Exes for Chapter 3 Morphology

英语语言学L i n g u i s t i c sc h a p t e r3练习答案-CAL-FENGHAI.-(YICAI)-Company One1Chapter 3 Morphology1. Divide the following words into their separate morphemes by placing a “+” between each morpheme and the next:a. microfilm e. telecommunicationb. bedraggled f. forefatherc. announcement g. psychophysicsd. predigestion h. mechanist答：a. micro + film b. be + draggle + edc. announce + mentd. pre + digest + ione. tele + communicate + ionf. fore + fatherg. psycho + physics h. mechan + ist2. Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: -orsuffix: -ormeaning: the person or thing performing the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: actor, “one who acts in stage plays, motion pictures, etc.” translator, “one who translates”答：(1) suffix: -ablemeaning: something can be done or is possiblestem type: added to verbsexamples: acceptable, “can be accepted”respectable, “can be respected”(2) suffix: -lymeaning: functionalstem type: added to adjectivesexa mples: freely. “adverbial form of ‘free’ ”quickly, “adverbial form of 'quick' ”.(3) suffix: -eemeaning: the person receiving the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: employee, “one who works in a company”interviewee, “one who is interviewed”3. Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be prefixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: a-prefix: a-meaning: “without; not”stem type: added to adjectivesexamples: asymmetric, “lacking symmetry” asexual, “without sex or sex organs”答：(1) prefix: dis-meaning: showing an oppositestem type: added to verbs or nounsexamples : disapprove, “do not approve”dishonesty, “lack of honesty”.(2) prefix: anti-meaning: against, opposed tostem type: added to nouns or adjectivesexamples : antinuclear, “opposing the use of atomic weapons and power”antisocial, “opposed or harmful to the laws and customs of an organized community. ”(3) prefix: counter-meaning: the opposite ofstem type: added to nouns or adjectives.examples: counterproductive, “producing results opposite to those intended”counteract, “act against and reduce the force or effect of (sth.) ”4. The italicized part in each of the following sentences is an inflectional morpheme. Study each inflectional morpheme carefully and point out its grammatical meaning.Sue moves in high-society circles in London.A traffic warden asked John to move his car.The club has moved to Friday, February 22nd.The branches of the trees are moving back and forth.答：(1)-s, the third person singular, present simple tense(2)-ed, the past tense(3) has –ed, the present perfect(4) are+v-ing, the plural form; the present progressive5. Determine whether the words in each of the following groups are related to one another by processes of inflection or derivation.a) go, goes, going, goneb) discover, discovery, discoverer, discoverable, discoverabilityc) inventor, inventor’s, inventors, inventors’d) democracy, democrat, democratic, democratize答：(1) go, goes, going, gone (inflection)go- the root formgo+es, simple present, 3rd person singulargo+ing, present participlegone, past participle(2) discover, discovery, discoverer, discoverable, discoverability (derivation)dis-, prefix (added to the nouns to form verbs) meaning reversal-y, suffix (added after the verbs to form nouns) denoting a state or an action or its result-er, a noun suffix added to the verbs, meaning a person or thing that perform a specified action or activity-able, an adjective suffix added to verbs meaning able to be-ability, a noun suffix, or a derivative suffix of –able, meaning having the quality as in manageability（可处理性）and suitability（合适性）.(3) inventor, inventor’s, inventors, inventors’ (a mixture of inflection or derivation) Derivation: invent+-orInflection: inventor’s, inventors’ indicating possessive case(4) democracy, democrat, democratic, democratize (derivation)-cy, added to the nouns ending with “t” to form another noun denoting a state governed in such a way.-ic, an adjective suffix, added to the nouns to form adjectives meaning related to or in resemblance with…-ize, a suffix added to the noun to form verbs denoting the conversion, transforming.6. The following sentences contain both derivational and inflectional affixes. Underline all of the derivational affixes and circle the inflectional affixes.a) The farmer’s cows escaped.b) It was raining.c) Those socks are inexpensive.d) Jim needs the newer copy.e) The strongest rower continued.f) She quickly closed the book.g) The alphabetization went well.答：(略)。

Chapter 3 MorphologyLexicon is the collection of all the words of a language. It is synonymous with “vocabulary”.Words are the focus of the study of lexicon, so the emphasis of this chapter falls upon words, i.e., the analysisand creation of words.Linguists define the word as the smallest free form found in language. The features of wordWord is meaningful; word is a grammatical unit; word can be used independently; word is relatively stable and uninterruptible.Morphology refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.The total number of words stored in the brain is called the lexicon.Words are the smallest free units of language that unite sounds with meaning.Morphology is a branch of linguistics, whereas lexicon is a component of language instead of a branch of linguistics.Open class word and closed class wordOpen class words----content words of a language to which we can regularly add new words, such as nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs, e.g. beatnik(a member of the Beat Generation), hacker, email, internet, 做秀，时装秀…” in Chinese.Closed class words----grammatical or functional words, such as conjunction, articles, preposition and pronouns.Morpheme--the minimal unit of meaning. The smallest meaningful unit of language is called a morpheme.---Words are composed of morphemes. Words may consist of one morpheme or more morphemes, e.g.1-morpheme boy, desire2-morpheme boy+ish, desir(e)+ble3-morpheme boy+ish+ness, desir(e)+bl(e)+ity4-morpheme gentle+man+li+ness, un+desir(e)+abl(e)+ity5-morpheme un+gentle+man+li+ness7-morpheme anti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ismMorph: when people wish to distinguish the sound of a morpheme from the entire morpheme, they may sued the term.It is the phonetic realization of a morphemeAllomorph: A morpheme may be represented by different forms, called allomorphs. It is the phonetic variant of a morpheme.Some morphemes have a single form in all contexts, such as “dog, bark, cat”,etc. In other instan some variation, that is, a morpheme may have alternate shapes or phonetic forms. They are said to be the allomorphs of the morpheme, the plural morpheme may be represented by:map----maps [s]dog----dogs [z]watch----watches [iz]mouse----mice [ai]ox----oxen [n]tooth----teethsheep----sheepEach of the underlined part is called an allomorph of plural morpheme.AffixPrefix ---- morphemes that occur only before others, e.g.un-, dis, anti-, ir-, etc.Suffix ---- morphemes that occur only after others, e.g.form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity. A root may be free or bound (such as mit, tain, cur,ceive). An affix is naturally bound.Free morpheme & bound morphemeFree morpheme----is one that may constitute a word (free form) by itself, such as bed, tree, sing, dance, etc.Bound morpheme----is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme. They can not stand by themselves,-” in “disclose”, “ed” in “recorded”, etc.-s” in “dogs”, “al” in “national”, “dissuch as “Some morphemes constitute words by themselves. These morphemes are called free morphemes.Other morphemes are never used independently in speech and writing. They are always attached to free morphemes to form new words. These morphemes are called bound morphemes.The distinction between a free morphemes and a bound morpheme is whether it can be used independently in speech or writing.Free morphemes are the roots of words, while bound morphemes are the affixes (prefixes and suffixes).Derivational morpheme & inflectional morphem eDerivational morphemes---- the morphemes which change the category, or grammatical class of words, e.g. modern---modernize, length---lengthen, fool---foolish, etc.Inflectional morphemes---- the morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case and so on; they never change their syntactic category, never add any lexical meaning, e.g.a) number: tables apples carsb) person, finiteness and aspect: talk/talks/talking/talkedc) case: John/John’ｓInflectional morphemes in modern English indicate case and number of nouns, tense and aspect o f verbs, and degree of adjectives and adverbs.Derivational morphemes are bound morphemes added to existing forms to construct new words.English affixes are divided into prefixes and suffixes.Some languages have infixes, bound morphemes which are inserted into other morphemes.Derivational morphemes----affix (suffix, infix, prefix) + rootInflectional morphemes 1111 types of inflectional morphemes in EnglishNoun+ -’s, -s/es [possessive; plural] Verb+ -s/es, -ing, -ed, -ed/-en [3rd person singular; present participle; past tense, past participle] Adj+ -er, -est [comparative; superlative]Inflectional morphemes never change the grammatical category of a wordInflectional morphemes influence the whole category;Derivational morphemes are oppositeOrder: root (stem) + derivational + inflectionalConclusion: classification of morphemesMorphemesFree morphemesBound morphemesInflexionalDerivational: affixesPrefixesSuffixesMorphological rules- + ----” rule.The rules that govern the formation of words, e.g. the “ununfair unthinkable unacceptable…Compounding is another way to form new words, e.g.landlady rainbow undertake…The process of putting affixes to existing forms to create new words is called derivation. Words thus formed are called derivatives.CompoundsNoun compoundsdaybreak (N+V) playboy (V+N) haircut (N+V)callgirl (V+N) windmill (N+N)Verb compoundsbrainwash (N+V) lipread (N+V) babysit(N+V)Adjective compoundsmaneating (N+Ving) heartfelt (N+Ved)dutyfree (N+adj.)Preposition compoundsinto (P+P)throughout (P+P)Some points about compoundsWhen the two words are in the same grammatical category, the compound will be in this category, e.g. postbox, landlady, icy-cold, blue-black…When the two words fall into different categories, the class of the second or final word will be the grammatical category of the compound, e.g. head-strong, pickpocket…Compounds have different stress patterns from the non-compounded word sequence, e.g. red coat, green house The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.Formation of new words1. Inflection: it is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectionalaffixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case.2. DerivationDerivation forms a word by adding an affix to a free morpheme.Since derivation can apply more than once, it is possible to create a derived word with a number of affixes. For example, if we add affixes to the word friend, we can form befriend, friendly,unfriendly, friendliness, unfriendliness,etc. This process of adding more than one affix to a freemorpheme is termed complex derivation.Derivation is also constrained by phonological factors.Some English suffixes also change the word stress.poundingCompounding is another common way to form words. It is the combination of free morphemes.The majority of English compounds are the combination of words from the three classes – nouns, verbs and adjectives – and fall into the three classes.In compounds, the rightmost morpheme determines the part of speech of the word.The meaning of compounds is not always the sum of meaning of the components.4. Conversion (invention)Conversion is the process putting an existing word of one class into another class.Conversion is usually found in words containing one morpheme.5. Clipping (abbreviations) front, back, front and backClipping is a process that shortens a polysyllabic word by deleting one or more syllables.Clipped words are initially used in spoken English on informal occasions.Some clipped words have become widely accepted, and are used even in formal styles. For example, the words bus (omnibus), vet (veterinarian), gym (gymnasium), fridge (refrigerator)and fax(facsimile)are rarely used in their complete form.6.BlendingBlending is a process that creates new words by putting together non-morphemic parts of existing words. For example, smog (smoke + frog), brunch (a meal in the middle of morning, replacing bothbreakfast and lunch), motel(motor + hotel). There is also an interesting word in the textbook forjunior middle school students –“plike” (a kind of machine that is like both a plane and a bike).7. Back-formationBack-formation is the process that creates a new word by dropping a real or supposed suffix. For example, the word televise is back-formed from television. Originally, the word television is formedby putting the prefix tele- (far) to the root vision (viewing). At the same time, there is a suffix –sion inEnglish indicating nouns. Then people consider the –sion in the word television as that suffix and dropit to form the verb televise.8.AcronymsAcronyms are formed by putting together the initial letters of all words in a phrase or title.Acronyms can be read as a word and are usually longer than abbreviations, which are read letter by letter.This type of word formation is common in names of organizations and scientific terminology.9.EponymsEponyms are words that originate from proper names of individuals or places. For example, the word sandwich is a common noun originating from the fourth Earl of Sandwich, who put his foodbetween two slices of bread so that he could eat while gambling.10.CoinageCoinage is a process of inventing words not based on existing morphemes.This way of word formation is especially common in cases where industry requires a word for a new product. For example, K odak and Coca-cola.11.Borrowing: English in its development has managed to widen its vocabulary by Borrowing wordsfrom other languages . Greek, Latin, French, Arabic and other languages have all played an active rolein this process, such as “atom, electricity” from Greek, “cancer, tumour” from Latin, “violin, pizza”from Italian.12. Onomatopoeia: it is a way of creating words by imitating the sounds of the outside world. Supplementary Exercises Chapter 3：MorphologyI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Morphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.2.Words are the smallest meaningful units of language.3. Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic unit in the study ofmorphology.4. The smallest meaningful units that can be used freely all by themselves are free morphemes.5. Bound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes.6. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case.7. The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem, which can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.8. Prefixes usually modify the part of speech of the original word, not the meaning of it.9. There are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word. Therefore, words formed according to the morphological rules are acceptable words.10. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.II. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:11. M ____ is the smallest meaningful unit of language.-ish” in the word boyish conveys a g____ meaning.12. The affix “13. B___________ morphemes are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.14. Affixes are of two types: inflectional affixes and d__________ affixes.15. D________ affixes are added to an existing form to create words.16. A s______ is added to the end of stems to modify the meaning of the original word and it may case change its part of speech.17. C__________ is the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.18. The rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word are calledm___________ rules.19. In terms of morphemic analysis, d_______________ can be viewed as the addition of affixes to stems to form new words.20. A s______ can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself to which a derivational affix can be added.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:21. The morpheme “vision” in the common word “television” is a(n) ______.A. bound morphemeB. bound formC. inflectional morphemeD. free morphemeis the place where books are sold. This indicates that the meaning of a 22. The compound word “bookstore”　compound __________.A. is the sum total of the meaning of its componentsB. can always be worked out by looking at the meanings of morphemesC. is the same as the meaning of a free phrase.D. None of the above.23. The part of speech of the compounds is generally determined by the part of speech of __________.A. the first elementB. the second elementC. either the first or the second elementD. both the first and the second elements.24. _______ are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.A. Free morphemesB. Bound morphemesC. Bound wordsD. Words25. _________ is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which wordsare formed.A. SyntaxB.GrammarC. MorphologyD. Morpheme26. The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is _______.A. lexicalB. morphemicC. grammaticalD. semantic27. Bound morphemes are those that ___________.A. have to be used independentlyB. can not be combined with other morphemesC. can either be free or boundD. have to be combined with other morphemes.28. ____ modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.A. PrefixesB. SuffixesC. RootsD. Affixes29. _________ are often thought to be the smallest meaningful units of language by the linguists.A. WordsB. MorphemesC. PhonemesD. Sentences_______.30. “-s” in the word “books” isA. a derivative affixB. a stemC. an inflectional affixD. a rootIV. Define the following terms:31. morphology 32. inflectional morphology33. derivational morphology 34. morpheme35. free morpheme 36. bound morpheme37. root 38. affix39. prefix 40. suffix41. derivation 42. CompoundingV. Answer the following questions:43. What are the main features of the English compounds?44. Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.Suggested answers to supplementary exercises Chapter 3 MorphologyIV. Define the following terms:31. Morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rulesby which words are formed.32. inflectional morphology: The inflectional morphology studies the inflections33. derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word- formation.34. Morpheme: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.35. free morpheme: Free morphemes are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.36. bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.37. Root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.38. Affix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional affixes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories, while derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.39. Prefix: Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word . Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but they usuallydo not change the part of speech of the original word.40. Suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.41. Derivation: Derivation is a process of word formation by which derivative affixes are added to an existingform to create a word.42. Compounding: Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.V. Anwser the following questions:43. What are the main features of the English compounds?Orthographically a compound can be written as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between. Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element. Semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calculable from the meanings of all its components. Phonetically, the word stress of a compound usually falls on the first element.44. Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.Free morphemes: They are the independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves, for example, “book-” in the word “bookish”．Bound morphemes: They are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other-ish” in “bookish”. Bound morphemes can be subdivi morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word such as “into roots and affixes. A root is seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it has a clear andderivational.-” in the word “generate”. Affixes are of two types: inflectional anddefinite meaning, such as “geneInflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as -s” in the word “books” to indicate plurality of nouns. Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word such as “mis-” in the word “misinform”. Derivational affixes can also be divided into prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes o at the beginning of a word such as “dis- ” in the word “dislike”, while suffixes occur at the end of a word suc “-less” in the word “friendless。

Chapter 3 Morphology(形态学)1.What is morphology（形态学）?Morphology, as a branch of linguistics , is the study of the internal structure, forms and classes of words.eg. Unfriendly → un + friend + ly2.Morphemes(词素、语素)A morpheme is a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function.eg. Maps→(2 units)→map + s3.Types of morphemes:free morphemes(自由语素) and bound morphemes(黏着语素)1>Free morphemes(自由语素)A.Some morphemes can stand alone as words, such morphemes are called freemorphemes.B．Rooot(词根) & Stem(词干)❶Root：a root is the based form of a word which cannot be further analyzed . It may be a free morpheme(as black in blackbird, blackboard, blacksmith) as well as a bound morpheme( -ceive in perceive认识，deceive欺骗，receive).❷Stem: a stem is any morpheme or combination of morpheme to which an inflectional affix can be added (friend in friends, friendship in friendships are both stem).C . Free Morphemes can be divided into two categories. They are:Closed Class & Opened Class(封闭词类和开放性词类)❶Closed Class（functional morphemes）: a closed class is one whose membership is principle fixed or limited. (封闭类：连介代冠conjunctions, preposition, pronouns, articles)❷Open Class( lexical morphemes): an open class is one whose membership is principle indefinite or unlimited. (包括：名动形副数叹noun, verbs, adjectives)2>Bound Morphemes(黏着语素)A.Some morphemes cannot normally stand alone, but function only as parts of words.Such morphemes are called bound morphemes.Bound morphemes are actually affixes(词缀)—>prefix(前缀), suffix(后缀), infix(中缀).eg. dis- , un- , -ity, -al, -sB. Two Categories of Bound Morphemes:Derivational Morphemes(派生语素) & Inflectional Morphemes(屈折语素)❶Derivational Morphemes(派生语素): ~~ are used to make new words in the language and are often used to make words of a different grammatical category from the stem.eg. nouns→ verbs/ adj. verbs→ nouns/ adj.friend→ unfriend解除朋友关系( noun→ verb)❷Inflectional Morphemes(屈折语素):~~ are not used to produce new words, but rather to show aspects of the grammatical function of a word.①plurality(复数): - s, - es, - ies……②tense(时态): - s, - ing, - en, - ed……③possessive case(所有格): ’s④comparative/ superlative degree(比较级/最高级): -er, - esteg. dislikes → dis + +3> free morphemes(自由语素) & bound morphemes(黏着语素)❶All monomorphemic(单词素/单语素) words are free morphemes;❷These polymorphemic words are either compounds( combination of two or more free morphemes) or derivatives(words derived from free morphemes).4.Morphs(形素) and Allomorphs（语素变体）Morphs: the phonological and orthographic forms which realize morphemes are termed ― morphs‖.(语素的语音及对应拼写法的体现叫形素)Most morphemesSome morphemesAllomorphs: an allomorph is any of the different form of the same morpheme( 语素变体是同一个语素的不同形式).eg. plurality ―- s‖: map→ maps; dog→ dogs; class→ classed; mouse→ mice; sheep→ sheep Complementary distribution(互补分布)：allomorph is a member of a set of morph;allomorph can’ t occur in the same environment .5> Types of Word Formation(构词法)❶Compounding(合成法)Words are formed by putting two words together, this way of building new words is called compounding.❷Derivation(派生法)Derivation is done by adding affixes to other words or morphemes.❸Conversion(转换法)Many words have more than one part of speech. A noun can become a verb easily and a verb can be used as a noun.❹Backformation(逆向构词法)As we have editor, we get edit by dropping – or . This process is called ~~❺Clipping(截短法)This process by cutting off part of word is called ~~❻Blending(混合法)A single new word can also be formed by combining two separate forms, this process iscalled ~~~❼Acronymization(缩略法)。

Chapter 3: Morphology1. Define the following terms:1). Morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. It is divided into two sub-branches: inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology.2). Inflectional morphology: The inflectional morphology studies the inflections3). Derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word-formation.4). Morpheme: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language. For example: the word ―boyish‖ consists of two morphemes: ―boy‖ and ―ish‖.5). Free morpheme: Free morphemes are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes. For example: ―help‖, ―table‖, ―room‖ are all free morphemes.6). Bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with othermorphe mes, either free or bound, to form a word. For example: ―-er‖, ―dis-―, ―-less‖ are all bound morphemes.7). Root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word. For example: the root―geo-―combines with another root ―-ology‖, we get the word―geology‖.8). Affix: morphemes manifesting various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree and case. Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional affixes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories, such as ―-ing‖, ―-est‖, while derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word, such as ―-ly‖, ―dis-―,―un-―.9). Inflection（屈折）: the manifestation of various grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, tense, degree and case.10).Prefix: Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word. Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but they usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.11). Suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.12). Stem: A stem is the existing form to which a derivational affix can be added. A stem can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form himself.13). Derivation: Derivation is a process of word formation by which derivative affixes are added to an existing form to create a word. 14). Compounding: Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.2. What does morphology study?Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. The aim of morphology is to find out the rules according to which words are formed. For example: ―simplify‖, ―qualify‖, ―beautify‖ are formed by adding ―-ify‖ to either an adjective or a noun.3. What is a morpheme? Describe with examples the various types of morphemes used in English.Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language.Free morphemes: They are the independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves, for example, ―book-‖ in t he word ―bookish‖.Bound morphemes: They are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word such as ―-ish‖ in ―bookish‖. Bound morphemes can be subdivided into roots and affixes. A root is seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it has a clear and definite meaning, such as ―gene-‖ in the word ―generate‖. Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as ―-s‖ in the word ―books‖ to indicate plurality of nouns. Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word such as ―mis-‖ in the word ―misinform‖. Derivational affixes can also be divided into prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word such as ―dis- ‖ in the word ―dislike‖, while suffixes occur at the end of a word such as ―-less‖ in the word―friendless‖.4. Try to find out the meaning of the following roots in English and give two or three words that contain each of them:geo- — the earth: geology, geography-ology — a branch of learning: morphology, phonology tele- — distant, far: telescope, televisionvision — seeing, sight: televisionliter- — words: literal, literatureaudi- — listening: auditor, audience, auditoriumgene- — life: generate, genetic, genitalsemi- — half: semiconductor, semifinalaqu- — water: aquarium, aquatic-loqu- — speech: eloquent, loquacious, soliloquy-ium — hall: stadium, gymnasium, auditorium, aquarium -path- — emotion: sympathy, empathytoler- — endure: tolerate, tolerablethermo- — heat:: thermometer, thermostatic, thermonuclear manu- — hand: manuscript, manual, manufacturehydro- — water: hydraulic, dehydratechron- — time: chronological, chronicledemo- — people: democracy, demographydur- — lasting: during, durableagr- — farming: agriculture, agrariankilo- — one thousand: kilometer, kilogram-nym- — mane: pseudonym, antonymped- — foot: centipede, impede-rupt- — breaking: rupture, abrupt-gress- — movement: progress, digresspoly- — various: polygon, polyglotsyn- — identical: synchronic, sympathy5. What are the main inflectional affixes in English? What grammatical meaning do they convey?-(e)s, indicating plurality (of nouns)-(e)s, indicating third person singular, present tense-(e)d, indicating past tense (for all three persons)-ing, indicating progressive aspect-er, indicating comparative degree (of adjectives and adverbs)-est, indicating superlative degree (of adjective and adverbs)-’s, indicating the possessive case (of nouns)6. State the morphological rules that govern the use of the given derivational affixes.Example: -er This suffix is added to a verb to form a noun indicating the agent that carries out the action, e.g. write — writer.1) -ant: this suffix is added to a verb to form a noun indicating the agent, e.g. assistant2）-ment: suffix added to a verb to form its corresponding noun, e.g. development3）sub-: prefix added to an adjective to form another adjective to indicate a lesser degree, e.g. substandard4）-en: suffix added to an adjective to form a verb to indicate the acquisition of the quality denoted by the adjective5）en-: prefix added to an adjective to form a verb to indicate the acquisition of the quality denoted by the adjective, e.g. enrich, enlarge6）–ee: suffix added to a verb to form a noun indicating the recipient of the action denoted by the verb, e.g. employee7）–ful: suffix added to a noun to form an adjective indicating the quality denoted by the noun, e.g. plentiful8）–some: suffix added to a noun to form an adjective indicating the quality denoted by the noun, e.g. quarrelsome9) –wise: suffix added to a noun to form an adv erb meaning ―with regard to the area indicating by the noun‖, e.g. careerwise10) un-: prefix added to an adjective to indicate the absence of the quality indicated by the adjective, e.g. unemployed7. What are the main features of the English compounds?Despite the various formations, all compounds share the following features:1) Orthographically, a compound can be written as one word with or without a hyphen in between, or as two separate words, e.g., armchair, follow-up, thunder bird.2) Syntactically, the part of speech of the compound is generally determined by the part of speech of the second element, e.g.,head-strong adj. greenhouse n.3) Semantically, the meaning of compound is often idiomatic, not always being the sum total of the meanings of its components. For example, a blackleg is not a leg that is black, a greenhouse is not a house that is green, a hotdog is not a dog at all.4) Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress. For example, ―,running ’dog.‖ Thus pronounced, the form means ―a dog that is running,‖ the other way is to put the primary stress on the first element ―running‖, in this case, ―running dog‖ is actually a compound noun and metaphorically it refers to a person who follows another person obediently in his wrong doings.8. Explain the formation and meaning of the following compounds: Example: nightcap, noun formed by combining two nouns, meaninga drink one takes before going to bed.1) cat’s paw: noun formed by two nouns, meaning a person used by another as a tool2) tablecloth: noun formed by combining two nouns, meaning a piece of cloth spread on a table to cover it3) green-eyed: adjective formed by combining an adjective and an –ed form, meaning jealous4）green horn: noun formed by combing an adjective and a noun, meaning a person not experienced for a job or occupation5）update: verb formed by combining an adverb and a verb, meaning to bring something up to date6) jet lag: noun formed by combing two nouns, meaning the feeling of fatigue caused by traveling in a jet plane crossing different time zones7) bootleg: verb (also noun) formed by combining two nouns meaning ―to make, carry, or sell illicit goods‖8) built-in: adjective formed by combining a past participle with preposition, meaning ―made as an integral part‖9) cockpit: noun formed by joining two nouns, meaning the compartment in an aircraft where the pilot or the crew sit10)good-for-nothing: adjective formed by joining an adjective, a preposition and a pronoun, meaning irresponsible or worthlessChapter 4: Syntax１．Define the following terms:１）．syntax: Syntax is a subfield of linguistics which studies the sentence structure of language. It consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences.２）．hierarchical structure（层次结构）: the sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic category of each structural constituent, such as NP and VP. ３）．syntactic category: Apart from sentences and clauses, a syntactic category usually refers to a word (called a lexical category) or a phrase (called a phrasal category) that performs a particular grammatical function, such as the subject or object in a sentence. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category. ４）．phrase structure rules: a rewrite rule that allows for the possible combinations of words to form phrases and sentences. ５）．X-bar theory is a general and highly abstract schema that collapses all phrasal structure rules into a single format: X″→ (Spec)X (Compl). (In this format, Spec stands for specifier while Compl stands for complement. This theory is capable of reducing the redundancies of individual phrasal structure rules and may well capture certain basic properties shared by all phrasal categories, i.e. NP, VP, AP, PP, across the languages of the world. ) ６）．sentence: A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and a predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase. ７）．finite clause（定式子句）: a clause that takes a subject and a finite verb, and at the same time stands structurally alone. (A simple sentence satisfies the structural requirements of a finite clause.)８）．simple sentence: a simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.９）．coordinate sentence（并列句）: A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as ―and‖, ―but‖, ―or‖.１０）．complex sentence（复合句）: a complex sentence contains two or more clauses, one of which is incorporated （合成一体的）into the other. That is, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other. The incorporated, or subordinate, clause is normally called an embedded clause, and the clause into which it is embedded is called a matrix clause.１１）．grammatical relations: The structural and logical functional relations of constituents are called grammatical relations. The grammatical relations of a sentence concern the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. In many cases, grammatical relations in fact refer to who does what to whom.１２）．linguistic competence: Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.１３）．transformational rules: Transformational rules are the rules that transform one sentence type into another type.１４）．D-structure: D- structure is the level of syntactic representation that exists before movement takes place. Phrasestructure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.(Phrase structure rules + the lexicon→D-structure → Movement rules → S-structure)１５）．S-structure: a level of syntactic representation after the operation of necessary syntactic movement１６）．Move a: a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement.１７）．Universal Grammar: a system of linguistic knowledge which consists of some general principles and parameters about natural languages.２。

Morphology3.1 Definition of morphology (Q1)QI. What is morphology?Morphology is the branch of grammar that studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed. It is generally divided into two fields: inflectional morphology (also called inflection) and lexical/derivational morphology (also called word-formation).3.2 The internal structure of words (Q2 ~ Q8)Q2. Illustrate the relationship between morpheme and allomorph by examples.Morpheme is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language, not divisible or analyzable into smaller forms. What is usually considered a single word in English may be composed of one or more morphemes. Take disagreeable for an example, it contains three morphemes, dis-, agree and -able. A morpheme may take various shapes or forms. For instance, -ion, -tion, -sion and -ation are the positional variants of the same suffix. They do not differ in meaning or function but show a slight difference in sound depending on the final phoneme of the preceding verb. They are called allomorphs. So an allomorph is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds.Q3. What is morphophonology or morphophonemics?It studies the interrelationships between phonology and morphology. Specifically speaking, it is a study of the analysis and classification of the phonological factors that affect the appearance of morphemes, and, correspondingly, the grammatical factors that affect the appearance of phonemes. For example, the negative morpheme is realized as in- in infirm, but as im- in imperfect. The change of /n/ to /m/ is due to /p/ after it, so the assimilation of /n/ is said to be conditioned by /p/.Q4. What is a free morpheme? What is a bound morpheme?Morphemes may be classified into free and bound. A free morpheme is one that can be uttered alone with meaning. It can exist on its own without a bound morpheme. A free morpheme is a word, in the traditional sense. Man, book, take and red are free morphemes.A bound morpheme cannot stand by itself as a complete utterance. It must appear with at least one other morpheme, free or bound, like un- in unhappy, past tense morpheme in worked.Q5. What is a root? What is an affix?Morphemes may also be divided into roots (or root morphemes) and affixes (or affixational morphemes). A root is the basic unchangeable part of a word, and it conveys the main lexical meaning of the word. In each of the following words, dance, dancing, danced and dancer, the root is dance, which is the basic unchangeable part, carrying the main lexical meaning. Roots are either free or bound.An affix is a collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. Affixes are considered bound morphemes. They may be divided into inflectional and derivational types.Q6. What is the difference between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes?An inflectional affix serves to express such meanings as plurality, tense, and the comparative or superlative degree. It does not form a new word with new lexical meaning when it is added to another word. Nor does it change the word-class of the word to which it is affixed. The inflectional affixes today are the plural marker, the genitive case, the verbal endings, the comparative degrees and superlative degrees. Inflectional affixes have only their particulargrammatical meanings, so they are also called grammatical affixes.A derivational affix serves to derive a new word when it is added to another morpheme. Derivational affix has lexical meaning, but less important than the meaning of the root in the same word, like -able in the word workable. Derivational affixes are commonly subdivided into prefixes and suffixes.Q7. How to distinguish root, stem and base?Root is that part of a word-form that remains when all the inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed. Thus in the word undesirables, the root is desire. Stem is the part of a word-form that remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed. So in the word undesirables, the stem is undesirable. Base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added. This means that any root or stem can be termed a base. But a base differs from a root or a stem.Q8. Tell the root, stem and base of the following words.(1) Desirable: desire is the root or base; but there is no stem for it.(2) Undesirable: desire is the root; desirable is the base; there is no stem for it.(3) Undesirables: desire is the root; undesirable is the stem or base.(4) Desired: desire is the root, stem or base.3.3 Inflection (Q9)Q9. What is inflection/inflexion?Inflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, tense or case, which does not change the grammatical class of the items to which they are attached, as exemplified with boy + ' s .3.4 Word-formation (Q1O ~ Q26)Q10. What is affixation/derivation?Affixation or derivation is generally defined as a word-formation process by which new words are created by adding a prefix, or suffix, or both, to the base. A word thus made is called derivative.Q11. What is a prefix? What is prefixation?A prefix is an affix that is placed at the beginning of a word as un-in the word unfair. Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding a prefix to the base. Prefixes modify the lexical meaning of the base. They don’t generally alter the word-class of the base; agree-disagree is an example.Q12. What are the main classifications of living prefixes?The major living prefixes are classified into the following eight categories by their meanings:(1) Negative prefixes, like un-, non-, in-, dis-, a-.(2) Reverse prefixes, like un-, de-, dis-.(3) Pejorative prefixes, like mis- ,mal-, pseudo-.(4) Prefixes of degree or size, like arch-, super-, hyper-, ultra-, mini-.(5) Prefixes of attitude, like co-, counter, anti-, pro-.(6) Locative prefixes, like super-, sub-, inter-, trans-.(7) Prefixes of time and order, like fore-, pre-, post-, ex-.(8) Number prefixes, like mono-, tri-, poly-, mega-.Q13. What is a suffix? What is suffixation?A suffix is an affix that is placed at the end of a word, as -ness in the word happiness. Suffixation is the formation of a new word by adding a suffix to the base, usually changing theword-class of the base. For example, the noun boy, by the addition of the suffix -ish, is changed into the adjective boyish.Q14. What is compounding?Compounding or composition is a word-formation process by joining two or more bases to form a new unit, a compound word. Compounds can be divided into three categories according to parts of the speech: (1) noun compounds (like heartbeat); (2) adjective compounds (like duty-free ); (3) verb compounds (like housekeep).Q15. What are the criteria of a compound word?(1) Orthographically, compounds are written in three ways: solid (like airmail), hyphenated (like air-conditioning) and open ( like air raid).(2) Phonologically, many compounds have a so-called compound accent, that is, a single stress on the first element, as in' space rocket; or a main stress on the first element and a secondary stress on the second element.(3) Semantically, compounds can be said to have a meaning which may be related to, but cannot always be inferred from the meaning of its component parts.Q16. Express the following in one compound word.(1) someone who writes songs----songwriter(2) someone who cleans window---window-cleaner(3) the race for arms---arms race(4) the train in the morning---morning-train(5) a mine for gold--gold mine(6) as cheap as dirt---dirt cheap(7) tanned by the sun---sun-tannedQ17. What are reduplicative compounds?Reduplicative compounds are formed by reduplication, by which a compound is created by the repetition (1)of one word like go-go; (2)of two almost identical word with a change in the vowels such as zigzag; (3)of two almost identical words with a change in the initial consonants, as in teenyweeny.Q18. What is conversion?Conversion is a word-formation process whereby a word of a certain word-class is shifted into a word of another word-class without the addition of an affix. For example, the verb attack corresponds to the noun attack. Other terms for conversion are “functional shift” and “derivation by zero suffix”.Q19. What is full conversion? What is partial conversion?There are two types of conversion, full conversion and partial conversion. The conversion is full when the converted form takes on all the features of the word from which it is converted. Take the adjective native for example. The conversion of native to noun is full, because one can say a native, two natives, the native's language, and a returned native.Partial conversion is the conversion where the converted form takes on only some of the features of the word from which it is converted. For example, some adjectives are used as nouns when preceded by the definite article such as the poor; yet they do not take plural and genitive inflections, nor can they be preceded by determiners like a, this, my, etc.Q20. What is acronymy?Acronymy is a type of shortening by using the first letters of words to form a proper name, atechnical term, or a phrase. If the shortened word is pronounced letter by letter, it is an initialism like BBC/'bi:bi:'si:/(for British Broadcasting Corporation ); if the shortened word is pronounced as word rather than as a sequence of letters, it is an acronym like SAM/stem/(for surface-to-air missile).Q21. Illustrate the five sub-divisions of clipping respectively by examples.The process of clipping involves the deletion of one or more syllables from a word (usually a noun), which is also available in its full form. Examples are plane from airplane, and gym from gymnastics.Clipping may be divided into five main types:(1) Back clipping: the deletion occurs at the end of the word. This is the most common type of clipping. Examples are: ad (= advertisement), auto (= automobile), memo (= memorandum).(2) Front clippings: the deletion occurs at the beginning of the word, like bus (= omnibus), phone (= telephone), quake (= earthquake).(3) Front and back clipping: the deletion occurs at both ends of a word, like flu (= influenza), fridge (= refrigerator), and tec (=detective).(4) Middle clipping: the deletion occurs in the middle of the word, like maths(= mathematics), mike (= microphone).(5) Phrase clipping: this involves the shortening of a phrase, like perm (= permanent wave) and pop (= popular music).Q22. What is blending?Blending is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combining the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms, like newscast (news + broadcast), brunch (breakfast + lunch).Q23. Why is back-formation a productive way of forming verbs in ME?Backformation is a type of word-formation by which a shorter word is coined by the deletion of a supposed affix of a longer form already present in the language. For example, the verb edit was formed from editor by dropping the supposed derivational suffix -or.The majority of backformed words are verbs, for verbs have a peculiar property to develop around them a number of deverbal nouns, such as the agent noun and the noun of action, like edit from editor. Verbs also generate various types of participial adjectives, such as creating and created. Hence people expect to find a family of derivatives attached to a verb. On the other hand, when people come across one or more apparently deverbal nouns, they often take for granted that there must be a corresponding verb, and they simply create the verb base from which the original word seems to be derived.Q24. What is analogy?Analogy means making a new word or phrase by making an analogy between the word to be made and an existing corresponding one. The following words are coined by analogy: earthquake---youthquakesunrise---earthriseoverpopulation---underpopulationQ25. What is onomatopoeia?Onomatopoeia is the oldest device of word-formation used to name a thing or an action by a vocal imitation of the sound associated with it. In other words, onomatopoeic words are echoic words whose sound suggests sense. In Modem English people often coin new words for thepurpose of vividness and imagination. The typical example is meow (or mew, miaow), a word used to refer to the sound made by a cat.Q26. Decide which way of word formation is used to form the following words.comsat (from communication+ satellite, by blending )motel (from motor + hotel, by blending)lase (from laser, by back-formation)memo (from memorandum, by back clipping)nightmare (from daymare, by analogy)ASEAN (from the Association for South-East Asian Nations, by acronymy )ROM (from read-only memory, by initialism)bit (from binary + digit, by blending)babysit (from babysitter, by back-formation)cock-a-doodle-do (from the sound produced by cock, by onomatopoeia)grunt (from the sound produced by pig, by onomatopoeia)3.5 Word and word classification (Q27 ~ Q30)Q27. What is word? What is lexicon? What is lexeme? What is vocabulary?Word is a minimum free form, that is to say, the smallest form that may appear in isolation. A word is the unity of sound, form and meaning.Lexicon, in its most general sense, is synonymous with vocabulary. In its technical sense, however, it deals with the analysis and creation of words, idioms and collocations.Lexeme is an abstract unit which refers to the smallest semantic unit that can be distinguished from other smaller units. It is applied for the purpose to reduce the ambiguity of the term “word”.A lexeme can occur in many different forms in actual spoken and written texts. For example, write is the lexeme of the following words: write, wrote, writing, written.V ocabulary refers to the whole load of words used or understood by a person.Q28. How does morphology classify words?According to the number and type of morphemes they contain, words can be classified into:(1) simple words: those consisting of a single morpheme, such as man, work, kind.(2) derived words: those which are the result of a derivational process. Such words usually consist of a free morpheme and one or more than one bound morpheme, such as carefully.(3) compound word: those which are composed of two or more free morphemes, such as firewall.Q29. What are grammatical words and lexical words?Words are divided into grammatical and lexical words in terms of meaning. Those words which serve to link different parts together, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns, are grammatical words. Those words which refer to substance, action and quality, such as, nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, are lexical words. So lexical words are also known as content words and grammatical words as function words.Q30. What are closed-class words and open-class words?A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Therefore, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc., are all closed items.The open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. With the emergence of new ideas, inventions, etc., new expressions are continually and constantly being added to the lexicon. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items.ExercisesI. Fill in the blanks.1. Take is the _______ of taking, taken and took.2. Bound morphemes are classified into two types: _______ and _______root.3. An _______ is pronounced letter by letter, while an _______ is pronounced as a word.4. Lexicon, in most cases, is synonymous with _______.5. Orthographically, compounds are written in three ways: _______, _______, and ______.6. All words may be said to contain a root _______.7. A small set of conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns belongs to _______class, while the largest part of nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs belongs to _______class.8. _______ is a reverse process of derivation, and therefore is a process of shortening.9. _______ is extremely productive, because English had lost most of its inflectional endings by the end of Middle English period, which facilitated the use of words interchangeably as verbs or nouns, verbs or adjectives, and vice versa.10. Words are divided into simple, compound and derived words on the _______level.11. A word formed by derivation is called a _______, and a word formed by compounding iscalled a _______.12. The poor is an example of _______ conversion.II. Choose the best answer.13. Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified as_______.A. lexical wordsB. grammatical wordsC. function wordsD. form words14. Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case are called _______ morpheme.A. inflectionalB.freeC. boundD.derivational15. There are _______morphemes in the word denationalization.A. threeB.fourC.fiveD.six16. In English -/se and -tion are called _______.A. prefixesB. suffixesC. infixesD. free morphemes17. Morphology is generally divided into two fields: the study of word-formation and _______.A. affixationB. etymologyC. inflectionD. root18. The three subtypes of affixes are: prefix, suffix and _______.A. derivational affixB. inflectional affixC. infixD. back-formation19. _______ is a way in which new words may be formed from already existing words bysubtracting an affix which is thought to be part of the old word.A. AffixationB. Back-formationC. InsertionD. Addition20. The word TB is formed in the way of _______.A. acronymyB. clippingC. initialismD. blending21. There are different types of affixes or morphemes. The affix “ed” in the word “learned”isknown as a(an) _______.A. derivational morphemeB. free morphemeC. inflectional morphemeD. free form22. The words like comsat and sitcom are formed by _______.A. blendingB. clippingC. backformationD. acronymy23. The stem of disagreements is _______.A. agreementB. agreeC. disagreeD. disagreement24. All of them are meaningful except for _______.A. lexemeB. phonemeC. morphemeD. allomorphIII. Decide whether the following statements are true[T] or false[F].__ 25. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.__ 26. Fore as in foretell is both a prefix and a bound morpheme.__ 27. Base refers to the part of word that remains when all inflectional affixes are removed.__28. In most cases, prefixes change the meaning of the base whereas suffixes change the word-class of the base.__ 29. Conversion from noun to verb is the most productive process of conversion.__ 30. Reduplicative compound is formed by repeating the same morpheme of a word.__ 31. The words whimper, whisper and whistle are formed in the way of onomatopoeia.__ 32. In most cases, the number of syllables of a word corresponds to the number of morphemes. __ 33. Backformation is a productive way of forming nouns in Modern English.__ 34. Inflection is a particular way of word-formations.__ 35. We can always tell by the words a compound contains what it means because the meaning of a compound is always the sum of the meanings of its parts.__ 36. All roots are free and all affixes are bound.IV. Explain the following terms.37. Morphophonology 38. Allomorph39. Bound morpheme 40. Back clipping41. Derivation 42. Morphological rule43. Closed-class word 44. Analogy45. Full conversion 46. Blending47. Base 48. HybridV. Answer the following questions.49. Of all the word-formations, which involve the process of addition? Which the process ofsubtraction? And which the process of transition?50. Illustrate the axiom, “The actual grammatical classification of any word is dependent upon itsuse.”KeysI. Fill in the blanks.1. lexeme2. affix; bound3. initialism; acronym4. vocabulary5. solid; hyphenated; open6. morpheme7. close; open 8. Backformation9. Conversion 10. morphemic11.derivative; compound 12. partialII. Choose the best answer.13. A 14. A 15. C 16. B 17. C 18. B19. B 20. C 21. C 22. A 23. D 24. BIII Decide whether the following statements are true[T] or false[F].25. [F] Phonetically, a compound usually has a single stress on the first element, or a main stresson the first element and a secondary stress on the second element.26. [T]27. [F] Stem is the part of word that remains when all inflectional affixes are removed.28. [T] 29. [T]30. [F] Reduplicative compound is formed by repeating a same word or an almost identical word.31. [T]32. [F] The number of syllables of a word is not necessarily the same as that of morphemes.33. [F] Backformation is productive way of forming verbs in Modem English.34. [F] Inflection and word-formation are two sub-fields of morphology.35. [F] The meaning of a compound cannot always be inferred from the meaning of its componentparts, and sometimes is idiomatic.36. [F] Roots are divided into free roots and bound roots, so they are not always free.IV. Explain the following terms.37. Morphophonology: Morphophonology or morphophonemics is a branch of linguisticsreferring to the analysis and classification of the phonological factors that affect the appearance of morphemes, and, correspondingly, the grammatical factors that affect the appearance of phonemes. At any rate, it studies the interrelationships between phonology and morphology.38. Allomorph: It is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position oradjoining sounds.39. Bound morpheme: It is a morpheme which cannot stand by itself as a complete utterance. Itmust appear with at least one other morpheme, free or bound, like un- in unhappy, past tense morpheme in worked.40. Back clipping: It means one or more syllables are deleted from the end of a word. It is themost common type of clipping, like auto from automobile.41. Derivation: Derivation or affixation is generally defined as a word-formation process bywhich new words are created by adding a prefix, or suffix, or both, to the base.42. Morphological rule: It is the rule that governs which affix can be added to what type of baseto form a new word, e.g. -ly can be added to a noun to form an adjective.43. Closed-class word: It is a word whose membership is fixed or limited. Pronouns, prepositions,conjunctions, articles, etc., are all closed items.44. Analogy: It is way of making a new word or phrase by making an analogy between the wordto be made and an existing corresponding one. Based on earthquake, youthquake is coined.45. Full conversion: It means the converted word takes on all the features of the original word.For example, the noun natural, converted from adjective natural, can be used in the sentence He is a natural for the job. The conversion of natural is a full one.46. Blending: It is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combining themeanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms, like newscast (news + broadcast), brunch (breakfast + lunch).47. Base: It is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added. This means that any root orstem can be termed a base. But a base differs from a root or a stem.48. Hybrid: It is a word made up of elements from two or more different languages. Hybrids arevery common in English. For example, the root of the word rewrite is English, but the prefix re- is from Latin.V. Answer the following questions.49. The process of addition includes derivation, compounding, reduplication, because derivation isa process of adding affixes, and compounding and reduplication are processes of addingwords. The process of subtraction involves acronymy, clipping, blending and back-formation, because they shorten words in various ways either by choosing initial letter (or letters), deleting syllable (or syllables), combining words, or by subtracting a supposed affix. The process of transition involves conversion and onomatopoeia. Conversion is a transition from one word class to another, while onomatopoeia is a transition from sound to word.50. Sometimes a word may undergo multiple conversion, which enables it to function as amember of several word-classes, but the actual grammatical classification of any word depends upon its use in a sentence. Notice how the word-class of round varies in accordance with its use in the following sentences:The second round was exciting. (n.)Any round plate will go. (adj.)Some drivers round comers too rapidly. (v.)。

morphology名词解释Morphology是语言学的一个重要分支，主要研究词形变化及其规律。

通俗地说，它关注的是词汇的构成和变化规则。

在语言学中，Morphology与其他语言层次如音韵学、句法学、语义学等密不可分。

一、Morphology的含义及分类Morphology来源于希腊文，意为“形态学”。

传统上，Morphology可以分为屈折语言和孤立语言。

屈折语言是指通过词形变化来表达语法变化的语言，例如德语、拉丁语、日语等。

而孤立语言则是指没有词形变化而通过词序和上下文来表达语法关系的语言，例如汉语、越南语、泰语等。

二、Morphology的研究方法Morphology的研究方法有两种：归纳法和演绎法。

归纳法是通过大量的数据来发现规律，从而得到结论；演绎法则是通过已知的规律推导出新的结论。

此外，Morphology的研究方法也包括对比分析、实证研究等。

三、Morphology的重要性Morphology在语言学中占有重要地位。

它不仅可以协助我们理解语言，还可以帮助我们分析语言的结构和变化规律。

在语言教学中，Morphology也具有重要的应用价值。

它可以帮助学生更好地掌握语法规则，提高语言表达能力，同时也可以帮助学者更好地创造新词汇和语法结构。

四、Morphology的研究对象Morphology研究的主要对象是单词及其构成形式。

单词是语言的基本单位，是形式与意义相结合的最小单位。

在不同的语言中，单词的构成形式可能包括前缀、后缀、词根、词缀、复合词等。

五、Morphology的研究内容Morphology研究的主要内容包括词素结构、词形变化和词汇的构成规则。

词素是单词的最小单位，它是具有一定语义的字或字组合。

词素结构指的是一个单词内部各个词素的组成方式。

词形变化是指单词在不同语法环境下形态的变化，例如英语的时态、语态、比较级等。

词汇构成规则是指单词的构成方式以及单词之间的关系，例如英语中的复合词、派生词等。