计算机图形学第6章课后习题参考答案

第一章测试1.计算机图形学产生图形，计算机图像学产生图像。

（）A:对B:错答案:B2.下列哪项不属于计算机图形学的应用领域？（）A:虚拟现实B:游戏实时显示C:科学计算可视化D:计算机辅助设计E:数字电影制作F:识别图片中的动物答案:F3.本课程将讲不讲解以下哪个内容？（）A:动画生成B:真实感图像生成C:曲线生成D:游戏制作答案:D4.使用OPENGL画带颜色的直线，需要调用不同的函数，分别指定颜色和起始点坐标。

（）A:错B:对答案:B5.在OPENGL中定义的结点仅包含位置信息。

（）A:对B:错答案:B第二章测试1.四面体的表面建模中，可用四个三角形来描述四面体的表面，每个三角形包含三个点，因此，四面体中点的总个数为（）。

A:12B:6C:4D:9答案:C2.三次BEZIER曲线有几个控制点？（）A:3B:5C:4D:6答案:C3.三次BEZIER曲线经过几个控制点？（）A:3B:4C:2D:1答案:C4.不经过Y轴的斜线绕Y轴旋转得到的曲面是（）A:半球面B:球面C:柱面D:圆台面答案:B5.BEZIER曲线上的所有点都是由控制点经过插值得到的。

（）A:错B:对答案:A第三章测试1.通过变换可以将单位圆变成长半轴2短轴0.5的椭圆，具体实施步骤是（）。

A:水平方向做平移变换，竖值方向做平移变换B:水平方向做拉伸变换，竖值方向做平移变换C:水平方向做收缩变换，竖值方向做拉伸变换D:水平方向做拉伸变换，竖值方向做收缩变换答案:B2.变换前后二线夹角保持不变的保角变换有（）A:镜像B:旋转C:平移D:缩放答案:D3.水平方向的剪切变换，如果表达为x’=ax+by y’=c x+dy,则有（）。

A:b=1,c=1,d=0B:a=0,b=1,c=1C:a=1,b=0,d=1D:a=1,c=0,d=1答案:D4.正交变换不包括（）。

A:剪切B:镜像C:旋转D:平移答案:A5.变换的复合运算不满足交换律。

习题参考答案6.1交互式绘图系统基本的交互任务有哪些？答：1定位，2笔画，3定值，4选择，5拾取，6字符串，7三维交互。

6.2编写程序实现橡皮筋技术画直线和圆。

答：思想：首先将绘图模式设定为异或。

画直线时，点击鼠标左键，光标所在位置即为直线的起点，用鼠标牵引光标移动，当前光标所在位置即认为是直线的终点。

光标从原位置移动到新位置时，首先在起点与原位置之间画一条直线，因为是异或模式，原有直线变为不可见，然后再在起点与新位置之间画一条直线，作为当前直线。

画圆时，点击鼠标左键，光标所在位置即为圆的圆心，用鼠标牵引光标移动，当前光标所在位置与圆心的距离即被认为是圆的半径。

当鼠标牵引光标从原位置移动到新位置时，首先在以圆心与原位置的距离为半径画圆，因为是异或模式，原有的圆变为不可见，然后再以圆点与新位置的距离为半径画圆，作为当前圆。

6.3引力场是人机交互中的常见的辅助技术，它能给用户带来什么便利？设计人员在设计引力场的时候需要注意什么问题？答：用户用光标进行选图操作时，引力场的使用可使光标较容易地定位在选择区域小的图形上。

设计人员在设计引力场时，引力场的大小要适中，外形应与其所含图形的外形一致。

6.4图形模式和图像模式下，拖拽的处理方法有什么不同？答：图形模式下的拖拽是在异或的绘图模式下进行的。

首先在原位置再次绘制要拖拽图形，由于自身异或的结果为空，原位置处的图形变为不可见，然后在新位置处绘制图形，实现了图形的拖拽。

而图像模式下的拖拽，则是进行了图像的整体移动，即首先在要经过位置处按拖动图像大小保存原有屏幕图像，然后将拖动的图像整体移动到该位置，当图像离开该位置而移动到下一个新位置时，再恢复该位置保存的屏幕图像。

图形模式不需要保存屏幕图像，只需在原位置重绘图形。

图像模式需要保存图像经过处的屏幕图像，并在移开后重新显示保存的屏幕图像。

6.5请叙述三种输入控制模式的流程。

答：请求模式下，用户在接收到应用程序请求后才输入数据；应用程序等待用户输入数据，输入结束，才进行处理。

第一章1、试述计算机图形学研究的基本内容？答：见课本P5-6页的1.1.4节。

2、计算机图形学、图形处理与模式识别本质区别是什么？请各举一例说明。

答：计算机图形学是研究根据给定的描述，用计算机生成相应的图形、图像，且所生成的图形、图像可以显示屏幕上、硬拷贝输出或作为数据集存在计算机中的学科。

计算机图形学研究的是从数据描述到图形生成的过程。

例如计算机动画制作。

图形处理是利用计算机对原来存在物体的映像进行分析处理，然后再现图像。

例如工业中的射线探伤。

模式识别是指计算机对图形信息进行识别和分析描述，是从图形（图像）到描述的表达过程。

例如邮件分捡设备扫描信件上手写的邮政编码，并将编码用图像复原成数字。

3、计算机图形学与CAD、CAM技术关系如何？答：见课本P4-5页的1.1.3节。

4、举3个例子说明计算机图形学的应用。

答：①事务管理中的交互绘图应用图形学最多的领域之一是绘制事务管理中的各种图形。

通过从简明的形式呈现出数据的模型和趋势以增加对复杂现象的理解，并促使决策的制定。

②地理信息系统地理信息系统是建立在地理图形基础上的信息管理系统。

利用计算机图形生成技术可以绘制地理的、地质的以及其它自然现象的高精度勘探、测量图形。

③计算机动画用图形学的方法产生动画片，其形象逼真、生动，轻而易举地解决了人工绘图时难以解决的问题，大大提高了工作效率。

5、计算机绘图有哪些特点？答：见课本P8页的1.3.1节。

6、计算机生成图形的方法有哪些？答：计算机生成图形的方法有两种：矢量法和描点法。

①矢量法：在显示屏上先给定一系列坐标点，然后控制电子束在屏幕上按一定的顺序扫描，逐个“点亮”临近两点间的短矢量，从而得到一条近似的曲线。

尽管显示器产生的只是一些短直线的线段，但当直线段很短时，连成的曲线看起来还是光滑的。

②描点法：把显示屏幕分成有限个可发亮的离散点，每个离散点叫做一个像素，屏幕上由像素点组成的阵列称为光栅，曲线的绘制过程就是将该曲线在光栅上经过的那些像素点串接起来，使它们发亮，所显示的每一曲线都是由一定大小的像素点组成的。

Angel: Interactive Computer Graphics, Fifth Edition Chapter 1 Solutions1.1 The main advantage of the pipeline is that each primitive can be processed independently. Not only does this architecture lead to fast performance, it reduces memory requirements because we need not keep all objects available. The main disadvantage is that we cannot handle most global effects such as shadows, reflections, and blending in a physically correct manner.1.3 We derive this algorithm later in Chapter 6. First, we can form the tetrahedron by finding four equally spaced points on a unit sphere centered at the origin. One approach is to start with one point on the z axis(0, 0, 1). We then can place the other three points in a plane of constant z. One of these three points can be placed on the y axis. To satisfy the requirement that the points be equidistant, the point must be at(0, 2p2/3,−1/3). The other two can be found by symmetry to be at(−p6/3,−p2/3,−1/3) and (p6/3,−p2/3,−1/3).We can subdivide each face of the tetrahedron into four equilateral triangles by bisecting the sides and connecting the bisectors. However, the bisectors of the sides are not on the unit circle so we must push thesepoints out to the unit circle by scaling the values. We can continue this process recursively on each of the triangles created by the bisection process.1.5 In Exercise 1.4, we saw that we could intersect the line of which theline segment is part independently against each of the sides of the window. We could do this process iteratively, each time shortening the line segment if it intersects one side of the window.1.7 In a one–point perspective, two faces of the cube is parallel to the projection plane, while in a two–point perspective only the edges of the cube in one direction are parallel to the projection. In the general case of a three–point perspective there are three vanishing points and none of the edges of the cube are parallel to the projection plane.1.9 Each frame for a 480 x 640 pixel video display contains only about300k pixels whereas the 2000 x 3000 pixel movie frame has 6M pixels, or about 18 times as many as the video display. Thus, it can take 18 times asmuch time to render each frame if there is a lot of pixel-level calculations.1.11 There are single beam CRTs. One scheme is to arrange the phosphors in vertical stripes (red, green, blue, red, green, ....). The major difficulty is that the beam must change very rapidly, approximately three times as fast a each beam in a three beam system. The electronics in such a system the electronic components must also be much faster (and more expensive). Chapter 2 Solutions2.9 We can solve this problem separately in the x and y directions. The transformation is linear, that is xs = ax + b, ys = cy + d. We must maintain proportions, so that xs in the same relative position in the viewport as x is in the window, hencex − xminxmax − xmin=xs − uw,xs = u + wx − xminxmax − xmin.Likewiseys = v + hx − xminymax − ymin.2.11 Most practical tests work on a line by line basis. Usually we use scanlines, each of which corresponds to a row of pixels in the frame buffer. If we compute the intersections of the edges of the polygon with a line passing through it, these intersections can be ordered. The first intersection begins a set of points inside the polygon. The second intersection leaves the polygon, the third reenters and so on.2.13 There are two fundamental approaches: vertex lists and edge lists. With vertex lists we store the vertex locations in an array. The mesh is represented as a list of interior polygons (those polygons with no otherpolygons inside them). Each interior polygon is represented as an array of pointers into the vertex array. To draw the mesh, we traverse the list of interior polygons, drawing each polygon.One disadvantage of the vertex list is that if we wish to draw the edges inthe mesh, by rendering each polygon shared edges are drawn twice. Wecan avoid this problem by forming an edge list or edge array, each elementis a pair of pointers to vertices in the vertex array. Thus, we can draw each edge once by simply traversing the edge list. However, the simple edge list has no information on polygons and thus if we want to render the mesh in some other way such as by filling interior polygons we must add somethingto this data structure that gives information as to which edges form each polygon.A flexible mesh representation would consist of an edge list, a vertex listand a polygon list with pointers so we could know which edges belong to which polygons and which polygons share a given vertex.2.15 The Maxwell triangle corresponds to the triangle that connects thered, green, and blue vertices in the color cube.2.19 Consider the lines defined by the sides of the polygon. We can assigna direction for each of these lines by traversing the vertices in acounter-clockwise order. One very simple test is obtained by noting thatany point inside the object is on the left of each of these lines. Thus, if we substitute the point into the equation for each of the lines (ax+by+c), we should always get the same sign.2.23 There are eight vertices and thus 256 = 28 possible black/white colorings. If we remove symmetries (black/white and rotational) there are14 unique cases. See Angel, Interactive Computer Graphics (Third Edition) or the paper by Lorensen and Kline in the references.Chapter 3 Solutions3.1 The general problem is how to describe a set of characters that might have thickness, curvature, and holes (such as in the letters a and q). Suppose that we consider a simple example where each character can be approximated by a sequence of line segments. One possibility is to use a move/line system where 0 is a move and 1 a line. Then a character can be described by a sequence of the form (x0, y0, b0), (x1, y1, b1), (x2, y2, b2), .....where bi is a 0 or 1. This approach is used in the example in the OpenGL Programming Guide. A more elaborate font can be developed by using polygons instead of line segments.3.11 There are a couple of potential problems. One is that the application program can map different points in object coordinates to the same point in screen coordinates. Second, a given position on the screen when transformed back into object coordinates may lie outside the user’s window.3.19 Each scan is allocated 1/60 second. For a given scan we have to take 10% of the time for the vertical retrace which means that we start to draw scan line n at .9n/(60*1024) seconds from the beginning of the refresh. But allocating 10% of this time for the horizontal retrace we are at pixel m on this line at time .81nm/(60*1024).3.25 When the display is changing, primitives that move or are removed from the display will leave a trace or motion blur on the display as the phosphors persist. Long persistence phosphors have been used in text only displays where motion blur is less of a problem and the long persistence gives a very stable flicker-free image.Chapter 4 Solutions4.1 If the scaling matrix is uniform thenRS = RS(α, α, α) = αR = SRConsider R x(θ), if we multiply and use the standard trigonometric identities for the sine and cosine of the sum of two angles, we findR x(θ)R x(φ) = R x(θ + φ)By simply multiplying the matrices we findT(x1, y1, z1)T(x2, y2, z2) = T(x1 + x2, y1 + y2, z1 + z2)4.5 There are 12 degrees of freedom in the three–dimensional affine transformation. Consider a point p = [x, y, z, 1]T that is transformed top_ = [x_y_, z_, 1]T by the matrix M. Hence we have the relationshipp_ = Mp where M has 12 unknown coefficients but p and p_ are known. Thus we have 3 equations in 12 unknowns (the fourth equation is simplythe identity 1=1). If we have 4 such pairs of points we will have 12equations in 12 unknowns which could be solved for the elements of M.Thus if we know how a quadrilateral is transformed we can determine theaffine transformation.In two dimensions, there are 6 degrees of freedom in M but p and p_ haveonly x and y components. Hence if we know 3 points both before and after transformation, we will have 6 equations in 6 unknowns and thus in two dimensions if we know how a triangle is transformed we can determine theaffine transformation.4.7 It is easy to show by simply multiplying the matrices that theconcatenation of two rotations yields a rotation and that the concatenationof two translations yields a translation. If we look at the product of arotation and a translation, we find that the left three columns of RT arethe left three columns of R and the right column of RT is the rightcolumn of the translation matrix. If we now consider RTR_ where R_ is arotation matrix, the left three columns are exactly the same as the leftthree columns of RR_ and the and right column still has 1 as its bottomelement. Thus, the form is the same as RT with an altered rotation (whichis the concatenation of the two rotations) and an altered translation.Inductively, we can see that any further concatenations with rotations and translations do not alter this form.4.9 If we do a translation by -h we convert the problem to reflection abouta line passing through the origin. From m we can find an angle by whichwe can rotate so the line is aligned with either the x or y axis. Now reflectabout the x or y axis. Finally we undo the rotation and translation so the sequence is of the form T−1R−1SRT.4.11 The most sensible place to put the shear is second so that the instance transformation becomes I = TRHS. We can see that this order makessense if we consider a cube centered at the origin whose sides are alignedwith the axes. The scale gives us the desired size and proportions. Theshear then converts the right parallelepiped to a general parallelepiped.Finally we can orient this parallelepiped with a rotation and place it wheredesired with a translation. Note that the order I = TRSH will work too.4.13R = R z(θz)R y(θy)R x(θx) =⎡⎢⎢⎢⎣cos θy cos θz cos θz sin θx sin θy −cos θx sin θz cos θx cos θz sin θy + sin θx sin θz 0cos θy sin θz cos θx cos θz + sin θx sin θy sin θz −cos θz sin θx + cos θx sin θy sin θz 0 −sin θy cos θy sin θx cos θx cos θy 00 0 0 1⎤⎥⎥⎥⎦4.17 One test is to use the first three vertices to find the equation of theplane ax + by + cz + d = 0. Although there are four coefficients in theequation only three are independent so we can select one arbitrarily ornormalize so that a2 + b2 + c2 = 1. Then we can successively evaluateax + bc + cz + d for the other vertices. A vertex will be on the plane if weevaluate to zero. An equivalent test is to form the matrix⎡⎢⎢⎢⎣1 1 1 1x1 x2 x3 x4y1 y2 y3 y4z1 z2 z3 z4⎤⎥⎥⎥⎦for each i = 4, ... If the determinant of this matrix is zero the ith vertex isin the plane determined by the first three.4.19 Although we will have the same number of degrees of freedom in theobjects we produce, the class of objects will be very different. For exampleif we rotate a square before we apply a nonuniform scale, we will shear the square, something we cannot do if we scale then rotate.4.21 The vector a = u ×v is orthogonal to u and v. The vector b = u ×a is orthogonal to u and a. Hence, u, a and b form an orthogonal coordinatesystem.4.23 Using r = cos θ2+ sin θ2v, with θ = 90 and v = (1, 0, 0), we find forrotation about the x-axisr =√22(1, 1, 0, 0).Likewise, for rotation about the y axisr =√22(1, 0, 1, 0).4.27 Possible reasons include (1) object-oriented systems are slower, (2)users are often comfortable working in world coordinates with higher-level objects and do not need the flexibility offered by a coordinate-free approach, (3) even a system that provides scalars, vectors, and points would have to have an underlying frame to use for the implementation. Chapter 5 Solutions5.1 Eclipses (both solar and lunar) are good examples of the projection of an object (the moon or the earth) onto a nonplanar surface. Any time a shadow is created on curved surface, there is a nonplanar projection. All the maps in an atlas are examples of the use of curved projectors. If the projectors were not curved we could not project the entire surface of a spherical object (the Earth) onto a rectangle.5.3 Suppose that we want the view of the Earth rotating about the sun. Before we draw the earth, we must rotate the Earth which is a rotation about the y axis. Next we translate the Earth away from the origin. Finally we do another rotation about the y axis to position the Earth in its desired location along its orbit. There are a number of interesting variants of this problem such as the view from the Earth of the rest of the solar system.5.5 Yes. Any sequence of rotations is equivalent to a single rotation abouta suitably chosen axis. One way to compute this rotation matrix is to form the matrix by sequence of simple rotations, such asR = RxRyRz.The desired axis is an eigenvector of this matrix.5.7 The result follows from the transformation being affine. We can also take a direct approach. Consider the line determined by the points(x1, y1, z1) and (x2, y2, z2). Any point along can be written parametrically as (_x1 + (1 − _)x2, _y1 + (1 − _)y2, _z1 + (1 − _)z2). Consider the simple projection of this point 1d(_z1+(1−_)z2) (_x1 + (1 − _)x2, _y1 + (1 − _)y2)which is of the form f(_)(_x1 + (1 − _)x2, _y1 + (1 − _)y2). This form describes a line because the slope is constant. Note that the function f(_) implies that we trace out the line at a nonlinear rate as _ increases from 0 to 1.5.9 The specification used in many graphics text is of the angles the projector makes with x,z and y, z planes, i.e the angles defined by the projection of a projector by a top view and a side view.Another approach is to specify the foreshortening of one or two sides of a cube aligned with the axes.5.11 The CORE system used this approach. Retained objects were kept in distorted form. Any transformation to any object that was defined with other than an orthographic view transformed the distorted object and the orthographic projection of the transformed distorted object was incorrect.5.15 If we use _ = _ = 45, we obtain the projection matrixP =266641 0 −1 00 1 −1 00 0 0 00 0 0 1377755.17 All the points on the projection of the point (x.y, z) in the direction dx, dy, dz) are of the form (x + _dx, y + _dy, z + _dz). Thus the shadow of the point (x, y, z) is found by determining the _ for which the line intersects the plane, that isaxs + bys + czs = dSubstituting and solving, we find_ =d − ax − by − czadx + bdy + cdz.However, what we want is a projection matrix, Using this value of _ we findxs = z + _dx =x(bdy + cdx) − dx(d − by − cz)adx + bdy + cdzwith similar equations for ys and zs. These results can be computed by multiplying the homogeneous coordinate point (x, y, z, 1) by the projection matrixM =26664bdy + cdz −bdx −cdx −ddx−ady adx + cdz −cdy −ddy−adz −bdz adx + bdy −ddz0 0 0 adx + bdy + cdz37775.5.21 Suppose that the average of the two eye positions is at (x, y, z) and the viewer is looking at the origin. We could form the images using the LookAt function twice, that isgluLookAt(x-dx/2, y, z, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0);/* draw scene here *//* swap buffers and clear */gluLookAt(x+dx/2, y, z, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0);/* draw scene again *//* swap buffers and clear */Chapter 6 Solutions6.1 Point sources produce a very harsh lighting. Such images are characterized by abrupt transitions between light and dark. The ambient light in a real scene is dependent on both the lights on the scene and the reflectivity properties of the objects in the scene, something that cannot be computed correctly with OpenGL. The Phong reflection term is not physically correct; the reflection term in the modified Phong model is even further from being physically correct.6.3 If we were to take into account a light source being obscured by an object, we would have to have all polygons available so as to test for this condition. Such a global calculation is incompatible with the pipeline model that assumes we can shade each polygon independently of all other polygons as it flows through the pipeline.6.5 Materials absorb light from sources. Thus, a surface that appears red under white light appears so because the surface absorbs all wavelengths of light except in the red range—a subtractive process. To be compatible with such a model, we should use surface absorbtion constants that define the materials for cyan, magenta and yellow, rather than red, green and blue. 6.7 Let ψ be the angle between the normal and the halfway vector, φ be the angle between the viewer and the reflection angle, and θ be the anglebetween the normal and the light source. If all the vectors lie in the same plane, the angle between the light source and the viewer can be computer either as φ + 2θ or as 2(θ + ψ). Setting the two equal, we find φ = 2ψ. Ifthe vectors are not coplanar then φ < 2ψ.6.13 Without loss of generality, we can consider the problem in two dimensions. Suppose that the first material has a velocity of light of v1 andthe second material has a light velocity of v2. Furthermore, assume thatthe axis y = 0 separates the two materials.Place a point light source at (0, h) where h > 0 and a viewer at (x, y)where y < 0. Light will travel in a straight line from the source to a point(t, 0) where it will leave the first material and enter the second. It willthen travel from this point in a straight line to (x, y). We must find the tthat minimizes the time travelled.Using some simple trigonometry, we find the line from the source to (t, 0)has length l1 = √h2 + t2 and the line from there to the viewer has length1l2 = _y2 + (x − t)2. The total time light travels is thus l1v1 + l2v2 .Minimizing over t gives desired result when we note the two desired sinesare sin θ1 = h√h2+t2 and sin θ2 = −y √(y2+(x−t)2 .6.19 Shading requires that when we transform normals and points, we maintain the angle between them or equivalently have the dot productp ·v = p_ ·v_ when p_ = Mp and n_ = Mp. If M T M is an identity matrix angles are preserved. Such a matrix (M−1 = M T ) is called orthogonal. Rotations and translations are orthogonal but scaling and shear are not.6.21 Probably the easiest approach to this problem is to rotate the givenplane to plane z = 0 and rotate the light source and objects in the sameway. Now we have the same problem we have solved and can rotate everything back at the end.6.23 A global rendering approach would generate all shadows correctly. Ina global renderer, as each point is shaded, a calculation is done to seewhich light sources shine on it. The projection approach assumes that wecan project each polygon onto all other polygons. If the shadow of a given polygon projects onto multiple polygons, we could not compute these shadow polygons very easily. In addition, we have not accounted for thedifferent shades we might see if there were intersecting shadows from multiple light sources.Chapter 7 Solutions7.1 First, consider the problem in two dimensions. We are looking for an _ and _ such that both parametric equations yield the same point, that isx(_) = (1 − _)x1 + _x2 = (1 − _)x3 + _x4,y(_) = (1 − _)y1 + _y2 = (1 − _)y3 + _y4.These are two equations in the two unknowns _ and _ and, as long as the line segments are not parallel (a condition that will lead to a division by zero), we can solve for _ _. If both these values are between 0 and 1, the segments intersect.If the equations are in 3D, we can solve two of them for the _ and _ where x and y meet. If when we use these values of the parameters in the two equations for z, the segments intersect if we get the same z from both equations.7.3 If we clip a convex region against a convex region, we produce the intersection of the two regions, that is the set of all points in both regions, which is a convex set and describes a convex region. To see this, consider any two points in the intersection. The line segment connecting them must be in both sets and therefore the intersection is convex.7.5 See Problem 6.22. Nonuniform scaling will not preserve the angle between the normal and other vectors.7.7 Note that we could use OpenGL to, produce a hidden line removed image by using the z buffer and drawing polygons with edges and interiors the same color as the background. But of course, this method was not used in pre–raster systems.Hidden–line removal algorithms work in object space, usually with either polygons or polyhedra. Back–facing polygons can be eliminated. In general, edges are intersected with polygons to determine any visible parts. Good algorithms (see Foley or Rogers) use various coherence strategies to minimize the number of intersections.7.9 The O(k) was based upon computing the intersection of rays with the planes containing the k polygons. We did not consider the cost of filling the polygons, which can be a large part of the rendering time. If we consider a scene which is viewed from a given point there will be some percentage of 1the area of the screen that is filled with polygons. As we move the viewer closer to the objects, fewer polygons will appear on the screen but eachwill occupy a larger area on the screen, thus leaving the area of the screen that is filled approximately the same. Thus the rendering time will be about the same even though there are fewer polygons displayed.7.11 There are a number of ways we can attempt to get O(k log k) performance. One is to use a better sorting algorithm for the depth sort. Other strategies are based on divide and conquer such a binary spatial partitioning.7.13 If we consider a ray tracer that only casts rays to the first intersection and does not compute shadow rays, reflected or transmitted rays, then the image produced using a Phong model at the point of intersection will be the same image as produced by our pipeline renderer. This approach is sometimes called ray casting and is used in volume rendering and CSG. However, the data are processed in a different order from the pipeline renderer. The ray tracer works ray by ray while the pipeline renderer works object by object.7.15 Consider a circle centered at the origin: x2 + y2 = r2. If we know thata point (x, y) is on the curve than, we also know (−x, y), (x,−y),(−x,−y), (y, x), (−y, x), (y,−x), and (−y,−x) are also on the curve. This observation is known as the eight–fold symmetry of the circle. Consequently, we need only generate 1/8 of the circle, a 45 degree wedge, and can obtain the rest by copying this part using the symmetries. If we consider the 45 degree wedge starting at the bottom, the slope of this curve starts at 0 and goes to 1, precisely the conditions used for Bresenham’s line algorithm. The tests are a bit more complex and we have to account for the possibility the slope will be one but the approach is the same as for line generation.7.17 Flood fill should work with arbitrary closed areas. In practice, we can get into trouble at corners if the edges are not clearly defined. Such can be the case with scanned images.7.19 Note that if we fill by scan lines vertical edges are not a problem. Probably the best way to handle the problem is to avoid it completely by never allowing vertices to be on scan lines. OpenGL does this by havingvertices placed halfway between scan lines. Other systems jitter the y value of any vertex where it is an integer.7.21 Although each pixel uses five rays, the total number of rays has only doubled, i.e. consider a second grid that is offset one half pixel in both the x and y directions.7.23 A mathematical answer can be investigated using the notion of reconstruction of a function from its samples (see Chapter 8). However, a very easy to see by simply drawing bitmap characters that small pixels lead to very unreadable characters. A readable character should have some overlap of the pixels.7.25 We want k levels between Imin and Imax that are distributed exponentially. Then I0 = Imin, I1 = Iminr,I2 = Iminr2, ..., Ik−1 = Imax = Iminrk−1. We can solve the last equation for the desired r = ( ImaxImin)1k−17.27 If there are very few levels, we cannot display a gradual change in brightness. Instead the viewer will see steps of intensity. A simple rule of thumb is that we need enough gray levels so that a change of one step is not visible. We can mitigate the problem by adding one bit of random noise to the least significant bit of a pixel. Thus if we have 3 bits (8 levels), the third bit will be noise. The effect of the noise will be to break up regions of almost constant intensity so the user will not be able to see a step because it will be masked by the noise. In a statistical sense the jittered image is a noisy (degraded) version of the original but in a visual sense it appears better.。