environmentAge they start to learn the language:Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH): LAD works successfully only when it’s stimulate d at the right time—a specific and limited time period for languageacquisition (Eric Lenneberg)Two versions of CPH: strong one—children must acquire their first language by pubertyweak one—language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty----consensus: there’s a critical period for first language acquisition Stages in child language development:Phonological development—children must pass one stagebefore proceeding to the nextVocabulary development—under-extension, over-extension Vocabulary development goes together with the child’s knowledge of theenvironment.Children may under-extend or overextend it when learning a new word.under-extension: e.g. child gets confused hearing the color of white used for paper when he first thought it as the word for snowover-extension: a child takes a property of an object and generalizes it.likely to occur laterGrammatical developmentPragmatic developmentAtypical development (非典型发展)hearing impairment (听力损伤), mental retardation (智力缺陷), autism (孤独症), stuttering (口吃), aphasia (失语症), dyslexia (诵读困难), dysgraphia (书写困难)Chap. 11 Second language acquisition (SLA) is the systematic study of how one person acquiresa secondlanguage subsequent to his native language (NL/L1).Whether the target language (TL) to be learnt is called a second language (SL/L2) or a foreign language (FL) depends on its status as a second language or foreignlanguage in the country.Contrastive Analysis (CA)--1960s :positive/negative transfer: the former facilitate targetlanguage learning, the latter interfereCA compares the forms and meanings across two languages to locate the mismatches or differences so as to predict the possible learning difficulty.It was soon found problematic: uninformative, inaccurateError Anal ysis (EA): independently describe the learners’ interlanguage (their version of the target language and the target language itself), and comparethe two forms to locate mismatches.It gives less consideration to learner s’ native language than CA. reach heyday in 1970sTwo main sorts of errors: interlingual errors (语际错误result from cross-linguistic interference at different levels—phonological, lexical…),intralingual errors (语内错误result from faulty or partial learning of theTL, independent of the NL e.g. learning strategies-based error)Overgeneralization—the use of previously available strategies in new situations Cross-association—interference of two words similar in meaning, spelling and pronunciation EA was criticized for its neglect of learners’ role as active participants in learning. (mid-1970s)Interlanguage: Three important characteristics—systematicity (系统性), permeability (渗透性), fossilization (石化 a processoccurring from time to time in which incorrectlinguistic features become a permanent part ofthe way a person speaks or writes a language.fossilized pronunciation leads to accent)Input Hypothesis---Krashen: two independent means or routes of second language learning:acquisition: subconscious process learning: conscious efforts Learners advance their language learning gradually by receiving “comprehensible input”. ”i+1”It received criticism later, for he mistook “input” as “intake”.Individual differences: language aptitude (天资), age of acquisition, personality motivation----instrumental motivation (for external goal), integrative motivation (for the wish to identify with the target culture),resultative motivation (for external purposes), intrinsic motivation(for pleasure),learning strategies (motivation plays an important role in use of learning strategies)----cognitive strategies (认知策略involved in analyzing, synthesizing(合成) and internalizing(内在化) what has been learned), metacognitivestrategies (元认知策略the techniques in planning, monitoring andevaluating one’s learning), affect/social st rategies (deal with theways learners interact or communicate with other speakers, native ornon-native)Chap. 12 Language and the brainneurolinguistics (神经语言学): study of language disorders and the relationship between the brain and language. lateralization (侧化)—cognitive functions controlled by eitherside of the brainThe brain is divided into two sections:the lower section—brain stem(脑干 shared by all animals to keep the body aliveby maintaining the essential functions)the higher section—cerebrum(大脑differs in different species, not essential for life)cerebellum—at the rear of the brain , beneath the cerebrum, behind the brainstem neuron神经元 Neurons form the cortex(脑皮层 the surface of the brain)The cortex has many wrinkles: a ridge (hills) called sulcus, a deep and prominent sulcus called fissureThe cortex is the decision-making organ of the body and “storehouse”of “memory”, it makes human distinctive in the animal world—animals have no cortex.The cortex is separated by the longitudinal fissure into the left and right cerebral hemispheres, the main connection between which is a bundle of nerve fibers called corpus callosum Each hemisphere has its own substructures called lobes:the frontal ~, parietal ~, temporal ~, occipital ~Investigative techniques for the study of the brain:Autopsy studies(尸体解剖): to find the relationship between the area of brain damage and the type of disorder the patient displayed while alive.investigation of the brain itself: SAT, CT scanning, PET, MRI, fMRI“Sodium(钠) Amytal” Test (SAT)--riskyComputerized Axial Tomography (CT scanning): X-ray to create brainimages—static(静态) images。

戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》（第2版）笔记和课后习题（含考研真题）详解完整版>精研学习䋞>无偿试用20％资料
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第1章导言
1.1复习笔记
1.2课后习题详解
1.3考研真题与典型题详解
第2章音位学
2.1复习笔记
2.2课后习题详解
2.3考研真题与典型题详解
第3章形态学
3.1复习笔记
3.2课后习题详解
3.3考研真题与典型题详解
第4章句法学
4.1复习笔记
4.2课后习题详解
4.3考研真题与典型题详解
第5章语义学
5.1复习笔记
5.2课后习题详解
5.3考研真题与典型题详解
第6章语用学
6.1复习笔记
6.2课后习题详解
6.3考研真题与典型题详解
第7章语言变化
7.1复习笔记
7.2课后习题详解
7.3考研真题与典型题详解
第8章语言与社会
8.1复习笔记
8.2课后习题详解
8.3考研真题与典型题详解
第9章语言与文化
9.1复习笔记
9.2课后习题详解
9.3考研真题与典型题详解第10章语言习得
10.1复习笔记
10.2课后习题详解
10.3考研真题与典型题详解第11章第二语言习得
11.1复习笔记
11.2课后习题详解
11.3考研真题与典型题详解第12章语言与大脑
12.1复习笔记
12.2课后习题详解
12.3考研真题与典型题详解。

戴炜栋《新编简明英语语⾔学教程》（第2版）笔记和课后习题（含考研真题）详解（第7章语⾔变化——第9第7章语⾔变化7.1 复习笔记本章要点：1. Phonological Change⾳系变化2. Morphological and syntactic change形态和句法变化3. Lexical and semantic change词汇和语义变化本章考点：新词的增加(创新词，缩略词，紧缩法，词⾸字母缩略词，逆构词法)；词义的变化(意义扩⼤，意义缩⼩，意义转换)。

本章内容索引：I. Definition of historical linguisticsII. Phonological ChangeIII. Morphological and syntactic change1. Addition of affixes2. Loss of affixes3. Chang of word order4. Chang in negation ruleIV. Lexical and semantic change1. Addition of new words(1) Coinage(2) Clipped words(3) Blending(4) Acronyms(5) Back-formation(6) Functional shift(7) Borrowing2. Loss of words3. Semantic Changes(1) Semantic broadening(2) Semantic Narrowing(3) Semantic shiftV. Some recent trends1. Moving towards greater informality2. The influence of American English3. The influence of science and technology(1) Space travel(2) Computer and internet language(3) EcologyVI. Causes of language changeI. Definition of historical linguistics（历史语⾔学的定义）Historical linguistics, as a branch of linguistics, is mainly concerned with both the description and explanation of language changes that occurred over time.历史语⾔学是语⾔学的⼀个分⽀，主要研究语⾔随着时间的变化⽽产⽣的变化与变化的原因。

目　录第一部分　考研真题精选一、选择题二、填空题三、术语解释四、简答题五、论述题第二部分　章节题库第1章　导　言第2章　音位学第3章　形态学第4章　句法学第5章　语义学第6章　语用学第7章　语言变化第8章　语言与社会第9章　语言与文化第10章　语言习得第11章　第二语言习得第12章　语言与大脑第一部分　考研真题精选一、选择题1. Derivational morpheme contrasts sharply with inflectional morpheme in that the former changes the _____ while the latter does not.（北二外2017研）A. meaningB. word classC. formD. speech sound【答案】Bmorpheme语素，分为自由语素和黏着语素，其中黏着语素包括【解析】词根和词缀两种类型，词缀分为派生词缀（derivational affixes）和屈折词缀（inflectional affixes）。

派生词缀黏附在词根语素上构成新词，也即增加了新的词汇义内容或改变了词的类别归属。

屈折词缀只能改变一个词的形式，不能构成新词。

也即屈折词缀增加的是表示句法范畴的意义，并且总是不改变词的类别归属。

即两者重要区别在于是否改变了词的类别，故B为正确答案。

2. Which of the following are homographs?（对外经贸2015研）A. lead, leadB. rest, wrestC. lie, lieD. beat, bit【答案】Chomographs同形异义词，指在语法形式上拼写和发音完全相【解析】同，而意义不同的词。

lie“躺着”，还有“说谎”的意思，所以C选项中两个词是同形异义词。

3. _____ deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world experience.（西安交大2008研）A. ReferenceB. ConceptC. SemanticsD. SenseA【答案】【解析】指称指拥有某些属性的具体实体，它处理的是语言元素与非语言世界的关系。

第2章音位学Ⅰ. Multiple choices:1. ______ is the study of the phonic medium of language.A. PhoneticsB. PhonologyC. PhoneD. Phoneme【答案】A【解析】语音学被定义为对语言的语音媒介的研究，它涉及所有出现在世界语言中的声音；音位学的研究目的是发现一门语言中的语音是如何形成的，这些语音是如何在语言交际中传达意义的；音素是一个语音单元或音段，我们在交际中所听到和发出的语音都是音素；音位是一个具有区别性意义的抽象单位，它不是任何一个特定的语音，而是由一个特定音素（phone）在一定语音语境中来表达或实现的。

因此，本题的正确答案为A。

2. Which of the following is NOT a branch of phonetics?A. Articulatory phonetics.B. Auditory phonetics.C. Acoustic phonetics.D. Articulate phonetics.【答案】D【解析】语音学的三个分支分别为发音语音学、听觉语音学和声学语音学。

其中发音语音学的历史最长，然而，声学语音学和听觉语音学中一些重要的事实已经被发现或证实了。

因此，本题的正确答案为D。

3. Which of the following is NOT the organ of speech?A. The pharyngeal cavity.B. The oral cavity.C. The nasal cavity.D. The vocal cavity.【答案】D【解析】人类发音器官包含在三个重要区域中：咽腔—喉咙；口腔—口；鼻腔—鼻。

声腔不属于发音器官。

因此，本题的正确答案为D。

4. ______ is the minimal sound segments of language systems that distinguish meaning.A. PhoneticsB. PhoneC. PhonemeD. Allophone【答案】C【解析】音位是语言系统中可以区分意义的最小语音音段；而语音学被定义为对语言的语音媒介的研究，它涉及所有出现在世界语言中的声音。