语言学概论重难点解析

语言学概论(教案)第一章：语言与语言学1.1 语言的定义与特性引导学生理解语言是一种符号系统，用于人类交流和思维。

讨论语言的普遍性和特殊性，例如普遍语法和语言习得机制。

1.2 语言学的范畴与分支介绍语言学的定义和范畴，包括语音学、词汇学、语法学、语义学等。

讨论语言学与其他学科的关系，如心理学、社会学、哲学等。

第二章：语言的结构2.1 语音与音系分析语音的物理特性，如音高、音强、音长等。

探讨音系的基本原理，包括音素、音位和音韵规则。

2.2 词汇与词义研究词汇的构成和分类，如词根、前缀、后缀等。

讨论词义的变化和引申，以及词义之间的关系。

第三章：语法与句法3.1 语法的基本概念介绍语法的研究对象和意义，包括句子结构、词类、词形变化等。

探讨语法规则的形成和变化。

3.2 句子的构成与分类分析句子结构的成分，如主语、谓语、宾语等。

讨论句子的分类和功能，如陈述句、疑问句、祈使句等。

第四章：语义与语用4.1 语义学的基本原理介绍语义学的定义和研究方法，包括词汇语义学和句子语义学。

探讨语义的成分分析和意义之间的关系。

4.2 语用的基本概念讨论语用的定义和范畴，包括语境、语用含义、言语行为等。

分析语用在实际交际中的应用和作用。

第五章：语言的变异与变化5.1 语言的变异现象探讨语言的变异形式，包括方言、俚语、行话等。

分析语言变异的原因和影响。

5.2 语言的变化与演变研究语言的变化过程和规律，包括语音变化、词汇变化、语法变化等。

探讨语言演变的原因和社会因素对语言变化的影响。

第六章：语言的接触与影响6.1 语言的接触形式分析语言接触的类型，如双语、多语、语言借用等。

探讨语言接触的原因和结果，以及接触语言对个体和社会的影响。

6.2 语言的扩散与传播研究语言扩散的过程和模式，如语言的传播、语言的替换和语言的消亡。

分析语言扩散的社会经济和文化因素。

第七章：语言的记录与描写7.1 语言记录的方法和技术介绍语言记录的基本方法，如语音记录、文字记录和计算机记录。

《语言学概论》教案第一章：语言与语言学1.1 教学目标了解语言的定义和特性掌握语言学的基本概念和研究对象理解语言学的重要性和应用领域1.2 教学内容语言的定义和特性：语言是一种符号系统，用于表达和交流思想与信息。

语言学的基本概念：语言学是研究语言的科学，包括语音学、语法学、词汇学等分支。

语言学的研究对象：语言的结构、功能、历史和发展等方面。

语言学的重要性和应用领域：语言学在教育、翻译、语言政策等领域具有重要作用。

1.3 教学活动引入讨论：让学生分享对语言的理解和认知。

小组讨论：让学生探讨语言的符号特性和语言学的研究方法。

案例分析：分析实际语言使用中的例子，让学生理解语言学的应用。

小组展示：让学生选择一个语言学分支，进行小组展示并分享其研究对象和重要性。

1.4 作业与评估完成课后阅读材料：让学生阅读相关文献，加深对语言和语言学的理解。

写一篇短文：让学生选择一个语言学分支，对其研究对象和重要性进行阐述。

参与小组讨论和展示：评估学生在小组讨论和展示中的参与度和表现。

第二章：语言的结构2.1 教学目标了解语言的结构组成掌握语音、词汇、语法的基本概念和关系理解语言结构的特点和重要性2.2 教学内容语音：语音是语言的最小单位，包括元音、辅音、声调等。

词汇：词汇是语言的建筑材料，包括实词和虚词。

语法：语法是语言的规则体系，包括词法和句法。

语言结构的特点和重要性：语言结构的规律性和可变性对语言的交际功能和表达效果具有重要意义。

2.3 教学活动语音实验：让学生通过语音实验感知和区分不同的语音特征。

词汇游戏：让学生通过词汇游戏理解和记忆单词的用法和意义。

语法练习：让学生通过语法练习掌握句法规则和语法结构。

小组讨论：让学生探讨语言结构对语言交际功能的影响。

2.4 作业与评估语音练习：让学生进行语音练习，提高对语音特征的辨识能力。

词汇练习：让学生进行词汇练习，加深对单词用法和意义的学习。

语法练习：让学生进行语法练习，巩固句法规则和语法结构的知识。

语言学概论重难点解析一、语言与言语得区别与联系。

(一)语言与言语得区别1、语言就是表达思想得工具、就是交际得工具,言语则就是使用语言工具得行为与结果。

就这一点而言,它们就是工具与对工具运用得关系。

2、言语就是个人得,语言就是社会得。

言语就是个人得言语行为,以个人得意志为转移,因而言语具有个人因素。

可以说,每个人说话得嗓音、每个音得具体发音、每个人使用得词语与句子结构等方面都有个人得特色,而且每一个人每一次说话都可能就是不同得。

语言就是属于社会得,语言要遵循一个原则:全社会都能顺利地进行交流。

语言就是从言语中归纳出得一套标准、准则得系统,就是音义结合,由词汇、语法构成得一个完整得体系,因而它具有社会因素。

3、语言就是有限得、封闭得,言语就是无限得、开放得。

语言得材料、规则就是有限得,相对稳定得,因而也就是相对封闭得。

如现代汉语有400多个音节,上千个语素,几十万个词,语法规则更加有限。

汉语如此,其她语种无不如此,其音位、词汇、语法规则都就是有限得。

而且变化缓慢,相对稳定。

言语得开放性,则表现为利用有限得材料与规则造出所需要得无限得句子。

从组合关系上讲,其长度可以就是无限长得(从理论上讲)。

(如:学生。

就是学生。

就是中文系得学生。

她就是中文系得学生。

……她就是闽江学院中文系二年级一班得学生。

……)人们可以利用聚合关系来替换语言链条上得各个环节,因而即使在句子得长度相同得情况下,仍然可以造出各种各样得句子来。

(例如:①我们热爱祖国。

②她们喜欢唱歌。

③小张爱好音乐。

……理论上讲可以就是无限得)数量有限得语音形式与语义内容结合成语素。

数量有限得语素构成数量有限得词语。

数量有限得语法规则支配数量有限得词语,造出无穷无尽得句子,这就就是言语得无限性。

语言得有限性,免除了人们不必要得过重得记忆负担;言语得无限性,使人们能够造出各种各样得句子,充分满足交际得需要。

(二)语言与言语得联系语言与言语又有非常密切得联系。

《语言学概论》教学重、难点及其分解Ξ柳春燕　罗耀华　郝　琴(华中师范大学文学院语言学系,湖北武汉430079)摘　要:　《语言学概论》是汉语言文学专业的主干课程之一,本文结合教学实践,着重对整体结构的把握,对重难点的分解,为成教学生的自学扫清障碍,让他们尽快掌握其中的精要内容。

关键词:　义素分析法;层次分析法;述谓结构;关系义场中图分类号:　H0　文献标识码:　A 文章编号:　1007-2187(2003)003-0030-05一、教材特点由邢福义、吴振国主编的《语言学概论》既具有一般语言学教材基本理论条分缕析的优点,又吸取了语言研究和语言教学的最新成果。

在使用本教材的过程中,我们发现对于成教学生来说,自学本教材有较大难度,从以下几个方面着手把握这本教材的特点将有助于化难为易。

1.注重语言学知识结构的系统性语言是一个复杂的符号系统,语言符号之间存在着复杂的系统关联。

故要把握语言的本质特征,应重点把握语言的系统性。

语言的系统性是指系统元素之间的联系性。

每个子系统又由更小的子系统构成,语音系统可以分为音段系统;音段系统又可以分为元音系统和辅音系统等。

《语言学概论》高屋建瓴的总论部分初步建立起本学科的框架,我们将其图示为:2.注重“类”与“例”的关系本课程是揭示语言学普遍规律的学科,既涉及语言的共性,同时也涉及语言的个性。

以乔姆斯基的语言观为例,将语法分为普遍语法和个别语法,有公式为:PG =α・U G ,其中PG 指Personalgrammar ,U G 指Universalgrammar ,α是参数。

乔姆斯基将语言分为语言能力(competence )和语言运用(performance ),前者表现为语言知识,是人类共有的普遍语法知识,是以人脑的物质结构为基础的某种属性,是先天具备的人类遗传机制;另一部分是个别的语言知识,是通过后天经验获得的知识。

作为“类”与“例”,涉及语言的结构类型分类,以世界上的所有语言作为关照对象,将其分为:词根语,以汉语、越南语、彝语、苗语、缅甸语等为代表;屈折语,以俄语、德语、阿拉伯语等为代表;粘着语,以土耳其语、哈萨克语、芬兰语、维吾尔语以及蒙古语等为代表;编插语,以各种印第安语、爱斯基摩人的语言、古亚细亚语系的楚克奇语等为代表。

《英语语言学概论》重、难点提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。

第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。

第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。

第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。

第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。

第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。

第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。

第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。

第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。

第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。

语言学概论滕慧群老师期末复习重点详解版导言无问答题记细节题（单选填空判断名词解释）名词解释：理论语言学：普通语言学的一个部分，与应用语言学相对，主要以语言系统的描写、语言运用机制、语言能力以及语言发展的历史为研究对象，是综合各种语言的基本研究的成果，归纳成语言的一般规律的语言学科。

应用语言学：广义：泛指语言学理论的各种实际应用，包括语言文字教学、词典编撰、文字制定、文学作品的翻译和语言分析、病理语言学、人工智能、机器翻译等的新语言学科。

狭义：专指把语言理论应用于语言教学，（包括本族语教学和外语教学）。

语文学：又叫传统语言学，指19世纪历史比较语言学产生之前的语言研究，这时的语言研究尚未独立，语言学作为其他学科的附庸而存在，语言研究的主要目的是为了阅读古籍和语言教学，从而为统治者治理国家或为其他学科的研究服务。

小学：中国传统的语文学，包括分析字形的文字学、研究字音的音韵学、解释字义的训诂学，围绕阐释和解读先秦典籍来展开研究，因此又被人们称为经学的附庸。

其他：1.普通语言学的奠基人是（索绪尔）和洪堡特。

前者所著的（《普通语言学教程》）在语言学发展史起到了划时代的作用。

2.结构主义语言学派可以分为三派。

它们是（布拉格学派）、（哥本哈根学派）、（美国学派）。

3.（古代印度）、（中国）、（古希腊-罗马）是语言学的三大发源地。

4.现代语言学一百多年发展，经历了三个时期：历史比较语言学、结构主义语言学、转换生成语言学。

5.（ppt填空题：）我国传统语文学包括（文字学）、（音韵学）、（训诂学）等三门分支学科，合称“小学”。

6.在19世纪逐步发展和完善起来的（欧洲历史比较语言学）不但宣告语言学的真正独立，而且为普通语言学的研究奠定了基础。

7.（书后习题：）语言交际过程可以分为编码-发送-传递-接收-解码五个阶段。

8.印度最早的经典所使用的语言是梵语。

9.错：语言学主要是研究古代的口语和书面语。

10.错：语言有自身结构的独立性，与系统之外的社会环境没有关系。

语言学概论》重、难点提示Questions & Answers on Key Points of Linguistics《英语语言学概论》重、难点问与答1.1. What is language?“Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books”: “book” in English, “livre” in French, in Japanese, in Chinese, “check” in Korean. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages, developed or “new”. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.1.2. What are design features of language?“Design features” here refer to the defin ing properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability1.3. What is arbitrariness?By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds (see I .1).A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. Language is therefore largely arbitrary. But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like “bang”, “crash”, “roar”, which are motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some compounds (words compounded to be one word) are not entirely arbitrary either. “Type” and “write” are opaque or unmotivated words, while “type-writer” is less so, or more transparent or motivated than the words that make it. So we can say “arbitrariness” is a matter of degree.1.4.What is duality?Linguists refer “duality” (of structure) to the fac t that in all languages so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.); at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning. According to Hu Zhanglin et al. (p.6), language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings of language.A small number of semantic units (words), and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences (note that we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!). Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge. No animal communication system enjoys this duality, or even approaches this honor.1.5.What is productivity?Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one‟s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. No one has ever said or heard “A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed wi th an African gibbon”, but he can say it when necessary, and he can understand it in right register. Different from artistic creativity, though, productivity never goes outside the language, thus also called “rule-bound creativity” (by N.Chomsky).1.6.What is displacement?“Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. When a man, for example, is crying to a woman, about something, it might be something that had occurred, or something that is occurring, or something that is to occur. When a dog is barking, however, you can decide it is barking for something or at someone that exists now and there. It couldn‟t be bow wowing sorrowfully for dome lost love or a bone to be lost. The bee‟s system, nonetheless, has a small share of “displacement”, but it is an unspeakable tiny share.1.7.What is cultural transmission?This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings (N. Chomsky called it “language acquisition device”, or LAD) has a genetic basis, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like the dog‟s barking system. If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolf‟s roaring “tongue” when he was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language.1.8.What is interchangeability?(1) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. We can say, and on other occasions can receive and understand, for example, “Please do something to make me happy.” Though some people (including me) suggest that there is sex differentiation in the actual language use, in other words, men and women may say different things, yet in principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a man can utter and a woman cannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be the speaker while the other person is the listener and as the turn moves on to the listener, he can be the speaker and the first speaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that makes social communication possible and acceptable.(2) Some male birds, however, utter some calls, which females do not (or cannot?), and certain kinds of fish have similar haps mentionable. When a dog barks, all the neighboring dogs bark. Then people around can h ardly tell which dog (dogs) is (are0 “speaking” and which listening.1.9.Why do linguists say language is human specific?First of all, human language has six “design features” which animal communication systems donot have, at least not in the true sense of them (see I .2-8). Let‟s borrow C. F. Hocket‟s Chart that compares human language with some animals‟ systems, from Wang Gang (1998,p.8). Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Beatnice and Alan Gardner brought up Washoe, a female chimpanzee, like a human child. She was taught “American sign Language”, and learned a little that made the teachers happy but did mot make the linguistics circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees.Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not even when he is taken back and taught to lo to so (see the “Wolf Child”in I.7)1.10.What functions does language have?Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and per formative. According to Wang Gang (1988,p.11), language has three main functions: a tool of communication, a tool whereby people learn about the world, and a tool by which people learn about the world, and a tool by which people create art. M .A. K.Halliday, representative of the London school, recognizes three “Macro-Functions”: ideational, interpersonal and textual (see! 11-17;see HU Zhuanglin et al., pp10-13, pp394-396).1. 11What is the phatic function?The “phatic function” refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. Much of the phatic language (e.g. “How are you?” “Fine, thanks.”) Is insincere if taken literally, but it is important. If you don't say “Hello” to a friend you meet, or if you don‟t answer his “Hi”, you ruin your friendship.1.12. What is the directive function?The “directive function” means that language may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this function, e.g., “Tell me the result when you finish.” Other syntactic structures or sentences of other sorts can, according to J.Austin and J.Searle‟s “indirect speech act theory”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp271-278) at least, serve the purpose of direction too, e.g., “If I were you, I would have blushed to the bottom of my ears!”1.13.What is the informative function?Language serves an “informational function” when used to tell something, characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labeled as true (truth) or false (falsehood). According to P.Grice‟s “Cooperative Principle”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp282-283), one ought not to violate the “Maxim of Quality”, when he is informing at all.1.14.What is the interrogative function?When language is use d to obtain information, it serves an “interrogative function”. This includes all questions that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc., according to the “indirect speech act theory”, may have this function as well, e.g., “I‟d like to know you better.” This may bring forth a lot of personal information. Note that rhetorical questions make an exception, since they demandno answer, at least not the reader‟s/listener‟s answer.1.15.What is the expressive function?The “expressive function” is the use o f language to reveal something about the feelings or attitudes of the speaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like “Good heavens!” “My God!” Sentences like “I‟m sorry about the delay” can serve as good examples too, though in a subtle way. While language is used for the informative function to pass judgment on the truth or falsehood of statements, language used for the expressive function evaluates, appraises or asserts the speaker‟s own attitudes.1.16.What is the evocative function?The “evocative function” is the use of language to create certain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is, for example, to amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please. Jokes (not practical jokes, though) are supposed to amuse or entertain the listener; advertising to urge customers to purchase certain commodities; propaganda to influence public opinion. Obviously, the expressive and the evocative functions often go together, i.e., you may express, for example, your personal feelings about a political issue but end up by evoking the same feeling in, or imposing it on, your listener. That‟s also the case with the other way round.1.17.What is the per formative function?This means people speak to “do things” or perform actions. On certain occasions the utterance itself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence. When asked if a third Y angtze Bridge ought to be built in Wuhan, the mayor may say, “OK”, which means more than speech, and more than an average social individual may do for the construction. The judge‟s imprisonment sentence, the president‟s war or independence declaration, etc., are per formatives as well (see J.Austin‟s speech Act Theory, Hu Zhuanglin, ecal.pp271-278).1.18.What is linguistics?“Linguistics” is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one society, but also the language of all human beings. A linguist, though, does not have to know and use a large number of languages, but to investigate how each language is constructed. He is also concerned with how a language varies from dialect to dialect, from class to class, how it changes from century to century, how children acquire their mother tongue, and perhaps how a person learns or should learn a foreign language. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp20-22)1.19.What makes linguistics a science?Since linguistics is the scientific study of language, it ought to base itself upon the systematic, investigation of language data, which aims at discovering the true nature of language and its underlying system. To make sense of the data, a linguist usually has conceived some hypotheses about the language structure, to be checked against the observed or observable facts. In order to make his analysis scientific, a linguist is usually guided by four principles: exhaustiveness, consistency, and objectivity. Exhaustiveness means he should gather all the materials relevant tothe study and give them an adequate explanation, in spite of the complicatedness. He is to leave no linguistic “stone” unturned. Consistency means there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement. Economy means a linguist should pursue brevity in the analysis when it is possible. Objectivity implies that since some people may be subjective in the study, a linguist should be (or sound at least) objective, matter-of-face, faithful to reality, so that his work constitutes part of the linguistics research.1.20.What are the major branches of linguistics?The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics (e.g.Hu Zhuanglin et al., 1988;Wang Gang, 1988). But a linguist sometimes is able to deal with only one aspect of language at a time, thus the arise of various branches: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, pragmatics, psycholinguistics, lexic ology, lexicography, etymology, etc.1.21.What are synchronic and diachronic studies?The des cription of a language at some point of time (as if it stopped developing) is a synchrony study (synchrony). The des cription of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachronic). An essay entitled “On the Use of THE”, for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp25-27).1.22.What is speech and what is writing?(1) No one needs the repetition of the general principle of linguistic analysis, namely, the primacy of speech over writing. Speech is primary; because it existed long long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write. Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds: individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese.(2) In contrast to speech, spoken form of language, writing as written codes, gives language new scope and use that speech does not have. Firstly, messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other. Secondly, messages can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can read Beowulf, Samuel Johnson, and Edgar A. Poe. Thirdly, oral messages are readily subject to distortion, either intentional or unintentional (causing misunderstanding or malentendu), while written messages allow and encourage repeated unalterable reading.(3) Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the last century and theretofore.1.23.What are the differences between the des criptive and the pres criptive approaches?A linguistic study is “des criptive” if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and “pres criptive” if it tries to lay down rules for “correct” language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely pres criptive because many early grammars were largely pres criptive because many early grammars were based on “high” (literary or religious) written records. Modern linguistics is mostly des criptive, however. It (the latter) believes that whatever occurs innatural speech (hesitation, incomplete utterance, misunderstanding, etc.) should be described in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, corrupt, or lousy. These, with changes in vocabulary and structures, need to be explained also.1.24.What is the difference between langue and parole?F. De Saussure refers “langue”to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers “parole” to the actual or actualized language, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, I. e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make than the subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists.1.25.What is the difference between competence and performance?(1) According to N. Chomsky, “competence” is the ideal language user‟s knowledge of the rules of his language, and “performance” is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize gr ammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker‟s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker‟s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence.(2) Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.(3) Chomsky‟s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, F. de Saussure‟s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product, and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual. Sussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.1.26.What is linguistic potential? What is actual linguistic behavior?M. A. K. Halliday made these two terms, or the potential-behavior distinction, in the 1960s, from a functional point of view. There is a wide range of things a speaker can do in his culture, and similarly there are many things he can say, for example, to many people, on many topics. What he actually says (i.e. his “actual linguistic behavior”) on a certain occasion to a certain person is what he has chosen from many possible injustice items, each of which he could have said (linguistic potential).1.27.In what way do language, competence and linguistic potential agree? In what way do they differ? And their counterparts?Langue, competence and linguistic potential have some similar features, but they are innately different (see 1.25). Langue is a social product, and a set of speaking conventions; competence is a property or attribu te of each ideal speaker‟s mind; linguistic potential is all the linguistic corpus or repertoire available from which the speaker chooses items for the actual utterance situation. In other words, langue is invisible but reliable abstract system. Competence means “knowing”, andlinguistic potential a set of possibilities for “doing” or “performing actions”. They are similar in that they all refer to the constant underlying the utterances that constitute what Saussure, Chomsky and Halliday respectively called parole, performance and actual linguistic behavior. Paole, performance and actual linguistic behavior enjoy more similarities than differences.1.28.What is phonetics?“Phonetics” is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making, especially those sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their des cription, classification and trans cription (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp39-40), speech sounds may be studied in different ways, thus by three different branches of phonetics. (1) Articulatory phonetics; the branch of phonetics that examines the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate in the process. (2) Auditory phonetics, the branch of phonetic research from the heare r‟s point of view, looking into the impression which a speech sound makes on the hearer as mediated by the ear, the auditory nerve and the brain. (3) Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear.Most phoneticians, however, are interested in articulator phonetics.1.29.How are the vocal organs formed?The vocal organs (see Figure1, Hu Zhuanglin et al., p41), or speech organs, are organs of the human body whose secondary use is in the production of speech sounds. The vocal organs can be considered as consisting of three parts; the initiator of the air-stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.1.30.What is place of articulation?It refers to the place in the mouth where, for example, the obstruction occurs, resulting in the utterance of a consonant. Whatever sound is pronounced, at least some vocal organs will get involved. g. Lips, hard palate etc., so a consonant may be one of the following (1) bilabial: [p, b, m]; (2) labiodental: [f, v]; (3) dental: [,]; (4) alveolar: [t, d, l, n.s, z]; (5) retroflex; (6) palato-alveolar: [,]; (7) palatal: [j]; (8) velar [k, g,]; (9) uvular; (10) glottal: [h].Some sounds involve the simultaneous use of two places of articulation. For example, the English [w] has both an approximation of the two lips and those two lips and that of the tongue and the soft palate, and may be termed “labial-velar”.1.31.What is the manner of articulation?The “manner of articulation” literally means the way a sound is articulated. At a given place of articulation, the airstreams may be obstructed in various ways, resulting in various manners of articulation, are the following: (1) plosive: [p, b, t, d, k, g]; (2) nasal: [m, n,]; (3) trill; (4) tap or flap; (5) lateral: [l]; (6) fricative: [f, v, s, z]; (7) approximant: [w, j]; (8) affricate: [].1.32.How do phoneticians classify vowels?Phoneticians, in spite of the difficulty, group vowels in 5 types: (1) long and short vowels, e.g.,[i:,];(4) rounded and unround vowels,e.g.[,i]; (5) pure and gliding vowels, e.g.[I,].1.33.What is IPA? When did it come into being ?The IPA, abbreviation of “International Phonetic Alphabet”, is a compromise system making use of symbols of all sources, including diacritics indicating length, stress and intonation, indicating phonetic variation. Ever since it was developed in 1888, IPA has undergone a number of revisions.1.34.What is narrow trans cription and what is broad trans cription?In handbook of phonetics, Henry Sweet m ade a distinction between “narrow” and “broad” trans criptions, which he called “Narrow Romic”. The former was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation while Broad Romic or trans cription was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.1.35.What is phonology? What is difference between phonetics and phonology?(1) “Phonology” is the study of sound systems- the invention of distinctive speech sounds that occur in a language and the patterns wherein they fall. Minimal pair, phonemes, allophones, free variation, complementary distribution, etc., are all to be investigated by a phonologist.(2) Phonetics, as discussed in I.28, is the branch of linguistics studying the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their des cription, classification and trans cription. A phonetist is mainly interested in the physical properties of the speech sounds, whereas a phonologist studies what he believes are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features, morphological features, and the way they are conceived and printed in the depth of the mind phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which from meaningful utterances, to recognize a foreign “accent”, to make up new words, to add the appropriate phonetic segments to from plurals and past tenses, to know what is and what is not a sound in one‟s language.1.36.What is a phone? What is a phoneme? What is an allophone?(1) A “phone” is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. When we hear the following words pronounced:[pit], [tip], [spit], etc., the similar phones we have heard are [p] for one thing, and three different[p]‟s, readily making possible the “narrow trans cription or diacritics”. Phones may and may not distinguish meaning. A “phoneme” is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. As an abstract unit, a phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. For example, the phoneme[p] is represented differently in [pit], [tip] and [spit].(2) The phones representing a phoneme ar e called its “allophones”, i. e., the different (i.e., phones) but do not make one word so phonetically different as to create a new word or a new meaning thereof. So the different[p]‟s in the above words are the allophones of the same phoneme[p]. How a phoneme is represented by a phone, or which allophone is to be used, is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random. In most cases it is rule-governed; these rules are to be found out by a phonologist.1.37.What are minimal pairs?When two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string , the two forms(i. e., word) are supposed to form a “minimal pair”, e.g., “pill” and “bill”, “pill” and “till”, “till” and “dill”, “till” and “kill”, etc. All these wordstogether constitute a minimal set. They are identical in form except for the initial consonants. There are many minimal pairs in English, which makes it relatively easy to know what are English phonemes. It is of great importance to find the minimal pairs when a phonologist is dealing with the sound system of an unknown language(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp65-66).1.38.What is free variation?If two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast; namely, if the substitution of one for the other does not generate a new word form but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, the two sounds then are said to be in “free variation”. The plosives, for example, may no t be exploded when they occur before another plosive or a nasal (e. g., act, apt, good morning). The minute distinctions may, if necessary, be transcribed in diacritics. These unexploded and exploded plosives are in free variation. Sounds in free variation should be assigned to the same phoneme.1.39.What is complementary distribution?When two sounds never occur in the same environment, they are in “complementary distribution”. For example, the aspirated English plosives never occur after[s], and the unsaturated ones never occur initially. Sounds in complementary distribution may be assigned to the same phoneme. The allophones of[l], for example, are also in complementary distribution. The clear[l] occurs only before a vowel, the voiceless equivalent of[l] occurs only after a voiceless consonant, such as in the words “please”, “butler”, “clear”, etc., and the dark[l] occurs only after a vowel or as a syllabic sound after a consonant, such as in the words “feel”, “help”, “middle”, etc.1.40.What is the assimilation rule? What is the deletion rule?(1) The “assimilation rule” assimilates one segment to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones more similar. This rule accounts for the raring pronunciation of the nasal[n] that occurs within a word. The rule is that within a word the nasal consonant[n] assumes the same place of articulation as the following consonant. The negative prefix “in-“ serves as a good example. It may be pronounced as [in], or [im] when occurring i n different phonetic contexts: e. g., indiscrete-[ ](alveolar)inconceivable-[ ](velar)input-[…imput](bilabial)The “deletion rule” tells us when a sound is to be deleted although is orthographically represented. While the letter “g” is mute in “sign”, “design” and “paradigm”, it is pronounced in their corresponding derivatives: “signature”, “designation” and “paradigmatic”. The rule then can be stated as: delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. This accounts for some of the seeming irregularities of the English spelling (see Dai Weidong ,pp22-23).1.41.What is suprasegmental phonology? What are suprasegmental features? “Suprasegmental phonology” refers to the study of phonological properties of linguistic units larger than the segment called phoneme, such as syllable, word and sentence.Hu Zhuanglin et al.,(p,73) includes stress, length and pitch as what they suppose to be “principal suprasegmental features”, calling the concurrent patterning of three “intonation”. Dai Weidong(pp23-25) lists three also, but they are stress, tone and intonation.。

语言学概论重难点解析一、语言和言语的区别与联系。

（一）语言和言语的区别1.语言是表达思想的工具、是交际的工具，言语则是使用语言工具的行为和结果。

就这一点而言，它们是工具与对工具运用的关系。

2.言语是个人的，语言是社会的。

言语是个人的言语行为，以个人的意志为转移，因而言语具有个人因素。

可以说，每个人说话的嗓音、每个音的具体发音、每个人使用的词语和句子结构等方面都有个人的特色，而且每一个人每一次说话都可能是不同的。

语言是属于社会的，语言要遵循一个原则：全社会都能顺利地进行交流。

语言是从言语中归纳出的一套标准、准则的系统，是音义结合，由词汇、语法构成的一个完整的体系，因而它具有社会因素。

3.语言是有限的、封闭的，言语是无限的、开放的。

语言的材料、规则是有限的，相对稳定的，因而也是相对封闭的。

如现代汉语有400多个音节，上千个语素，几十万个词，语法规则更加有限。

汉语如此，其他语种无不如此，其音位、词汇、语法规则都是有限的。

而且变化缓慢，相对稳定。

言语的开放性，则表现为利用有限的材料和规则造出所需要的无限的句子。

从组合关系上讲，其长度可以是无限长的（从理论上讲）。

（如：学生。

是学生。

是中文系的学生。

他是中文系的学生。

……他是闽江学院中文系二年级一班的学生。

……）人们可以利用聚合关系来替换语言链条上的各个环节，因而即使在句子的长度相同的情况下，仍然可以造出各种各样的句子来。

（例如：①我们热爱祖国。

②他们喜欢唱歌。

③小张爱好音乐。

……理论上讲可以是无限的）数量有限的语音形式和语义内容结合成语素。

数量有限的语素构成数量有限的词语。

数量有限的语法规则支配数量有限的词语，造出无穷无尽的句子，这就是言语的无限性。

语言的有限性，免除了人们不必要的过重的记忆负担；言语的无限性，使人们能够造出各种各样的句子，充分满足交际的需要。

（二）语言和言语的联系语言和言语又有非常密切的联系。

一方面，语言存在于言语之中，言语是语言存在的形式。

《语言学概论》第一模块语言的性质重点难点剖析本模块内容包括导言、语言的功能及语言是符号系统三个部分。

结合具体教学内容看，各部分重难点分析如下。

“导言”是语言学概论课程的入口，通过学习，要了解语言学的学科性质，重点把握：1.语言学的三大发源地——中国、印度、希腊－罗马，小学是我国古代语文学的统称，由训诂学、文字学、音韵学三部分组成。

2.语言学发展的简要历史：语文学阶段，没有成为一门独立的学科；19世纪，形成了历史比较语言学，标志着语言学成为一门独立的学科；20世纪初，索绪尔《普通语言学教程》极大地促进了语言研究的深入和发展，为形成系统的现代语言学理论体系奠定了基础。

语言学从此成为一门现代科学。

“语言的功能”部分主要讲述了语言的社会功能和思维功能。

语言的社会功能理解和掌握两个方面的内容——语言的信息传递功能和人际互动功能，信息传递功能是语言的社会功能中最基本的功能。

关于思维功能要着重理解语言和思维的关系，思维离不开语言，必须借助语言材料才能进行。

语言也离不开思维，二者是互相依存，共同发展的。

“语言是符号系统”重点理解和把握：1.语言和说话的关系。

语言和说话既有区别，也有联系。

两者的联系主要体现在：语言存在于说话之中，说话是语言的存在方式；说话也离不开语言；语言的发展变化是从说话开始的。

两者的区别主要在于：语言的有限性和说话的无限性，语言的社会性和说话的个人性。

2.语言符号是由音、义的结合构成的。

“音”是语言符号的物质表现形式，“义”是语言符号的内容，只有音和义相结合才能指称现实现象，构成语言的符号。

也就是说，语言这种符号是通过声音来代表一定的意义的。

每一个语言符号都是由形式和内容两部分构成的统一体。

3.语言符号的任意性和线条性是语言符号的基本特点。

语言符号的任意性指语言的声音形式和意义内容之间的联系是任意的，由社会约定俗成的，没有必然的、本质的联系。

语言符号的线条性指符号的使用只能在时间的线条上绵延，一个符号跟着一个符号依次出现。