外文翻译---日本钢桥建筑的近期发展趋向

外文资料（英文）Steel system because of their own with the light weight, high strength, the construction of such advantages, and the reinforced concrete structure, the more "high, light," the development of three unique advantages. Along with the country's economic construction, the long concrete and masonry structure dominate the market situation is changing. Steel products in the large-span space structure, lightweight steel gantry structure, multi-storey and high-rise residential areas of increasing construction, Application areas are expanding. From the West-East Gas sent, the West-East power transmission and-north water diversion project, the Qinghai-Tibet Railway, the 2008 Olympic venues and facilities, residential steel, development of the western region construction practice, the development of a steel construction industry and the market momentum is emerging in our country.1： the steel market development trend of the past 20 years of reform and opening up and economic development, Steel has to create a system of highly favorable environment for development.（1） from the development of the main steel material foundation : Steel is the development of steel a key factor in development. To meet the needs of the construction market, steel varieties will toward complete standardization of materials direction. Domestic steel for construction steel, in terms of quantity, variety and quality have developed rapidly and hot-rolled H-beam, a color plate, Cold steel production increased significantly, the development of steel to create important conditions. Other steel-Steel, Coated Steel Plate and there has been a marked growth, product quality has been greatly improved. Refractory, weathering steel, hot-rolled thin number of H-beam steel has started a new project in the application, Steel to create the conditions for development.（2） from design, production, construction, professional level look : steel industry after years of development, Steel professional design quality in the practice of continually improving. A number of characteristics with the strength of professional institutes, research and design institutes continuously developed steel design software and new technologies. Currently, many domestic steel design software have been brought forth, they can adapt to light steel structure, the network structure, high-rise steel structures, Thin arched structure design needs. With computer technology in the engineering design of the universal application of steel structure design of the software is getting more sophisticated, To help designers complete structural analysis and design, construction mapping provides a great convenience. Steel manufacturers in the country blossom everywhere, and creating a number of strong leading enterprises. Annual output reaching 10 -- 20 million tons of size alone, more than 10 enterprises that the large domestic steel project mission, They fully equipped with the industry and international enterprises to compete on equal strength. At present, some foreign investment, joint ventures, private sector steel manufacturing enterprises in the fierce market competition winners. From the computer design, mapping, digital control, automated processing and manufacturing industries are in the lead, its products range from the traditional building structures, machinery and equipment, non-standard components, and turnkey facilitiesto the value of housing, Container products, port facilities directly to the end-user products. Steel industrialized mass production, the installation of a new steel structure engineering endless, and energy-efficient, waterproof, insulating, , and other advanced product set and integrated suite of applications, design and construction of integrated production will be raised the level of the construction industry.（3） the steel works from the view of the performance : the world's third 421-meter high Shanghai Jinmao Tower, is a leading international standard. height of 279 meters in Shenzhen SEG buildings, the span of 1,490 meters Runyang Yangtze River Bridge, span of 550 meters of the Lupu Bridge, the 345-meter-high transmission tower across the Yangtze River, and the Capital International Airport, nest national sports center, many of steel construction system of the important projects, Steel Buildings positive marks top heavy and large-span steel structure of space development.（4） from the domestic steel industry view : China has steel in housing construction light on the application of the industry as a revolution. With domestic industry to become China's new economic development and growth, lightweight steel residential housing industry will be the development of the country. And the housing industry is the prerequisite for dealing with the industrialization of matching new technologies, new materials and new systems. As the steel structure system easy to realize industrialization and standardization of production, and to go along with the wall material can be used in energy conservation, environmental protection of new materials. Therefore, the study of steel structures for residential package technology will greatly promote domestic industry's rapid development.（5） from the government sector can guide and support : government departments guidance and support, so that as a green steel products and development workers. Steel with the traditional concrete structure, compared with light weight, high strength, good seismic performance advantages. Suitable for live load accounted for a smaller proportion of the total load of the structure, and is more suitable for large-span space structure, tall structures and is suitable for the construction of the soft ground. Is also in line with environmental protection and conservation, intensive use of resources policy, The overall economic benefits to investors increasingly are recognized objective will be to promote the designers and developers they chose steel.2： the steel market outlook of the development trend of steel, China Steel Development has tremendous market potential and prospects for development.（1） since China began in 1996 steel output of over 100 million tons, ranking first in the world. 1998 commissioning of a series of rolling H-beam steel to create a sound material basis. Steel and other materials industries, the development of the steel industry to provide good quality, complete specifications for the material. According to the market demand, the next batch of 23 will be color plate production line, hot-rolled H-beam will also be an increase in production lines, large cold-formed unit will soon be launched. By that time China will produce more than 100 color plates million tons, Hot H-beam more than 100 million tons of cold and the large and medium-sized rectangular pipe and tube, in addition to the existing H-beamwelding, plate, Sheet steel and other construction, the steel industry can meet development needs. With steel production and quality continues to rise, their prices are gradually declining. Steel has been a corresponding cost of a more substantial reduction. And the steel structure supporting the use of thermal insulation, corrosion-resistant materials, fire resistant paint, various welding material and bolts, connectivity products and the technology of new materials will also continue to enhance innovation.（2） efficient and new welding technology of welding and cutting equipment and welding application development and application of materials, for the development of steel works to create a good technical condition. In ordinary steel, thin light steel structures, steel structures in tall buildings, the door frame of light steel structure, network structure, pressure plate structure, welding and the connecting bolt, steel concrete composite floor. CFST steel reinforced concrete structure and the structure of the design, construction, Statutes regulating acceptance of industry standards and has more than 20 of this issue. The steel structure norms, in order to constantly improve the system of steel lay the necessary technical foundation and basis.（3） At present, the portal frame light steel structure and pressure plate arch shell structure of cost per unit area, Similar single-storey steel and concrete structure approximately the same, or even lower; and light steel structure of the higher levels of commercialization, production and installation rate will reach each class 700 -- 1000 square meters, much faster than the reinforced concrete structure. In recent years, expansion of the market quickly. Tall steel structure of the composite price is higher than the reinforced concrete structure similar 4% -- 5%, but the seismic performance and Construction is fast, especially in high-rise buildings to be used. In November 1997 the Ministry of Construction issued the "China Building Technology Policy", made clear that development of steel construction, construction steel and construction steel construction technology specific requirements, China's long-term practice of "reasonable Steel" policy to "encourage Steel" policy. Steel will promote the popularization and application play a positive role.（4）the steel industry will see a number of characteristics with the strength of the professional design institutes, research institutes, output over 200,000 tons of large-scale steel factories, dozens of first-class technology and advanced equipment to the construction and installation enterprises。

钢桥的发展趋势
钢桥的发展趋势可以从以下几个方面来分析：
1. 绿色环保：随着全球环保意识的提高，未来钢桥的发展趋势将更加注重绿色环保。

钢材具有可回收利用的特点，可以降低环境污染，并减少资源浪费。

2. 轻量化设计：在保证结构强度的前提下，钢桥设计将趋向于轻量化，减少桥梁自重，降低材料成本，并便于施工和运输。

3. 智能化和自动化：随着科技的不断进步，未来钢桥将更加智能化和自动化。

例如，结合传感器技术和数据分析，可以实现钢桥的即时监测和维护，提高桥梁的安全性和可靠性。

4. 长寿命和维护成本低：钢材具有较长的使用寿命和抗腐蚀能力，未来的钢桥将更加耐久和经济。

同时，采用适当的防腐措施和维护管理措施，可以降低桥梁的维护成本。

5. 结构多样化：未来的钢桥将呈现出更多样化的结构形式，以适应不同地理环境和工程需求。

例如，钢拱桥、斜拉桥和悬索桥等不同形式的钢桥应用将逐渐增多。

总体而言，钢桥的发展趋势是绿色环保、轻量化设计、智能化和自动化、长寿命
和维护成本低，以及结构多样化。

这些趋势将使钢桥在未来得到更广泛的应用。

日本钢结构建筑发展现状近期在天津举行的中国华北地区钢结构建筑设计与应用技术论坛上，日本住友金属工业株式会社寺泽太冲先生专程前来参展，并作了专题报告。

寺泽太冲就日本钢结构建筑发展状况及新钢材、新技术开发应用等问题谈了自己的看法。

寺泽太冲先生现为该会社的建设技术部、东京建筑建材技术室课长，对钢结构建筑与钢结构材料应用颇有研究。

当谈及日本的钢结构建筑用钢材料情况时，寺泽太冲先生说：日本粗钢的年产量约1亿吨，普通钢大致在8000万吨，其中建筑领域所用的钢材约占普通钢的30%左右，是钢材用量最大的领域。

从具体的钢材品种看，钢筋用量约占全部建筑业用钢总量的近40%，主要用于钢筋混凝土结构的建筑；其余的是以H型钢为主的型钢占30%，冷弯型钢，钢管等占10%以上。

寺泽太冲说，这些年，日本的钢结构建筑发展很快，建筑物施工面积中的钢结构所占比例从1965年起，每年不断增加，目前约占40%左右。

而低层建筑采用钢结构的已十分普遍，如5层以下的低层建筑物，采用钢结构的占到90%以上，平均面积300平方米，每幢建筑约使用钢结构30吨左右。

一般3—5层的钢结构住宅柱子，大多采用冷弯加工成型的钢管，所以在日本，HOT(热轧钢卷=冷弯型钢)的使用量不断增加；高层建筑中，焊接箱柱及焊接H型钢梁的使用量较大，因此，厚板的需求量在不断增多；而低层的钢结构建筑，则普遍采用H型钢。

寺泽太冲先生指出，日本对钢结构建筑的抗震性能特别强调，在耐震设计法中，希望通过塑料变形，吸收地震产生的能量。

作为倒塌类型，为了实现理想的倒塌形状，要求梁材所用钢材的屈服强度具有一定稳定性。

为确保钢材的塑料变形能力，要求保证具有较小的屈服比。

提高钢结构构件的强度，对钢材的磷、硫等杂质需严格控制，保证其较高的韧性。

对梁的垂直方向承受力较大的钢结构构件，必须保证钢板的性能。

焊接的钢结构件，确保其塑料变形，要求杂质少，吸收(夏氏)冲击能量大，有较高的韧性。

钢结构建筑除抗震性外，还有防火、耐腐蚀等多种要求，所以在日本，耐火钢、耐候钢、低屈服点钢、高强度钢等新钢种不断被开发和利用。

日本钢结构建筑介绍及对我国的启示日本钢结构建筑是指在日本国内使用钢材作为结构材料进行建筑的一种建筑形式。

日本作为一个地震频发的国家，在建筑领域一直致力于研发和应用抗震技术。

日本钢结构建筑在结构设计和施工工艺上具有许多值得借鉴的优点，对我国的建筑业发展有着重要的启示。

首先，日本钢结构建筑在抗震设计方面处于领先地位，其主要设计原则是抗震、耐震和减震。

日本积极研发和应用各种先进的抗震技术，包括基础地震动输入和结构响应分析，通过合理分析建筑结构在地震荷载作用下的行为，确保建筑在地震中的安全性。

这一方面对我国也有着重要启示，我们可以借鉴和学习日本的抗震设计理念，加强建筑结构设计和施工的抗震能力。

其次，日本钢结构建筑在灾害发生后的修复和重建方面有着丰富的经验。

由于日本地震频繁，建筑物在地震中遭受严重破坏的情况较多。

日本的钢结构建筑采用模块化和预制构件的设计和施工方式，使得在建筑物需要修复和重建时更加便捷、快速。

这一点对于我国来说也非常重要，因为我国地震灾害频繁，灾后重建的效率和质量关系到人民群众的生活和财产安全。

通过借鉴日本的经验，我们可以提高我国建筑物的抗震重建能力，降低地震灾害所造成的损失。

此外，日本钢结构建筑在可持续发展方面具有一定优势。

由于钢材可以循环利用和回收利用，采用钢结构建筑可以减少对自然资源的消耗。

钢材的使用寿命较长，不易腐蚀和破损，使得建筑物的使用寿命相对较长，减少了后续的维护和修复成本。

这对我国推动可持续发展和资源节约型社会建设有着积极的启示，鼓励在建筑领域更多地应用钢结构，实现资源的循环利用。

最后，日本钢结构建筑在设计上注重灵活性和创新性。

钢结构建筑可以灵活调整建筑物的形态和结构，适应不同的环境和需求。

同时，钢结构建筑在外观设计上更加与时俱进，融入现代艺术和建筑潮流。

这一点对我国的建筑设计也有着启示，鼓励设计师在结构设计和外观设计上进行创新，形成具有国际竞争力的建筑作品。

综上所述，日本钢结构建筑在抗震设计、灾后修复、可持续发展和设计创新等方面具有重要的启示意义。

高层建筑与钢结构外文翻译文献(文档含中英文对照即英文原文和中文翻译)Talling building and Steel constructionAlthough there have been many advancements in building construction technology in general. Spectacular archievements have been made in the design and construction ofultrahigh-rise buildings.The early development of high-rise buildings began with structural steel fraing.Reinforced concrete and stressed-skin tube systems have since been economically and competitively used in a number of structures for both residential and commercial purposes.The high-rise buildings ranging from 50 to 110 stories that are being built all over the United States are the result of innovations and development of new structual systems.Greater height entails increased column and beam sizes to make buildings more rigid so that under wind load they will not sway beyond an acceptable limit.Excessive lateral sway may cause serious recurring damage to partitions,ceilings.and other architectural details. Inaddition,excessive sway may cause discomfort to the occupants of the building because theirperception of such motion.Structural systems of reinforced concrete,as well as steel,take full advantage of inherent potential stiffness of the total building and therefore require additional stiffening to limit the sway.In a steel structure,for example,the economy can be defined in terms of the total average quantity of steel per square foot of floor area of the building.Curve A in Fig .1 represents the average unit weight of a conventional frame with increasing numbers of stories. Curve B represents the average steel weight if the frame is protected from all lateral loads. The gap between the upper boundary and the lower boundary represents the premium for height for the traditional column-and-beam frame.Structural engineers have developed structural systems with a view to eliminating this premium.Systems in steel. Tall buildings in steel developed as a result of several types of structural innovations. The innovations have been applied to the construction of both office and apartment buildings.Frame with rigid belt trusses. In order to tie the exterior columns of a frame structure to the interior vertical trusses,a system of rigid belt trusses at mid-height and at the top of the building may be used. A good example of this system is the First Wisconsin Bank Building(1974) in Milwaukee.Framed tube. The maximum efficiency of the total structure of a tall building, for both strength and stiffness,to resist wind load can be achieved only if all column element can be connected to each other in such a way that the entire building acts as a hollow tube or rigid box in projecting out of the ground. This particular structural system was probably used for the first time in the 43-story reinforced concrete DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building in Chicago. The most significant use of this system is in the twin structural steel towers of the 110-story World Trade Center building in New YorkColumn-diagonal truss tube. The exterior columns of a building can be spaced reasonably far apart and yet be made to work together as a tube by connecting them with diagonal members interesting at the centre line of the columns and beams. This simple yet extremely efficient system was used for the first time on the John Hancock Centre in Chicago, using as much steel as is normally needed for a traditional 40-story building.Bundled tube. With the continuing need for larger and taller buildings, the framed tube or the column-diagonal truss tube may be used in a bundled form to create larger tube envelopes while maintaining high efficiency. The 110-story Sears Roebuck Headquarters Building in Chicago has nine tube, bundled at the base of the building in three rows. Some of these individual tubes terminate at different heights of the building, demonstrating the unlimited architectural possibilities of this latest structural concept. The Sears tower, at a height of 1450 ft(442m), is the world’s tallest building.Stressed-skin tube system. The tube structural system was developed for improving the resistance to lateral forces (wind and earthquake) and the control of drift (lateral building movement ) in high-rise building. The stressed-skin tube takes the tube system a step further. The development of the stressed-skin tube utilizes the façade of the building as a structural element which acts with the framed tube, thus providing an efficient way of resisting lateral loads inhigh-rise buildings, and resulting in cost-effective column-free interior space with a high ratio of net to gross floor area.Because of the contribution of the stressed-skin façade, the framed members of the tube require less mass, and are thus lighter and less expensive. All the typical columns and spandrel beams are standard rolled shapes,minimizing the use and cost of special built-up members. The depth requirement for the perimeter spandrel beams is also reduced, and the need for upset beams above floors, which would encroach on valuable space, is minimized. The structural system has been used on the 54-story One Mellon Bank Center in Pittburgh.Systems in concrete. While tall buildings constructed of steel had an early start, development of tall buildings of reinforced concrete progressed at a fast enough rate to provide a competitive chanllenge to structural steel systems for both office and apartment buildings.Framed tube. As discussed above, the first framed tube concept for tall buildings was used for the 43-story DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building. In this building ,exterior columns were spaced at 5.5ft (1.68m) centers, and interior columns were used as needed to support the 8-in .-thick (20-m) flat-plate concrete slabs.Tube in tube. Another system in reinforced concrete for office buildings combines the traditional shear wall construction with an exterior framed tube. The system consists of an outer framed tube of very closely spaced columns and an interior rigid shear wall tube enclosing thecentral service area. The system (Fig .2), known as the tube-in-tube system , made it possible to design the world’s present tall est (714ft or 218m)lightweight concrete building ( the 52-story One Shell Plaza Building in Houston) for the unit price of a traditional shear wall structure of only 35 stories.Systems combining both concrete and steel have also been developed, an examle of which is the composite system developed by skidmore, Owings &Merril in which an exterior closely spaced framed tube in concrete envelops an interior steel framing, thereby combining the advantages of both reinforced concrete and structural steel systems. The 52-story One Shell Square Building in New Orleans is based on this system.Steel construction refers to a broad range of building construction in which steel plays the leading role. Most steel construction consists of large-scale buildings or engineering works, with the steel generally in the form of beams, girders, bars, plates, and other members shaped through the hot-rolled process. Despite the increased use of other materials, steel construction remained a major outlet for the steel industries of the U.S, U.K, U.S.S.R, Japan, West German, France, and other steel producers in the 1970s.Early history. The history of steel construction begins paradoxically several decades before the introduction of the Bessemer and the Siemens-Martin (openj-hearth) processes made it possible to produce steel in quantities sufficient for structure use. Many of problems of steel construction were studied earlier in connection with iron construction, which began with the Coalbrookdale Bridge, built in cast iron over the Severn River in England in 1777. This and subsequent iron bridge work, in addition to the construction of steam boilers and iron ship hulls , spurred the development of techniques for fabricating, designing, and jioning. The advantages of iron over masonry lay in the much smaller amounts of material required. The truss form, based on the resistance of the triangle to deformation, long used in timber, was translated effectively into iron, with cast iron being used for compression members-i.e, those bearing the weight of direct loading-and wrought iron being used for tension members-i.e, those bearing the pull of suspended loading.The technique for passing iron, heated to the plastic state, between rolls to form flat and rounded bars, was developed as early as 1800;by 1819 angle irons were rolled; and in 1849 the first I beams, 17.7 feet (5.4m) long , were fabricated as roof girders for a Paris railroad station.Two years later Joseph Paxton of England built the Crystal Palace for the London Exposition of 1851. He is said to have conceived the idea of cage construction-using relatively slender iron beams as a skeleton for the glass walls of a large, open structure. Resistance to wind forces in the Crystal palace was provided by diagonal iron rods. Two feature are particularly important in the history of metal construction; first, the use of latticed girder, which are small trusses, a form first developed in timber bridges and other structures and translated into metal by Paxton ; and second, the joining of wrought-iron tension members and cast-iron compression members by means of rivets inserted while hot.In 1853 the first metal floor beams were rolled for the Cooper Union Building in New York. In the light of the principal market demand for iron beams at the time, it is not surprising that the Cooper Union beams closely resembled railroad rails.The development of the Bessemer and Siemens-Martin processes in the 1850s and 1860s suddenly open the way to the use of steel for structural purpose. Stronger than iron in both tension and compression ,the newly available metal was seized on by imaginative engineers, notably by those involved in building the great number of heavy railroad bridges then in demand in Britain, Europe, and the U.S.A notable example was the Eads Bridge, also known as the St. Louis Bridge, in St. Louis (1867-1874), in which tubular steel ribs were used to form arches with a span of more than 500ft (152.5m). In Britain, the Firth of Forth cantilever bridge (1883-90) employed tubular struts, some 12 ft (3.66m) in diameter and 350 ft (107m) long. Such bridges and other structures were important in leading to the development and enforcement of standards and codification of permissible design stresses. The lack of adequate theoretical knowledge, and even of an adequate basis for theoretical studies, limited the value of stress analysis during the early years of the 20th century,as iccasionally failures,such as that of a cantilever bridge in Quebec in 1907,revealed.But failures were rare in the metal-skeleton office buildings;the simplicity of their design proved highly practical even in the absence of sophisticated analysis techniques. Throughout the first third of the century, ordinary carbon steel, without any special alloy strengthening or hardening, was universally used.The possibilities inherent in metal construction for high-rise building was demonstrated to the world by the Paris Exposition of 1889.for which Alexandre-Gustave Eiffel, a leading Frenchbridge engineer, erected an openwork metal tower 300m (984 ft) high. Not only was theheight-more than double that of the Great Pyramid-remarkable, but the speed of erection and low cost were even more so, a small crew completed the work in a few months.The first skyscrapers. Meantime, in the United States another important development was taking place. In 1884-85 Maj. William Le Baron Jenney, a Chicago engineer , had designed the Home Insurance Building, ten stories high, with a metal skeleton. Jenney’s beams were of Bessemer steel, though his columns were cast iron. Cast iron lintels supporting masonry over window openings were, in turn, supported on the cast iron columns. Soild masonry court and party walls provided lateral support against wind loading. Within a decade the same type of construction had been used in more than 30 office buildings in Chicago and New York. Steel played a larger and larger role in these , with riveted connections for beams and columns, sometimes strengthened for wind bracing by overlaying gusset plates at the junction of vertical and horizontal members. Light masonry curtain walls, supported at each floor level, replaced the old heavy masonry curtain walls, supported at each floor level , replaced the old heavy masonry.Though the new construction form was to remain centred almost entirely in America for several decade, its impact on the steel industry was worldwide. By the last years of the 19th century, the basic structural shapes-I beams up to 20 in. ( 0.508m) in depth and Z and T shapes of lesser proportions were readily available, to combine with plates of several widths and thicknesses to make efficient members of any required size and strength. In 1885 the heaviest structural shape produced through hot-rolling weighed less than 100 pounds (45 kilograms) per foot; decade by decade this figure rose until in the 1960s it exceeded 700 pounds (320 kilograms) per foot.Coincident with the introduction of structural steel came the introduction of the Otis electric elevator in 1889. The demonstration of a safe passenger elevator, together with that of a safe and economical steel construction method, sent building heights soaring. In New York the 286-ft (87.2-m) Flatiron Building of 1902 was surpassed in 1904 by the 375-ft (115-m) Times Building ( renamed the Allied Chemical Building) , the 468-ft (143-m) City Investing Company Building in Wall Street, the 612-ft (187-m) Singer Building (1908), the 700-ft (214-m) Metropolitan Tower (1909) and, in 1913, the 780-ft (232-m) Woolworth Building.The rapid increase in height and the height-to-width ratio brought problems. To limit street congestion, building setback design was prescribed. On the technical side, the problem of lateralsupport was studied. A diagonal bracing system, such as that used in the Eiffel Tower, was not architecturally desirable in offices relying on sunlight for illumination. The answer was found in greater reliance on the bending resistance of certain individual beams and columns strategically designed into the skeletn frame, together with a high degree of rigidity sought at the junction of the beams and columns. With today’s modern interior lighting systems, however, diagonal bracing against wind loads has returned; one notable example is the John Hancock Center in Chicago, where the external X-braces form a dramatic part of the structure’s façade.World War I brought an interruption to the boom in what had come to be called skyscrapers (the origin of the word is uncertain), but in the 1920s New York saw a resumption of the height race, culminating in the Emp ire State Building in the 1931. The Empire State’s 102 stories(1,250ft. [381m]) were to keep it established as the hightest building in the world for the next 40 years. Its speed of the erection demonstrated how thoroughly the new construction technique had been mastered. A depot across the bay at Bayonne, N.J., supplied the girders by lighter and truck on a schedule operated with millitary precision; nine derricks powerde by electric hoists lifted the girders to position; an industrial-railway setup moved steel and other material on each floor. Initial connections were made by bolting , closely followed by riveting, followed by masonry and finishing. The entire job was completed in one year and 45 days.The worldwide depression of the 1930s and World War II provided another interruption to steel construction development, but at the same time the introduction of welding to replace riveting provided an important advance.Joining of steel parts by metal are welding had been successfully achieved by the end of the 19th century and was used in emergency ship repairs during World War I, but its application to construction was limited until after World War II. Another advance in the same area had been the introduction of high-strength bolts to replace rivets in field connections.Since the close of World War II, research in Europe, the U.S., and Japan has greatly extended knowledge of the behavior of different types of structural steel under varying stresses, including those exceeding the yield point, making possible more refined and systematic analysis. This in turn has led to the adoption of more liberal design codes in most countries, more imaginative design made possible by so-called plastic design ?The introduction of the computer by short-cutting tedious paperwork, made further advances and savings possible.高层结构与钢结构近年来，尽管一般的建筑结构设计取得了很大的进步，但是取得显著成绩的还要属超高层建筑结构设计。

国外波形钢腹板组合桥梁的发展与现状王卫;张建东;段鸿杰;刘朵【摘要】Bridge with corrugated steel webs is a kind of composite-structure of steel and concrete using the corrugated steel webs instead of concrete webs for conventional prestressed concrete box girders. This structure is characterized by reduction of dead weight of maingirder,improvement of prestressed e~ciency of concrete girder and reduction of on-site work and construction cost. In recent years, the box girder bridges with corrugated steel webs have developed quickly all over the world, especially in Japan. In this paper,it presents the cases of bridge projects with corrugated steel webs in foreign countries, such as France, Japan, Germany and Korea.%波形钢腹板桥是采用波形钢腹板代替传统的预应力混凝土箱梁中混凝土腹板的一种组合结构桥梁，其结构的主要特点是减轻主梁的自重，提高混凝土主梁的预应力效率，减少现场工作量，降低工程成本。

近年来，波形钢腹板桥梁在世界各国尤其在日本得到快速发展，该文介绍了波形钢腹板桥的技术特点，并介绍了国外，尤其是日本的波形钢腹板桥梁的工程实例，以供参考。

‘钢结构(中英文)“2020年总目次Total Contents of Steel Construction(Chinese&English)in2020题㊀目Title 作㊀者Author期-页No.-Page题㊀目Title作㊀者Author期-页No.-Page综述ReviewResearch Progress on Cold-Formed Steel Structural Framing㊀Xuhong Zhou1-1冷弯型钢结构研究进展周绪红Application of Steel-Concrete Composite Structure in Ocean Engineering Jianguo Nie1-20钢-混凝土组合结构在海洋工程中的应用研究㊀聂建国Historical and Technological Developments of Steel Bridgesin Japan A Review Yozo Fujino,et al1-34日本钢桥的历史和技术发展综述藤野陽三,等Review of the Promotion and Application of Steel Structuresin Construction Yinquan Yu,et al1-59钢结构建筑的推广与应用综述郁银泉,等开合屋盖结构与技术标准的新进展范㊀重,等2-29 New Progress in Retractable Roof Structures and Technical Standards Zhong Fan,et alSteel Modular Construction and Its Applicability to the Building Industry in China㊀Tharaka Gunawardena,et al2-66钢结构模块化施工及其在中国建筑业中的应用㊀Tharaka Gunawardena,et al高强钢材钢结构抗震研究进展综述尹㊀飞,等3-1 Overview of Research Progress for Seismic Behavior of HighStrength Steel Structures Fei Yin,et al双钢板混凝土组合结构抗冲击性能的研究进展㊀赵唯以,等 3-26Research Advances of Impact Resistance of Steel Concrete Composite Structures Weiyi Zhao,et al输电塔风致响应数值模拟研究进展吕洪坤,等4-1 Progress in Numerical Simulation Study of Wind Induced Response of Transmission Towers Hongkun Lyu,et al高强结构钢连接研究进展李国强6-1 Progress of Research on High-Strength Structural Steel Connections Guoqiang LiRecent Development and Engineering Practice of Spatial Structures in China Suduo Xue7-1中国空间结构的近期发展与工程实践薛素铎Seismic Isolation and Vibration Reduction System of Large-Span Spatial Structures A Review㊀Qinghua Han,et al7-17大跨空间结构隔震减振体系研究综述韩庆华,等科研Research Experimental Investigation on Damage Identification of Cable-Stayed Arch-Truss Structures Using Modal Parameters㊀Bin Zeng,et al1-70张弦拱桁架结构基于模态参数的损伤识别试验㊀曾㊀滨,等Model Test Research on Seismic Performance of the Long-Span Steel Structure C1of Beijing Daxing International Airport Terminal Ailin Zhang,et al2-1北京大兴国际机场航站楼大跨度钢结构C1区抗震性能模型试验研究张爱林,等直接分析法在连续倒塌中的应用丁智霞,等2-13 The Application of Direct Analysis Method in Progressive Collapse Zhixia Ding,et al轴心受压杆件的弯扭屈曲王立军3-37 Torsion and Flexure Buckling of Centrally Loaded Members㊀Lijun Wang钢吊车梁稳定设计的合理方法童根树3-59 Rational Design of Crane Runway Girders Genshu TongT形钢管混凝土截面在双向弯矩和轴力联合作用下的相互作用曲线童根树,等4-11 Interaction Curves for Concrete-Filled T-Shaped Multi-Celled Steel Tube Sections Under Combined Biaxial Bending and Axial Force Genshu Tong,et al波纹腹板组合梁抗火性能参数分析周焕廷,等4-19 Parametric Analysis for Fire Resistance of Composite Steel-Concrete Beams with Corrugated Webs Accounting㊀Huanting Zhou,et al阿基米德铺砌柱面互承构型的可行性判定㊀陆飞云,等4-28 Feasibility Determination of Reciprocal Configurations on Cylindrical Surface from Archimedean Pavings㊀Feiyun Lu,et al冷弯薄壁G形截面柱轴压承载力研究向㊀弋,等5-1 Axial Load Capacity of Cold-Formed Steel G-Section Columns Yi Xiang,et al直立锁边金属屋面系统风吸破坏机理研究㊀张士翔,等5-10 Investigation on Failure Mechanism of the Standing Seam Metal Roof System Shixiang Zhang,et al钢-混凝土组合扁梁受弯性能理论分析与试验㊀龚㊀超,等6-41ⅠTheoretical Analysis and Experimental Study on Bending Behavior of Steel-Concrete Composite Flat Beams㊀Chao Gong,et alStudy on the Fluid-Structure Interaction of ETFE Cushions Under Uniform Flow Field Xiaofeng Wang,et al7-29均匀流场作用下ETFE气枕的流固耦合分析㊀王晓峰,等Importance Evaluation for Cables in the Loop Free Suspen-Dome Based on an Improved Strain Energy Method㊀Xiongyan Li,et al7-43基于改进应变能法的无环索弦支穹顶拉索重要性评价㊀李雄彦,等国家速滑馆索网结构形态分析关键问题研究㊀白光波,等 7-54Key Issues in Cable Net Form-Finding of the National SpeedSkating Oval Guangbo Bai,et al配置可更换角钢连接构造的钢框架试验研究㊀陈以一,等 8-1Tests on Moment Resistant Frame Connection withReplaceable Angles Yiyi Chen,et al太子城站钛锌蜂窝板芯层结构高温加速老化试验研究㊀蒋鸿鹄,等 8-17Experimental Study on High Temperature Accelerated Aging of Titanium-Zinc Honeycomb Core in Taizicheng RailwayStation Honghu Jiang,et al基于塑性损伤模型的钢-UHPC组合梁抗弯性能分析㊀朱经纬,等 8-24Analysis of Flexural Behavior of Steel-UHPC Composite Girders Based on Plastic Damage Model㊀Jingwei Zhu,et al金属屋面铝板抗风性能数值模拟研究赖燕德,等9-10 Numerical Simulation Investigation on Wind Resistance Performance of the Metal Roof Aluminum Sheet㊀Yande Lai,et al两铰圆弧车辐钢拱平面内弹塑性稳定设计㊀窦㊀超,等 9-17In-Plane Elastic-Plastic Stability Design of Pin Ended Circular Spoke Arches Chao Dou,et al张弦结构健康监测传感器布置优化方法亓玉台,等10-29 Optimization Method of Sensor Arrangement for Health Monitoring of String Structure Yutai Qi,et al大跨度钢桁梁桥的斜拉法提载加固分析何滨池,等10-34 Analysis of Load-Bearing and Reinforcement of Long Span Steel Truss Bridge with Inclined Cable㊀Binchi He,et al两边连接钢板式交错桁架塑性设计方法研究㊀甘㊀丹,等 11-1Study on Plastic Design Method of Staggered Truss Structure with Two-Side Connecting Steel Plates Dan Gan,et al钢筋混凝土柱-交错桁架结构抗震性能分析㊀郑㊀琦,等11-25 Pushover Analysis on the Seismic Performance of RC Column-Staggered Truss Structure Qi Zheng,et al交错桁架体系RC柱与桁架连接节点受力性能分析㊀周㊀祥,等11-40 Analysis on the Mechanical Behavior of RC Column to Truss Joint in Staggered Truss System Xiang Zhou,et al交错桁架结构设计理论方法与装配式集成技术应用研究㊀李瑞锋,等11-55 Design Theory Method of Staggered Truss Structure and Research on Assembled Integration Technology Application Ruifeng Li,et al带开槽耗能板的自复位方钢管混凝土柱-钢梁节点抗震性能有限元分析贾子涵,等12-1 Finite Element Analysis of Seismic Behavior of Self-Centering Concrete-Filled Square Steel Tubular Column-Steel Beam Joint with Slotted Energy Dissipation Plate㊀Zihan Jia,et al高强钢组合偏心支撑框架抗震性能远程协同试验研究㊀高㊀乐,等12-8 Remote Collaborative Test on Seismic Behavior of High Strength Steel Composite Eccentrically Braced Steel Frames Le Gao,et al低屈服点钢材剪切型阻尼器试验研究尧祖成,等12-16 Experimental Research on Low-Yield-Point Steel Shear Dampers Zucheng Yao,et al波折钢板剪力墙内嵌墙板与框架的相互作用分析㊀窦㊀超,等12-22 Analysis of Interaction Between Infill Plate and Frame in Steel Corrugated Shear Walls Chao Dou,et al连梁耦联作用对联肢钢板剪力墙稳定与变形影响的分析㊀吴星煌,等12-29 The Influence of Coupling Action of Coupling Beam on Stability and Deformation of Coupled Steel Plate Shear Wall㊀Xinghuang Wu,et al基于耦联比的联肢钢板剪力墙滞回性能分析㊀吴博睿,等12-36 Research on Hysteretic Behaviour of Coupled Steel Plate Shear Wall Structures Based on Degree of Coupling㊀Borui Wu,et al单元式双钢板组合剪力墙抗侧性能影响因素分析㊀刘㊀栋,等12-43 Parametric Analyses on Lateral Performance About Modular Composite Shear Wall with Double Steel Plates and Infill Concrete Dong Liu,et al考虑相关稳定的非线性金属轴压柱承载力直接强度法㊀袁焕鑫,等12-50ⅡThe Direct Strength Method for Interactive Buckling Resistance of Axial Compression Members Made of Non-Linear Metallic Materials Huanxin Yuan,et al设计Design北京新机场航站楼屋顶钢结构抗震设计研究㊀梁宸宇,等 5-19Seismic Design and Research of Roof Steel Structure of Beijing New Airport Terminal Building㊀Chenyu Liang,et al圆形不锈钢管混凝土压弯承载力设计方法研究㊀Pantha Subhash,et al 5-27Research on Design Methods of Load-Carrying for Circular Concrete Filled Stainless Steel Tube Beam Columns㊀Subhash Pantha,et al江门中微子实验中心探测器主体结构方案研究㊀张高明,等 9-1Research on the Main Structure of the Central Detector of Jiangmen Underground Neutrino Observatory(JUNO)㊀Gaoming Zhang,et al标准与规范Standard and Specification关于新版国标GB/T1591 2018‘低合金高强度结构钢“应用中的注意事项柴㊀昶,等6-50 Some Issus on Application for New National Standard GB/T 1591 2018High Strength Low Alloy Structural Steel㊀Chang Chai,et al中美钢结构规范对比研究Comparison of Chinese and US Code轴心受压杆件设计王立军4-39 Design of Axial Compression Member Lijun Wang中美建筑钢结构设计方法比较 焊缝连接石永久5-34 Comparisons Between Chinese and American Standards on Welded Connection Design Yongjiu Shi受弯杆件设计王立军6-55 Design of Flexural Members Lijun Wang中美建筑钢结构设计方法比较 螺栓连接石永久8-33 Comparisons Between Chinese and American Standards onBolted Connection Design Yongjiu Shi中美建筑钢结构钢材性能对比分析㊀吴耀华 9-26Performance Comparison of Structural Steels in Chinese and American Standards Yaohua Wu加工制作Processing and Manufacturing大跨径钢混组合箱梁工厂化制造关键技术李义成9-44 The Key Technology for Factory-Production of Large-Span Steel-Concrete Box Girder Yicheng Li飞雁式异形钢箱拱制作线形控制关键技术研究㊀郭延飞,等10-43Analysis on Manufacturing Control of Flying Geese Shaped Steel Box Arch Yanfei Guo,et al施工技术Construction Technology杭州奥体中心亚运三馆体育游泳馆施工关键技术㊀周观根,等10-1Key Construction Technology for Gymnasium and Natatoriumof Hangzhou Olympic Sports Center㊀Guangen Zhou,et al杭州奥体中心亚运三馆体育游泳馆施工过程分析㊀游桂模,等10-9Analysis of Construction Process for Gymnasium and Natatorium of Hangzhou Olympic Sports Center㊀Guimo You,et al杭州奥体中心综合训练馆钢结构施工关键技术㊀何㊀伟,等10-15Key Technology of Steel Structure Construction of Comprehensive Training Hall of Hangzhou Olympic Sports Center㊀Wei He,et al大跨度马鞍形单层正交索网结构定长索施工设计与安装技术张晋勋,等10-22 Construction Design and Installation Technology of Fixed Length Cable for Large Span Saddle Shaped Single Layer Orthogonal Cable Net Structure Jinxun Zhang,et al钢结构热点探析Hot Spot Analysis of Steel Structures雨篷被雪压塌,你知道积雪漂移吗?侯㊀杰,等4-50泉州酒店坍塌的可能原因是什么?潘继文,等5-50翼缘和腹板宽厚比等级不一致,如何考虑截面塑性发展系数?邹安宇,等6-65单边连接单角钢的两个折减系数要同时考虑吗?㊀邹安宇7-62拉条怎样才能同时约束檩条上㊁下翼缘?邹安宇8-57多跑楼梯,荷载要乘以放大系数?邹安宇,等9-52顶层局部框架要算刚度比吗?邹安宇10-51何时计算双向地震作用?邹安宇12-58新闻㊃亮点㊃人物News㊃Highlights㊃Personages让大地不惧震动|我国著名结构工程专家:周绪红院士㊀杨颖芳6-67Make the Earth Not Fear Vibrations|Chinaᶄs Famous Structural Engineering Expert:Academician Xuhong Zhou㊀Yingfang YangⅢ。

国外建筑钢结构应用概况【摘要】国外建筑钢结构在近年来得到了快速发展，其应用范围逐渐扩大。

本文通过对国外建筑钢结构的发展历史、优势、设计原则、典型案例以及发展趋势进行分析和探讨，展现了该领域的研究现状和未来发展方向。

国外建筑钢结构的应用前景广阔，市场情况良好，未来发展方向主要集中在提高结构性能和减轻建筑负荷等方面。

随着科技的不断进步和设计技术的不断创新，国外建筑钢结构将在未来更加广泛地应用于高层建筑、桥梁和其他工程领域，为建筑行业带来更多的创新和发展机遇。

【关键词】钢结构、国外、建筑、应用概况、发展历史、优势、设计原则、典型案例、发展趋势、应用前景、市场情况、发展方向1. 引言1.1 国外建筑钢结构应用概况国外建筑钢结构是指建筑中采用钢材作为主要结构材料的建筑形式，其应用范围较广，包括高层建筑、桥梁、体育馆等各类建筑。

与传统混凝土结构相比，钢结构具有自重轻、施工快、可再利用等优势，因此在国外得到广泛应用。

随着科技的不断进步和全球化的发展，国外建筑钢结构领域也在不断创新和拓展。

通过引入先进的设计理念和技术手段，以及开展国际合作和交流，国外建筑钢结构不断提高设计水平和施工质量，为建筑行业带来新的发展机遇和挑战。

在未来，随着城市化进程的加快和人们对建筑质量和节能环保的要求不断提高，国外建筑钢结构将继续发挥重要作用，成为建筑领域的重要发展方向之一。

国外建筑钢结构也将面临更多的挑战和竞争，需要不断提高自身的设计水平和施工技术，以适应市场和社会的需求。

2. 正文2.1 钢结构在国外的发展历史钢结构在国外的发展历史可以追溯到19世纪。

最早的钢结构建筑可以追溯到美国的工业革命时期，当时工程师开始将钢材作为建筑材料使用。

随着钢铁生产技术的不断进步和工程设计理念的不断发展，钢结构在国外的应用逐渐增多。

20世纪初，美国和欧洲开始广泛应用钢结构建筑。

在第一次世界大战和第二次世界大战期间，由于战争的破坏，很多建筑被毁，这也催生了重建和发展钢结构建筑的需求。

桥梁工程中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)BRIDGE ENGINEERING AND AESTHETICSEvolvement of bridge Engineering,brief reviewAmong the early documented reviews of construction materials and structu re types are the books of Marcus Vitruvios Pollio in the first century B.C.The basic principles of statics were developed by the Greeks , and were exemplifi ed in works and applications by Leonardo da Vinci,Cardeno,and Galileo.In the fifteenth and sixteenth century, engineers seemed to be unaware of this record , and relied solely on experience and tradition for building bridges and aqueduc ts .The state of the art changed rapidly toward the end of the seventeenth cent ury when Leibnitz, Newton, and Bernoulli introduced mathematical formulatio ns. Published works by Lahire (1695)and Belidor (1792) about the theoretical a nalysis of structures provided the basis in the field of mechanics of materials .Kuzmanovic(1977) focuses on stone and wood as the first bridge-building materials. Iron was introduced during the transitional period from wood to steel .According to recent records , concrete was used in France as early as 1840 for a bridge 39 feet (12 m) long to span the Garoyne Canal at Grisoles, but r einforced concrete was not introduced in bridge construction until the beginnin g of this century . Prestressed concrete was first used in 1927.Stone bridges of the arch type (integrated superstructure and substructure) were constructed in Rome and other European cities in the middle ages . Thes e arches were half-circular , with flat arches beginning to dominate bridge wor k during the Renaissance period. This concept was markedly improved at the e nd of the eighteenth century and found structurally adequate to accommodate f uture railroad loads . In terms of analysis and use of materials , stone bridges have not changed much ,but the theoretical treatment was improved by introd ucing the pressure-line concept in the early 1670s(Lahire, 1695) . The arch the ory was documented in model tests where typical failure modes were considered (Frezier,1739).Culmann(1851) introduced the elastic center method for fixed-e nd arches, and showed that three redundant parameters can be found by the us e of three equations of coMPatibility.Wooden trusses were used in bridges during the sixteenth century when P alladio built triangular frames for bridge spans 10 feet long . This effort also f ocused on the three basic principles og bridge design : convenience(serviceabili ty) ,appearance , and endurance(strength) . several timber truss bridges were co nstructed in western Europe beginning in the 1750s with spans up to 200 feet (61m) supported on stone substructures .Significant progress was possible in t he United States and Russia during the nineteenth century ,prompted by the ne ed to cross major rivers and by an abundance of suitable timber . Favorable e conomic considerations included initial low cost and fast construction .The transition from wooden bridges to steel types probably did not begin until about 1840 ,although the first documented use of iron in bridges was the chain bridge built in 1734 across the Oder River in Prussia . The first truss completely made of iron was in 1840 in the United States , followed by Eng land in 1845 , Germany in 1853 , and Russia in 1857 . In 1840 , the first ir on arch truss bridge was built across the Erie Canal at Utica .The Impetus of AnalysisThe theory of structures ,developed mainly in the ninetheenth century,foc used on truss analysis, with the first book on bridges written in 1811. The Wa rren triangular truss was introduced in 1846 , supplemented by a method for c alculating the correcet forces .I-beams fabricated from plates became popular in England and were used in short-span bridges.In 1866, Culmann explained the principles of cantilever truss bridges, an d one year later the first cantilever bridge was built across the Main River in Hassfurt, Germany, with a center span of 425 feet (130m) . The first cantileve r bridge in the United States was built in 1875 across the Kentucky River.A most impressive railway cantilever bridge in the nineteenth century was the Fir st of Forth bridge , built between 1883 and 1893 , with span magnitudes of 1711 feet (521.5m).At about the same time , structural steel was introduced as a prime mater ial in bridge work , although its quality was often poor . Several early exampl es are the Eads bridge in St.Louis ; the Brooklyn bridge in New York ; and t he Glasgow bridge in Missouri , all completed between 1874 and 1883.Among the analytical and design progress to be mentioned are the contrib utions of Maxwell , particularly for certain statically indeterminate trusses ; the books by Cremona (1872) on graphical statics; the force method redefined by Mohr; and the works by Clapeyron who introduced the three-moment equation s.The Impetus of New MaterialsSince the beginning of the twentieth century , concrete has taken its place as one of the most useful and important structural materials . Because of the coMParative ease with which it can be molded into any desired shape , its st ructural uses are almost unlimited . Wherever Portland cement and suitable agg regates are available , it can replace other materials for certain types of structu res, such as bridge substructure and foundation elements .In addition , the introduction of reinforced concrete in multispan frames at the beginning of this century imposed new analytical requirements . Structures of a high order of redundancy could not be analyzed with the classical metho ds of the nineteenth century .The importance of joint rotation was already dem onstrated by Manderla (1880) and Bendixen (1914) , who developed relationshi ps between joint moments and angular rotations from which the unknown mom ents can be obtained ,the so called slope-deflection method .More simplification s in frame analysis were made possible by the work of Calisev (1923) , who used successive approximations to reduce the system of equations to one simpl e expression for each iteration step . This approach was further refined and int egrated by Cross (1930) in what is known as the method of moment distributi on .One of the most import important recent developments in the area of analytical procedures is the extension of design to cover the elastic-plastic range , also known as load factor or ultimate design. Plastic analysis was introduced with some practical observations by Tresca (1846) ; and was formulated by Sa int-Venant (1870) , The concept of plasticity attracted researchers and engineers after World War Ⅰ, mainly in Germany , with the center of activity shifting to England and the United States after World War Ⅱ.The probabilistic approa ch is a new design concept that is expected to replace the classical determinist ic methodology.A main step forward was the 1969 addition of the Federal Highway Adim inistration (F HWA)”Criteria for Reinforced Concrete Bridge Members “ that co vers strength and serviceability at ultimate design . This was prepared for use in conjunction with the 1969 American Association of State Highway Offficials (AASHO) Standard Specification, and was presented in a format that is readil y adaptable to the development of ultimate design specifications .According to this document , the proportioning of reinforced concrete members ( including c olumns ) may be limited by various stages of behavior : elastic , cracked , an d ultimate . Design axial loads , or design shears . Structural capacity is the r eaction phase , and all calculated modified strength values derived from theoret ical strengths are the capacity values , such as moment capacity ,axial load ca pacity ,or shear capacity .At serviceability states , investigations may also be n ecessary for deflections , maximum crack width , and fatigue .Bridge TypesA notable bridge type is the suspension bridge , with the first example bu ilt in the United States in 1796. Problems of dynamic stability were investigate d after the Tacoma bridge collapse , and this work led to significant theoretica l contributions Steinman ( 1929 ) summarizes about 250 suspension bridges bu ilt throughout the world between 1741 and 1928 .With the introduction of the interstate system and the need to provide stru ctures at grade separations , certain bridge types have taken a strong place in bridge practice. These include concrete superstructures (slab ,T-beams,concrete box girders ), steel beam and plate girders , steel box girders , composite const ruction , orthotropic plates , segmental construction , curved girders ,and cable-stayed bridges . Prefabricated members are given serious consideration , while interest in box sections remains strong .Bridge Appearance and AestheticsGrimm ( 1975 ) documents the first recorded legislative effort to control t he appearance of the built environment . This occurred in 1647 when the Cou ncil of New Amsterdam appointed three officials . In 1954 , the Supreme Cou rt of the United States held that it is within the power of the legislature to de termine that communities should be attractive as well as healthy , spacious as well as clean , and balanced as well as patrolled . The Environmental Policy Act of 1969 directs all agencies of the federal government to identify and dev elop methods and procedures to ensure that presently unquantified environmenta l amentities and values are given appropriate consideration in decision making along with economic and technical aspects .Although in many civil engineering works aesthetics has been practiced al most intuitively , particularly in the past , bridge engineers have not ignored o r neglected the aesthetic disciplines .Recent research on the subject appears to lead to a rationalized aesthetic design methodology (Grimm and Preiser , 1976 ) .Work has been done on the aesthetics of color ,light ,texture , shape , and proportions , as well as other perceptual modalities , and this direction is bot h theoretically and empirically oriented .Aesthetic control mechanisms are commonly integrated into the land-use re gulations and design standards . In addition to concern for aesthetics at the sta te level , federal concern focuses also on the effects of man-constructed enviro nment on human life , with guidelines and criteria directed toward improving quality and appearance in the design process . Good potential for the upgradin g of aesthetic quality in bridge superstructures and substructures can be seen in the evaluation structure types aimed at improving overall appearance .Lords and lording groupsThe loads to be considered in the design of substructures and bridge foun dations include loads and forces transmitted from the superstructure, and those acting directly on the substructure and foundation .AASHTO loads . Section 3 of AASHTO specifications summarizes the loa ds and forces to be considered in the design of bridges (superstructure and sub structure ) . Briefly , these are dead load ,live load , iMPact or dynamic effec t of live load , wind load , and other forces such as longitudinal forces , cent rifugal force ,thermal forces , earth pressure , buoyancy , shrinkage and long t erm creep , rib shortening , erection stresses , ice and current pressure , collisi on force , and earthquake stresses .Besides these conventional loads that are ge nerally quantified , AASHTO also recognizes indirect load effects such as fricti on at expansion bearings and stresses associated with differential settlement of bridge components .The LRFD specifications divide loads into two distinct cate gories : permanent and transient .Permanent loadsDead Load : this includes the weight DC of all bridge components , appu rtenances and utilities, wearing surface DW nd future overlays , and earth fill EV. Both AASHTO and LRFD specifications give tables summarizing the unit weights of materials commonly used in bridge work .Transient LoadsVehicular Live Load (LL) Vehicle loading for short-span bridges :considera ble effort has been made in the United States and Canada to develop a live lo ad model that can represent the highway loading more realistically than the H or the HS AASHTO models . The current AASHTO model is still the applica ble loading.桥梁工程和桥梁美学桥梁工程的发展概况早在公元前1世纪，Marcus Vitrucios Pollio 的著作中就有关于建筑材料和结构类型的记载和评述。

中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)Recent Research and Design Developments in Steel and Composite Steel-concrete Structures in USAThe paper will conclude with a look toward the future of structural steel research.1. Research on steel bridgesThe American Association of State Transportation and Highway Officials (AASTHO) is the authority that promulgates design standards for bridges in the US. In 1994 it has issued a new design specification which is a Limit States Design standard that is based on the principles of reliability theory. A great deal of work went into the development of this code in the past decade, especially on calibration and on the probabilistic evaluation of the previous specification. The code is now being implemented in the design office, together with the introduction of the SystemeInternationale units. Many questions remain open about the new method of design, and there are many new projects that deal with the reliability studies of the bridge as a system. One such current project is a study to develop probabilistic models, load factors, and rational load-combination rules for the combined effects of live-load and wind; live-load and earthquake; live-load, wind and ship collision; and ship collision, wind, and scour. There are also many field measurements of bridge behavior, using modern tools of inspection and monitoring such as acoustic emission techniques and other means of non-destructive evaluation. Such fieldwork necessitates parallel studies in the laboratory, and the evolution of ever more sophisticated high-technology data transmission methods.America has an aging steel bridge population and many problems arise from fatigue and corrosion. Fatigue studies on full-scale components of the Williamsburg Bridge in New York have recently been completed at Lehigh University. A probabilistic AASTHO bridge evaluation regulation has been in effect since 1989, and it is employed to assess the future useful life of structures using rational methods that include field observation and measurement together with probabilistic analysis. Such an activity also fosters additional research because many issues are still unresolved. One such area is the study of the shakedown of shear connectors in composite bridges. This work has been recently completed at the University of Missouri.In addition to fatigue and corrosion, the major danger to bridges is the possibility of earthquake induced damage. This also has spawned many research projects on the repair and retrofit of steel superstructures and the supporting concrete piers. Many bridges in the country are being strengthened for earthquake resistance. One area that is receiving much research attention is the strengthening of concrete piers by "jacketing" them by sheets of high-performance reinforced plastic.The previously described research deals mainly with the behavior of existing structures and the design of new bridges. However, there is also a vigorous activity on novel bridge systems. This research is centered on the application of high-performance steels for the design of innovative plate and box-girder bridges, such as corrugated webs, combinations of open and closed shapes, and longer spansfor truss bridges. It should be mentioned here that, in addition to work on steel bridges, there is also very active research going on in the study of the behavior of prestressed concrete girders made from very high strength concrete. The performance and design of smaller bridges using pultruded high-performance plastic composite members is also being studied extensively at present. New continuous bridge systems with steel concrete composite segments in both the positive moment and the negative moment regions are being considered. Several researchers have developed strong capabilities to model the three-dimensional non-linear behavior of individual plate girders, and many studies are being performed on the buckling and post-buckling characteristics of such panion experimental studies are also made,especially on members built from high-performance steels. A full-scale bridge of such steel has been designed, and will soon be constructed and then tested under traffic loading. Research efforts are also underway on the study of the fatigue of large expansion joint elements and on the fatigue of highway sign structures.The final subject to be mentioned is the resurgence of studies of composite steel concrete horizontally curved steel girder bridges. A just completed project at the University of Minnesota monitored the stresses and the deflections in a skewed and curved bridge during all phases of construction, starting from the fabrication yard to the completed bridge.~ Excellent correlation was found to exist between the measured stresses and deformations and the calculated values. The stresses and deflections during construction were found to be relatively small, that is, the construction process did not cause severe trauma to the system. The bridge has now been tested under service loading, using fully loaded gravel trucks, for two years, and it will continue to be studied for further years to measure changes in performance under service over time. A major testing project is being conducted at the Federal Highway Administration laboratory in Washington, DC, where a half-scale curved composite girder bridge is currently being tested to determine its limit states. The test-bridge was designed to act as its own test-frame, where various portions can be replaced after testing. Multiple flexure tests, shear tests, and tests under combined bending and shear, are thus performed with realistic end-conditions and restraints. The experiments arealso modeled by finite element analysis to check conformance between reality and prediction. Finally design standards will be evolved from the knowledge gained. This last project is the largest bridge research project in the USA at the present time.From the discussion above it can be seen that even though there is no large expansion of the nation's highway and railroad system, there is extensive work going on in bridge research. The major challenge facing both the researcher and the transportation engineer is the maintenance of a healthy but aging system, seeing to its gradual replacement while keeping it safe and serviceable.2. Research on steel members and framesThere are many research studies on the strength and behavior of steel building structures. The most important of these have to do with the behavior and design of steel structures under severe seismic events. This topic will be discussed later in this paper. The most significant trends of the non-seismic research are the following: "Advanced" methods of structural analysis and design are actively studied at many Universities, notably at Cornell, Purdue, Stanford, and Georgia Tech Universities. Such analysis methods are meant to determine the load-deformation behavior of frames up to and beyond failure, including inelastic behavior, force redistribution, plastic hinge formation, second-order effects and frame instability. When these methods are fully operational, the structure will not have to undergo a member check, because the finite element analysis of the frame automatically performs this job. In addition to the research on the best approaches to do this advanced analysis, there are also many studies on simplifications that can be easily utilized in the design office while still maintaining the advantages of a more complex analysis. The advanced analysis method is well developed for in-plane behavior, but much work is yet to be done on the cases where bi-axial bending or lateraltorsional buckling must be considered. Some successes have been achieved, but the research is far from complete.Another aspect of the frame behavior work is the study of the frames with semirigid joints. The American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) has published design methods for office use. Current research is concentrating on the behavior ofsuch structures under seismic loading. It appears that it is possible to use such frames in some seismic situations, that is, frames under about 8 to 10 stories in height under moderate earthquake loads. The future of structures with semi-rigid frames looks very promising, mainly because of the efforts of researchers such as Leon at Georgia Tech University, and many others.Research on member behavior is concerned with studying the buckling and post buckling behavior of compact angle and wide-flange beam members by advanced commercial finite element programs. Such research is going back to examine the assumptions made in the 1950s and 1960s when the plastic design compactness and bracing requirements were first formulated on a semi-empirical basis. The non-linear finite element computations permit the "re-testing" of the old experiments and the performing of new computer experiments to study new types of members and new types of steels. White of Georgia Tech is one of the pioneers in this work. Some current research at the US military Academy and at the University of Minnesota by Earls is discussed later in this report. The significance of this type of research is that the phenomena of extreme yielding and distortion can be efficiently examined in parameter studies performed on the computer. The computer results can be verified with old experiments, or a small number of new experiments. These studies show a good prospect fornew insights into old problems that heretofore were never fully solved.3. Research on cold-formed steel structuresNext to seismic work, the most active part of research in the US is on cold-formed steel structures. The reason for this is that the supporting industry is expanding, especially in the area of individual family dwellings. As the cost of wood goes up, steel framed houses become more and more economical. The intellectual problems of thin-walled structures buckling in multiple modes under very large deformations have attracted some of the best minds in stability research. As a consequence, many new problems have been solved: complex member stiffening systems, stability and bracing of C and Z beams, composite slabs, perforated columns, standing-seam roof systems, bracing and stability of beams with very complicatedshapes, cold-formed members with steels of high yield stress-to-tensile strength ratio, and many other interesting applications. The American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) has issued a new expanded standard in 1996 that brought many of these research results into the hands of the designer.4. Research on steel-concrete composite structuresAlmost all structural steel bridges and buildings in the US are built with composite beams or girders. In contrast, very few columns are built as composite members. The area of composite Column research is very active presently to fill up the gap of technical information on the behavior of such members. The subject of steel tubes filled with high-strength concrete is especially active. One of the aims of research performed by Hajjar at the University of Minnesota is to develop a fundamental understanding of the various interacting phenomena that occur in concrete-filled columns and beam-columns under monotonic and cyclic load. The other aim is to obtain a basic understanding of the behavior of connections of wide-flange beams to concrete filled tubes.Other major research work concerns the behavior and design of built-up composite wide-flange bridge girders under both positive and negative bending. This work is performed by Frank at the University of Texas at Austin and by White of Georgia Tech, and it involves extensive studies of the buckling and post-buckling of thin stiffened webs. Already mentioned is the examination of the shakedown of composite bridges. The question to be answered is whether a composite bridge girder loses composite action under repeated cycles of loads which are greater than the elastic limit load and less than the plastic mechanism load. A new study has been initiated at the University of Minnesota on the interaction between a semi-rigid steel frame system and a concrete shear wall connected by stud shear connectors.5. Research on connectionsConnection research continues to interest researchers because of the great variety of joint types. The majority of the connection work is currently related to the seismic problems that will be discussed in the next section of this paper. The most interest in non-seismic connections is the characterization of the monotonic moment-rotationbehavior of various types of semi-rigid joints.6. Research on structures and connections subject to seismic forcesThe most compelling driving force for the present structural steel research effort in the US was the January 17, 1994 earthquake in Northridge, California, North of Los Angeles. The major problem for steel structures was the extensive failure of prequalified welded rigid joints by brittle fracture. In over 150 buildings of one to 26 stories high there were over a thousand fractured joints. The buildings did not collapse, nor did they show any external signs of distress, and there were no human injuries or deaths. A typical joint is shown in Fig. 2.2.1.In this connection the flanges of the beams are welded to the flanges of the column by full-penetration butt welds. The webs are bolted to the beams and welded to the columns. The characteristic features of this type of connection are the backing bars at the bottom of the beam flange, and the cope-holes left open to facilitate the field welding of the beam flanges. Fractures occurred in the welds, in the beam flanges, and/or in the column flanges, sometimes penetrating into the webs.Once the problem was discovered several large research projects were initiated at various university laboratories, such as The University of California at San Diego, the University of Washington in Seattle, the University of Texas at Austin, Lehigh University at Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, and at other places. The US Government under the leadership of the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) instituted a major national research effort. The needed work was deemed so extensivethat no single research agency could hope to cope with it. Consequently three California groups formed a consortium which manages the work:(1) Structural Engineering Association of California.(2) Applied Technology Council.(3) California Universities for Research in Earthquake Engineering.The first letters in the name of each agency were combined to form the acronym SAC, which is the name of the joint venture that manages the research. We shall read much from this agency as the results of the massive amounts of research performed under its aegis are being published in the next few years.The goals of the program are to develop reliable, practical and cost-effective guidelines for the identification and inspection of at-risk steel moment frame buildings, the repair or upgrading of damaged buildings, the design of new construction, and the rehabilitation of undamaged buildings.~ As can be seen, the scope far exceeds the narrow look at the connections only. The first phase of the research was completed at the end of 1996, and its main aim was to arrive at interim guidelines so that design work could proceed. It consisted of the following components:~ A state-of-the-art assessment of knowledge on steel connections.~ A survey of building damage.~ The evaluation of ground motion.~ Detailed building analyses and case studies.~ A preliminary experimental program.~ Professional training and quality assurance programs.~ Publishing of the Interim Design Guidelines.A number of reports were issued in this first phase of the work. A partial list of these is appended at the end of this paper.During the first phase of the SAC project a series of full-scale connection tests under static and, occasionally, dynamic cyclic tests were performed. Tests were of pre-Northridge-type connections (that is, connections as they existed at the time of the earthquake), of repaired and upgraded details, and of new recommendedconnection details. A schematic view of the testing program is illustrated in Fig.2.2.2 Some recommended strategies for new design are schematically shown in Fig. 2.2.3.Fig. 2.2.3 some recommended improvements in the interim guidelinesThe following possible causes, and their combinations, were found to have contributed to tile connection failures:~ Inadequate workmanship in the field welds.~ Insufficient notch-toughness of the weld metal.~ Stress raisers caused by the backing bars.~ Lack of complete fusion near the backing bar.~ Weld bead sizes were too big.~ Slag inclusion in the welds.While many of the failures can be directly attributed to the welding and thematerial of the joints, there are more serious questions relative to the structural system that had evolved over the years mainly based on economic considerations.' The structural system used relatively few rigid-frames of heavy members that were designed to absorb the seismic forces for large parts of the structure. These few lateral-force resistant frames provide insufficient redundancy. More rigid-frames with smaller members could have provided a tougher and more ductile structural system. There is a question of size effect: Test results from joints of smaller members were extrapolated to joints with larger members without adequate test verification. The effect of a large initial pulse may have triggered dynamic forces that could have caused brittle fracture in joints with fracture critical details and materials. Furthermore, the yield stress of the beams was about 30% to 40% larger than the minimum specified values assumed in design, and so the connection failed before the beams, which were supposed to form plastic hinges.As can be seen, there are many possible reasons for this massive failure rate, and there is blame to go around for everyone. No doubt, the discussion about why and how the joints failed will go on for many more years. The structural system just did not measure up to demands that were more severe than expected. What should be kept in mind, however, is that no structure collapsed or caused even superficial nonstructural damage, and no person was injured or killed. In the strictest sense the structure sacrificed itself so that no physical harm was done to its users. The economic harm, of course, was enormous.7. Future directions of structural steel research and conclusionThe future holds many challenges for structural steel research. The ongoing work necessitated by the two recent earthquakes that most affected conventional design methods, namely, the Northridge earthquake in the US and the Kobe earthquake in Japan, will continue well into the first decade of the next Century. It is very likely that future disasters of this type will bring yet other problems to the steel research community. There is a profound change in the philosophy of design for disasters: We can no longer be content with saving lives only, but we must also design structures which will not be so damaged as to require extensive repairs.Another major challenge will be the emergence of many new materials such as high-performance concrete and plastic composite structures. Steel structures will continually have to face the problem of having to demonstrate viability in the marketplace. This can only be accomplished by more innovative research. Furthermore, the new comprehensive limit-states design codes which are being implemented worldwide, need research to back up the assumptions used in the theories.Specifically, the following list highlights some of the needed research in steel structures:Systems reliability tools have been developed to a high degree of sophistication. These tools should be applied to the studies of bridge and building structures to define the optimal locations of monitoring instruments, to assess the condition and the remaining life of structures, and to intelligently design economic repair and retrofit operations.New developments in instrumentation, data transfer and large-scale computation will enable researchers to know more about the response of structures under severe actions, so that a better understanding of "real-life" behavior can be achieved.The state of knowledge about the strength of structures is well above the knowledge about serviceability and durability. Research is needed on detecting and preventing damage in service and from deterioration.The areas of fatigue and fracture mechanics on the one hand, and the fields of structural stability on the other hand, should converge into a more Unified conceptual entity.The problems resulting from the combination of inelastic stability and low-cycle fatigue in connections subject to severe cyclic loads due to seismic action will need to be solved.The performance of members, connections and connectors (e.g., shear connectors) under severe cyclic and dynamic loading requires extensive new research, including shakedown behavior.The list could go on, but one should never be too dogmatic about the future ofsuch a highly creative activity as research. Nature, society and economics will provide sufficient challenges for the future generation of structural engineers.近期美国在钢结构和钢筋混凝土结构研究和设计方面的发展这篇文章将总结对钢结构的研究展望.1.钢结构桥梁的研究美国国家运输和公路官员协会(AASTH0)是为美国桥梁发布设计标准的权威。