Ageing behavior of a Cu-bearing ultrahigh strength stee

ultra-high cycle tension and compression fatigue behavior of FV520B steelLei Zhou 1,2, Yanan Song 2, Haidou Wang 2, Guolu Li 1, Jianjun Zhang 1(1. School of Materials Science and Engineering, Hebei University of Technology, Tianjin 300130;2. National Key Lab for Remanufacturing, Academy of Armored Forces Engineering, Beijing 100072;)Abstract ：In order to explore the ultra high cycle fatigue behavior of compressor impeller material FV520B steel, using ultrasonic fatigue testing system to test plate specimens of FV520B steel under the condition of ultra-high cycle tension and compression. First of all, the SEM was used to observe the micro fracture morphology of the specimens, and then ABAQUS was used to simulate the ultra-high cycle fatigue of specimens containing inclusions with different properties. Finally, comparing with the ultra-high cycle fatigue behavior of the dog bone specimen, and analysing its fatigue mechanism. The experimental results show that the rougher the specimen surface is, the more likely it is that the surface failure mechanism will occur; The larger the elastic modulus of inclusions deviate the substrate ’s, the larger the stress concentration at the inclusions is, more easy to fatigue crack initiation and propagation in here, and the fatigue crack initiation potential is greater at the inclusion of lower elastic modulus than substrate ’s; For the softer inclusion, the K S increases with the increase of the defect size, but is opposite to the harder inclusions.Key words : Ultra-high cycle fatigue; fatigue crack initiation; fatigue failure mechanism; fatigue fracture morphologyNOMENCLATUREsteel FV520B of strength T ensile =R surfacespecimen of Roughness =R specimenplate of part middle the of Radius =R specimenof life Fatigue =N roughnesssurface of spacing average and depth average T he =n m,specimenplate of side one on plate square of Length =L specimenplate of section middle of length Half =L specimenplate of length Half =L defectof t coefficien ion concentrat stress the =K defectof elasticity of Modulus =E materialssubstrate of elasticity of Modulus =E steelFV520B of modulus Elastic =E defectof Radius =d/2specimenplate the of t coefficien stress nt displaceme vibration T he =C defectof t coefficien Position =C specimenplate of dth widest wi T he =b specimenplate of width minimum T he =b defectof size Equivalent =A surfacefracture a on defect a of area projected T he =A specimenplate of amplitude nt displaceme vibration T he =A m a 021S S def s 21R inc 0defect a of limit failure fatigue T he =σspecimenplate on the loaded is that stress maximum T he =steelFV520B of strength Yield =σdefectsat Stress =σinternaland surfacematerial on crack fatigue of amplitude factor intensity stress Critical =ΔK ,ΔK defectinternal and defect surface of amplitude factor intensity Stress =ΔK ,ΔK defectthe around amplitude factor intensity Stress =K steelFV520B of Density =ρspecimenplate of thickness =w surfacespecimen the from defect of depth T he =S w R,max 0.2th -I th -S D -I D -S inc1. introduction ：With the development of modern industry, in many engineering fields,the design requirements of the material components can withstand up to tens of millions cycles of repeated load. such as aircraft, high-speed train , heavy pressure machine impeller, bridge engineering and ocean engineering, etc. The engineering demand has promoted the rapid development of the study of the ultra high cycle fatigue.Centrifugal compressor is a typical high speed rotary energy device with gas as working medium, widely used in petroleum, chemical industry, refrigeration, mines, power and metallurgical engineering, has become the key equipment in the national economy and national defense industry. As the core component of centrifugal compressor, the impeller is the main load-bearing transmission energy component.The centrifugal force produced by the high speed rotation of the impeller is the main stress of the blade in the service process, and the instability of the operating speed will cause the axial alternating stress of the impeller. This high frequency, low stress, alternating effect of small strain will lead the fatigue life of impeller far more than 107 stress cycles, then enter the scope of ultra high cycle fatigue research. Therefore, the ultra high cycle of FV520B steel fatigue performance has important engineering significance to verify the service reliability of impeller in the process. This alternating action of high frequency, low stress, small strain will lead to the fatigue life of the impeller is far more than 107 of the stress cycle [1-3]. Therefore, it is of great engineering significance to study the fatigue behavior of FV520B steel under very high cycle fatigue.2. Test materials and methods2.1 Test materialThe test material is compressor impeller blade ——FV520B martensite precipitation hardening stainless steel. The chemical composition is shown in Table1.Table1 Chemical Composition of FV520B SteelelementC Si Mn P S mass fraction(％)≤0.07 ≤0.07 ≤1.0 ≤0.03 ≤0.03 NiCr Cu Nb Mo Fe 5.0-6.0 13.2-14.5 1.3-1.8 0.25-0.45 1.3-1.8 allowanceThe material is subjected to heat treatment in order to obtain good mechanical properties [4-6].The detailed heat treatment process is shown in Table 2，and the mechanical and physical properties are shown in Table 3.Table2 Heat treatment process of FV520B steelHeat treatment process Temperature(℃)processing time (h)Cooling modeSolid melt treatment1050 ±10 1.5–2.5Cooling in air modulation 850 ±10 1.5–2.5Cooling in oilAging treatment480 ±10 2.0–3.0Cooling in airTable3 Mechanical properties and physical properties of FV520B steel Tensile strength Yield strength Elastic modulus Density HardnessR m = 1309 MPaσ0.2= 1080 MPa E = 210 GPaρ = 7.86 g/cm3367.5 HV0.12.2 Dimensions of ultrasonic fatigue test specimensThe characteristic size of ultrasonic fatigue specimen must satisfy the same natural frequency as the test system (20 kHz). First, calculating the specimen size to meet the requirements of the test by the analytic method. Second, sanded and polished specimens, let its roughness meet the requirements (Ra=0.8), to remove the specimen surface defects. The shape of the ultrasonic tension and compression fatigue plate specimen is shown in Figure 1, both ends are square plate, and the middle profile curve is exponential. However, it is difficult to machine the index profile, so it is replaced by arc curve, and arc radius is R0.Figure 1 Ultrasonic tension and compression fatigue plate specimenEach pattern in the figure values are as follows: unit (mm)w=12, b1 = 3, b2 = 16, L1 = 18.65, L2 = 22.15, R0 = 30.2.3 Fatigue testUltrasonic fatigue test system with vibration frequency of 20kHz was used for this test, as shown in Fig.2. The core part of the test system including: ultrasonic generator, piezoelectric ceramic transducer, displacement amplifier, test control and detection system.The ultrasonic generator converts the electrical signal of 50 Hz to the electrical signal of the 20 kHz, providing theexciting power source and the ultrasonic electrical signal to the test system. The piezoelectric ceramic transducer converts the 20 kHz ultrasonic electrical signal to a 20 kHz mechanical vibration signal, but the amplitude of the output displacement is very small (nanometer level), which can not meet the test requirements. The displacement amplifier amplifies the displacement amplitude to the desired range of displacement and transmits it to the fatigue specimen.Fig.2Ultrasonic fatigue test systemFig.3 Ultrasonic fatigue test system and displacement distribution curveFig.3 is the u ltrasonic fatigue test system and displacement distribution curve. The displacement amplitude of the displacement amplifier(C cross section ) is the largest(A 0). The specimen size is determined, can obtain the relationship between maximum stress (σmax ) in the specimen and maximum displacement of vibration input end, as follow:s 0max C A =σ （1）Cs is the vibration displacement stress coefficient of the specimen, which is related to the dynamic elastic modulus, density and the geometry of the specimen. After the specimen is machined, the vibration modality can be determined, and Cs can be considered as constant. Therefore, by controlling the vibration displacement amplitude of the input end of the fatigue specimen, the fatigue test under different stress levels can be realized. T he tests stoped when the cycle times reached 2×109, even if the specimen has not broken. The fracture morphology of the fracture specimen was observed by scanning electron microscope to analyze the failure mechanism of the ultra high cycle fatigue.3 experimental resuits3.1 S-N curvesTable 4 gives the FV520B steel plate tension compression fatigue test data ，and thecorresponding fatigue test data points are shown in Figure 4. We can find that the fatigue life increases with the decrease of stress under the 108 cycles. However, when the cycle time is more than 108, the traditional fatigue test platform appears. Therefore, the experimental data in thedeclining phase can be described by Basquin equation, and the life curve (S-N) can be obtained by data fitting method:391412max 107.08⨯=，σN (2)Table 4 Fatigue test data of plate ultrasonic tension compressionσmax(MPa) 600 550 500 450 400 380 350Fatigue Life (cycle) 1.66×106 1.52×106 1.10×107 1.06×108 6.05×107未断裂未断裂1.12×106 2.57×106 1.90×1077.20×107 1.08×107未断裂未断裂—— 5.73×106 1.02×107 2.03×107未断裂———————— 1.07×107 1.96×107未断裂————Figure 4 fatigue life curve of FV520B steel plate3.2 SEM observation of fracture surfacesTypical fracture morphology of ultrasonic tension compression fatigue failure, as shown in Figure 5. During the whole life period, all the crack source of the fracture specimen was formed on the surface of the specimen，and the internal crack initiation failure was not found. In the whole fracture, the fatigue crack growth presents the sector. It is clearly visible the crack initiation zone, crack propagation region and instantaneous fault zone. The fatigue crack is formed at the mechanical defect of the specimen, which is mainly caused by the surface damage left from the later processing. Under the action of cyclic stress, stress concentration occurs on the surface defect of specimen, in where crack initiated and propagated toward the interior of the specimen; there are cleavage planes which have different shapes and sizes. That is because the cleavage fracture of crystalline grains durning the crack initiation. The crack propagation region is smooth, and the parallel fatigue striations are clearly visible which perpendicular to the crack propagation direction. It is generally believed that the parallel spacing of fatigue striation is directly proportional to the stress intensity factor and the crack growth length; There is a tearing phenomenon in the interface between the fault zone and the extension area, which shows the typical two crack characteristics, and a typical dimple morphology was found in the torn section, small and uniform, very similar to tensile test results[7-12].Figure 5 Fatigue fracture morphology of specimen under ultrasonic tension and compression：(a) (b)and(c) σmax = 600 MPa, N = 1.12 × 106; (d) σmax= 500 MPa, N = 1.02×107; (e) σmax = 450 MPa, N = 2.03 × 107; (f) σmax = 400MPa, N = 6.05 ×1074 Discussions4.1 Failure mechanism and simulationThe crack sources of the test specimens are all at the surface defects. Therefore, it is significant to study the local stress distribution of the material defects to reveal the fatigue crack initiation mechanism of FV520B steel. Using ABAQUS finite element software, based on thetwo-dimensional axisymmetric model, the two-dimensional model of plate tensile specimen was established，as shown in Figure 6(a). The unit type of CPS4R is used as the mesh generation of the specimen, as shown in Figure6(b)[13].Figure 6Finite element model of plate tensile specimen:(a) Axisymmetric two-dimensional model; (b)Mesh generation of two dimensional modelDifferent elastic moduli are set up to represent the different defect properties, which are defined by the elastic modulus ratio of different materials and defects(E def/E S). The shape of the defect is considered to be spherical (two dimensional model is circular), and the effect of defect size on the distribution stste of the specimen is studied by changing the diameter of the defect; The location of the defect is represented by the ratio(S/d) of the distance(S) from defect to specimen surface to the diameter(d) of the defect, and the influence of the position of the defect on the stress distribution in the specimen is studied by changing the ratio. The ratio of the actual maximum stress of the specimen with defects and the maximum stress of the specimen without defect is used as the stress concentration coefficient(K S) to characterize the influence of the defect on the internalstress state of the specimen.4.1.1 Effect of defects property on fatigue crack initiationThe variation rule of stress concentration coefficient(K S)at defect of specimens with different defect properties and defect location is shown in Figue7. We can found, when the elastic modulus of the defect is less than that of the substrate(E def < E S), the stress concentration coefficient increases first and then decreases with the defect location moves from the surface to interior of the specimen.In addition，when the defect is located near the surface, the stress concentration coefficient is the largest, where has the greatest potential for the initiation of fatigue crack, and the minimum probability of the initiation of the fatigue crack at the center of the specimen; For the elastic modulus of the defect is more than that of the substrate(E def >E S), the variation tendency of stress concentration coefficient is contrary to the relatively soft defect(E def < E S), and the value is much smaller; When the defects with the same elastic modulus to the substrate and the residual stress isnot considered, the influence of defects on stress concentration coefficient is almost zero. On the whole, the performance of material defects increasingly deviate from the substrate performance (increase or decrease), the effect of the stress distribution state is bigger.Figure 7 The variation rule of stress concentration coefficient at defect of specimens with defect location 4.1.2Effect of defect size on fatigue crack initiationFirstly, the effect of stomatal location on the stress state is studied when the stomatal size is different，as shown in Figure8. It can be seen that for the different diameter of the stomates, the variation rule of the stress concentration coefficient is similar with the position, and the maximum value is reached at the near surface; For the same position, the larger the diameter of the stomates, the greater the stress concentration coefficient of the stomates, the higher the probability of crackinitiation.Figure 8 The relationship between stress concentration coefficient of stomatal with different sizes and defectlocationWhen E def < E S (E def/E S = 1/2), the relationship between stress concentration coefficient of inclusion defect and position of inclusion defect is shown in Figure9. It can be seen that the stress concentration coefficient of inclusions increases first and then decreases with the inclusion location moves from the surface to interior of the specimen, and the stomata can be regarded as the result of E def approaching zero, which is similar to the variation rule of stomata[14]. The stress concentration degree of the inclusions with different diameters is the highest in the near surface, although the maximum stress concentration coefficient increases with the increase of the defect diameter, but the amplitude of the increase is small; However, when the inclusions are elsewhere, the larger the size of the inclusions, the higher the stress concentration coefficient, and the size of the defect has a great influence on the stress concentration coefficient, In other words, for two different diameters of inclusions, the K S of the larger internal inclusion will be the same as that of the smaller surface inclusion near the surface of the specimen, and the internal larger inclusions also have a higher probability of fatigue crack initiation. Therefore, for the inclusion defects of E def < E S, it can be concluded that the initiation of fatigue crack is related to the size of the inclusions and the location of the inclusions.Figure9 When E def/E S = 1/2, the relationship between stress concentration coefficient of inclusion defectand position of inclusion defectWhen E def > E S (E def/E S = 2/1), the relationship between stress concentration coefficient of inclusion defect and position of inclusion defect is shown in Figure10. It can be seen that the stress concentration coefficient of inclusion defects from surface to the center of the specimen decreases first and then increases and then decreases, reached the maximum value at the surface(S/d = 0) of the specimen, the higher probability of fatigue crack initiation in the inclusions on the surface and at the center of the specimen, the stress concentration of the inclusions is the lowest, and the probability of fatigue crack initiation is the smallest, which is contrary to the variation rule of stress concentration coefficient of the inclusion defects(E def < E S). In addition, it can also be found that at the same position, the larger the diameter of the inclusions, the lower the stress concentration degree, the main reason is that the larger hard inclusions can help the substrate to withstand cyclic load, reduce the load of the substrate.However, when the inclusions are elsewhere, the K S of the smaller internal inclusion will be the same as that of the larger surface inclusion near the surface of the specimen, that is, the smaller and deeper inclusions will also become the source of fatigue cracks. Comparing E def > E S and E def < E S two types of inclusion defects, we can found that the stress concentrationdegree of E def < E S is obviously higher than E def > E S’s. This shows that when the elastic modulus of inclusion smaller than substrate’s, fatigue crack initiation potential is greater, more likely to induce fatigue fracture failure.Figure10 When E def/E S = 2/1, the relationship between stress concentration coefficient of inclusion defect andposition of inclusion defect4.2 Comparative analysis of fatigue behavior of specimens with dog bone shapeAs shown in Figure11, the ultra high cycle fatigue data of dog bone shape FV520B steel specimens with different roughness are given. We can find that the S-N curves of the specimens with good surface quality have the characteristics of double line type, corresponding to the two fatigue failure mechanisms----surface crack initiation mechanism and internal crack initiation mechanism. The surface condition only affects the fatigue life of surface failure; For the surface roughness of the specimen(R a = 0.6), the failure mode of fitigue is mainly the surface crack fracture mechanism, so the S-N curve is similar to the traditional fatigue research, and there is an obvious fatigue platform, that is the fatigue limit[15-17].Figure11 the ultra high cycle fatigue data of dog bone shape FV520B steel specimens with differentroughnessFigure12 Competitive failure mechanism of ultra high cycle fatigueAccording to the analysis, the root cause of the fatigue crack initiation on the surface or in the interior is the stress intensity factor of surface defects and internal defects, just is the formula as follows ：inc inc A C K πσ=∆ (3)As shown in Figure 12, the amplitude of stress intensity factor of surface defects and internal defects(ΔK S-D, ΔK I-D ) corresponds to the amplitude of critical stress intensity factor of fatigue crackinitiation on specimen surface and internal (ΔK S-th, ΔK I-th ). When ΔK S-D >ΔK S-th , the fatigue crack initiation and propagation in the specimen surface, causing the surface fatigue failure; When ΔK S-D <ΔK S-th , fatigue crack initiation is not at the surface of the specimen, which corresponds to the traditional fatigue limit of material [18-20]. Similarly, for internal defects, it has the same characteristics, but because of the limitations of the test method, the fatigue limit of the internal fatigue failure has not been found yet. Therefore, the above two failure mechanisms are respectively corresponding to the fatigue life of surface failure and internal failure, the two are independent of each other and competitive in the fatigue failure process.Through comparative analysis of the test date and the fatigue specimen date(R a = 0.6),we can found that the fatigue limit of the former(400 MPa) is less than that of the latter(500 MPa), due to fatigue crack sources of two specimen initiated in the surface of the specimen, if the surface roughness of the specimen is considered as the surface defects, which equivalent defect size(A R ) and surface roughness with the following relationship ：0.1952nm 2n m 9.74-2n m 3.51-2n m 2.972n 32≤⎪⎭⎫ ⎝⎛⎪⎭⎫ ⎝⎛⎪⎭⎫ ⎝⎛=，R A (4) 0.1952nm 0.382n 〉≈，R A (5) Among them, m and n represent the average depth and the average peak spacing of the surface roughness. The fatigue limit resulting from this defect as follows: 1/6,1201.43）（）（R W R A HV +=σ (6) Therefore, with the increase of surface roughness, the corresponding fatigue limit decreases gradually [21-22]. In addition, through the comparison of the data can be found in the 500 ~ 600MPa stress range, the fatigue life of the plate specimens was higher than that of dog bone shape specimens, this bacause surface state only affect the initiation of surface cracks, after the fatigue crack initiation, there is a certain relationship between the crack propagation region and the area of dangerous section of specimen; The area of the dangerous section of the plate specimen(3×6.5=19.5mm 2) is much larger than the area of the dangerous section of the dog boneshape specimen （π×（3/2）2=7.1mm ）, so the crack extension area of the plate specimen is much largerthan that of the dog bone shape specimen, which leads to the difference of the fatigue life under the same stress.5. ConclusionsBased on the designed ultrasonic compression fatigue specimen geometry, carrying out ultra high cycle fatigue test of FV520B steel with the ultrasonic fatigue testing system, getting the test date and to draw the S-N curve. By using the method of numerical simulation to research the effect of the mechanical defects properties, geometrical size and position distribution on the fatigue crack initiation mechanism. Through comparative analysis of experimental data with specimens’ with dog bone shape to research ultra high cycle fatigue mechanism of specimens. Based on the above experimental results, conclusions are obtained as follows:(1) When more than 108 cycle loading, there is traditional platforms in fatigue life curve ofspecimens; Each stage of fatigue crack growth clearly in fracture morphology, all the cracksinitiation in machining defects at the surface of the specimen; The specimen of surface roughness(Ra=0.8) due to the stress intensity factor range of surface defects is larger, more easily in the surface fatigue crack initiation, to appear surface failure mechanism; When the loading stress is lower than the fatigue limit of surface crack initiation mechanism corresponding to, fatigue crack initiation not in the surface, the low loading stress makes the fatigue life of the corresponding internal crack initiation mechanism far more than the life range test method set;(2) The elastic modulus of material inclusions increasingly deviate from the elastic modulus ofsubstrate (increase or decrease), the stress concentration is greater and the fatigue crack initiation and propagation is more easily at the inclusion; The stress concentration coefficient ofE def < E S inclusions was significantly higher than that of E def > E S inclusions, where theelastic modulus of inclusion smaller than substrate’s, fatigue crack initiation potential is greater;(3) For E def < E S inclusion, the K S increases with the increasing size of defectsand, and themaximum value is reached at the near surface; For E def > E S inclusion, K S showed the opposite trend, and reached the maximum value at the surface of the specimen;REFERENCES1.Zemp, A. and Abhari, R. 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channel卷边槽钢lipped zees, lipped Z-bar卷边Z形钢inclined brace斜撑rail栏杆Steel rail钢轨Steel rail fastening钢轨扣件ring beam圈梁rivet铆钉riveted connection铆钉连接riveted steel beam铆接钢梁riveted steel structure铆接钢结构ro11ed beam型钢梁roof bracing system屋架支撑系统roof plate屋面板roof truss屋架corbel牛腿3、covered electrode焊条，电焊条arc weld 电弧焊automatic submerged arc welding 埋弧自动焊automatic welding 自动焊接back chipping 清根butt weld 对接焊缝continuous weld连续焊缝fillet weld角焊缝girth weld环形焊缝leg size of fillet weld角焊缝焊脚尺寸flat welding position平焊plug weld塞焊缝point welding点焊groove坡口groove weld坡口焊缝longitudinal weld纵向焊缝slot weld槽焊缝interface接口effective cross-section area of fillet weld角焊缝有效截面积effective depth of section截面有效高度effective length of fillet weld角焊缝有效计算长度incomplete penetration未焊透incomplete fusion未溶合incompletely filled groove未焊满slag inclusion夹渣weld焊缝weld crack焊接裂纹weld defects焊接缺陷welded steel structure焊接钢结构welding rod焊条welding wire焊丝gas cutting气割gas welding气焊edge cutting铲边edge planning刨边rust removal by spurting iron sand抛丸除锈rust removal by spurting sand喷砂除锈4、bolt 螺栓nut螺母pitch螺距finished bolt精制螺栓anchor bolt 锚栓bolted connection 螺栓连接assembling joint 拼接接头effective diameter of bolt or high-strength bolt螺栓(或高强度螺栓)有效直径high-strength bolt高强度螺栓high-strength bolt with large hexagon bead大六角头高强度螺栓high-strength bolted bearing type join承压型高强度螺栓连接high-strength bolted connection高强度螺栓连接high-strength bolted friction－type connection摩擦型高强度螺栓连接high-strength bolted friction-type joint摩擦型高强度螺栓连接hinged connection铰接dowel action销栓作用dowelled joint销连接linen tape皮尺dial gauge百分表documents文档telescope望远镜jack千斤顶grip夹具hoisting ring吊环truck crane 吊车Compensate a machine补偿器5、crack裂缝crack width裂缝宽度cutting切割deflection挠度deformation joint变形缝settlement joint沉降缝expansion joint伸缩缝self weight自重construction weight结构自重cavitations 孔洞chimney 烟囱net height净高clear height 净高relative elevation相对高程winter construction冬期施工safety factor安全系数local stability局部稳定local instability局部失稳high level water-supply tank高位给水箱her－resistance rating耐火等级acceptable quality 合格质量compliance control合格控制1ive 1oad on roof屋面活荷载Action 作用ageing of structure 结构老化6、general progress schedule of construction project建设项目总进度计划invite tenders of project construction建筑工程施工招标preparation for construction建设准备annual schedule of construction project 建设项目年度计划architectural design 建筑设计building 建筑物building area 建筑面积building height 建筑高度building construction design 建筑构造设计building construction standard 建筑标准building construction survey 建筑施工测量building density 建筑密度building installation engineering contract 建筑安装工程合同building main axis 建筑主轴线building waterproofing 建筑防水fire prevention for building建筑防火fire protection design of structure结构防火设计building ground elevation 地坪标高construction basis建设依据construction condition建设条件construction joint施工缝construction period建设工期construction standard建设标准construction project建设项目design of building structures建筑结构设计design strength设计强度construction构造detailing requirements构造要求ductile failure延性破坏ductility延性dotty factor延性系数durability耐久性durability of structure结构耐久性7、earthquake地震earthquake action地震作用earthquake resistant behavior of structure结构抗震性能earthquake resistant capacity of structure结构抗震能力earthquake resistant design of structure结构抗震设计earthquake-resistant detailing requirements抗震构造要求effective height计算高度elevation标高elongation rate伸长率engineering survey工程测量8、inclined section斜截面load荷载loading加载pressure压力pressure venting泄压residual stress残余应力stress应力stress concentration应力集中yield point屈服点yield strength屈服强度fatigue strength疲劳强度9、inspection and turning-over of completed project竣工验收general plan of completed project竣工总平面图completed drawing竣工图completed project竣工项目final account for completed project竣工决算10、cement 水泥Sand沙子Pebble石子Concrete混凝土Reinforcing bar钢筋Template模板Shear a dint wall剪力墙Scaffo ld脚手架Mix blend搅拌fired common brick烧结普通砖flow construction流水施工foundation基础frame框架frame structure框架结构11、碳钢管 carbon steel tube公称直径 nominal diameter预埋件 embedded part轴测图 axonometric drawing布置图 arrangement diagram氧乙炔气割 oxyacetylene gas cutting 低合金钢管 low alloy steel型钢 profile steel钢板 steel plate熔渣 slag飞溅 welding spatter定位焊 tacking引弧 generating of arc。

投稿格式要求1 板式纸张大小：纸的尺寸为标准A4复印纸（210mm ×297mm ）页边距：上3cm ，下3cm ，左3cm ，右3cm ，页眉2cm ，页脚2cm 2 论文撰写必须包括以下项目：2.1 文章题目（一般不超过20字） 范例：2.2范例：（1．珠海市公路建设中心，广东 珠海2.3 中文摘要、关键词（4~8个）、中图分类号（1）摘要应写成报道式摘要，按照目的、方法、结果、结论四要素来撰写。

摘要是以提供文献内容梗概为目的，不加评论和补充解释，简明、确切地记述文献重要内容地短文，避免使用第一人称，应使用第三人称，摘要不分段，字数以200~300字为宜。

（2）关键词的选择应规范。

第一个关键词为该文所属相应栏目名称，第二个关键词为该文研究成果名称，第三个关键词为得到该文研究成果所采用的方法名称，第四个关键词为作为该文主要研究对象的事物名称，第五个及以后的关键词为作者认为有利于文献检索的其他名词。

范例：验，总结了疲劳方程及疲劳曲线，对比分析了3种添加剂稳定的冷再生基层混合料疲劳试验结果，并从疲劳曲线特征及疲劳破坏特征两方面，同普通半刚性材料的疲劳性能进行了比较分析。

结果表明，石灰粉煤灰稳定的再生混合料杭疲劳性能最好，其次是水泥粉煤灰，7%水泥稳定的再生混合料杭疲劳性能较差；再生混合料的疲劳特性与普通半刚性材料存在较大差异，在较低：道路工程；冷再生混合料；疲劳试验；：U416.26 文献标识码：A2.4 引言、正文、结语（1）汉字字体字号选5号宋体，外文、数字字号与同行汉字字号相同，字体用Time New Roman 体。

（2）引言是论文内容的重要提示，作者在引言中应概述前人在该领域内所做的工作，并陈述论文在此基础上所取得的成果和突破。

（3）结语中应指出该论文的独创性成果及存在的局限，以方便他人在此基础上做进一步的研究。

（4）正文中的图、表按出现的先后顺序进行编号，图务必清晰、精确，图名、表名必须有中文表述，坐标图的横、纵坐标必须标明其对应的量及单位。

2023年第47卷第4期Journal of Mechanical Transmission新能源汽车用高速深沟球轴承保持架设计与验证于庆峰（舍弗勒贸易（上海）有限公司，上海201805）摘要高速深沟球轴承广泛应用于新能源汽车驱动电动机及减速箱中，随着新能源汽车的技术发展，对其精度、寿命和可靠性提出了更高的要求。

高速深沟球轴承失效的主要形式之一是保持架断裂。

系统分析了高速深沟球轴承中保持架的受力来源及对应状态下的应力及应变状态，发现保持架自身离心力是最大影响因素；有针对性地提出了高速保持架设计方案；采用Abaqus及CABA3D进行仿真验证，并通过了台架试验及客户装机测试。

研究对高速深沟球轴承的保持架设计、提高轴承可靠性等具有重要借鉴意义。

关键词高速深沟球轴承保持架设计离心力断裂Research and Validation of Cage Design of High Speed Deep Groove BallBearings for New Energy VehiclesYu Qingfeng（Schaeffler Trading (Shanghai) Co., Ltd., Shanghai 201805, China）Abstract High-speed deep groove ball bearings are widely used in drive motors and reducers of new energy vehicles, and the requirements of bearing accuracy, life and reliability are getting higher and higher with development of new energy vehicles technology. One of the main failures of high speed ball bearings is cage fractures. In this study, the relationship between the cage stress and the strain is systematically analyzed, the centrifugal force of the cage itself is indicated as the biggest influencing factor, and key points of cage design are proposed. The simulation results are verified by Abaqus and CABA3D; the bench test and customer installation testing are verified. The research is important for cage design of high speed ball bearings and improving bearing reliability.Key words High speed deep groove ball bearing Cage design Centrifugal force Fracture0 引言在过去几年中，新能源汽车浪潮汹涌来袭，其销量和对燃油车的渗透率连年大幅增长，更是在2021年实现了352.1万辆销售和同比1.6倍的增长[1]，中国将在2050年以前实现传统燃油车的全面退出[2]。

第一章：应力与应变1.That branch of scientific analysis which motions, times and forces is called mechanics and is made up of two parts, statics and dynamics.研究位移、时间和力运动乘力是科学分析法的一个分歧，被称作力学，力学由两大部分组成，静力学和动力学。

2.For example, if the force operating on a sleeve bearing becomes too high, it will squeeze out the oil film and cause metal-to-metal contact, overheating and rapid failure of the bearing.例如：如果止推轴承上的作用力过大的话，会挤出油膜，引起金属和金属之间的相互接触，轴承将过热而迅速失效。

3.Our intuitive concept of force includes such ideas as place of application, direction, and magnitude, and these are called the characteristics of a force.力的直观概念包括力的作用点、大小、方向，这些被称为力的三要素。

4.All bodies are either elastic or plastic and will be deformed if acted upon by forces. When the deformation of such bodies is small, they are frequently assumed to be rigid, i.e., incapable of deformation, in order to simplify the analysis.所有的物体既可以是弹性的也可以是塑性的，如果受到力的作用就产生变形。

论文模板 （小2号黑体，居中，数字外文加黑，一般20字内）XXX 1,3，XXX 2，XXX 1(4号仿体，居中)(1.北京科技大学材料学系, 北京 100083; 2.内蒙古科技大学材料工程学院, 内蒙古 包头 014010; 3.新金属材料国家重点实验室, 北京 100083)（5号宋体，居中）（全文汉字用“宋体”，数字、符号及英文字母用“Times New Roman ”字体，公式中的符号或字母表示为变量的用斜体，常量用正体表示。

正文用5号宋体，数字和单位之间需要空半格。

）摘 要: 观察并研究了…。

用Frank-Read 强化理论分析……。

结果表明……。

（文字应简明扼要，表达清楚，应避免含混不清和一般性叙述，避免难以理解的长句。

一般不超过300字）小5号宋体关键词: 结构钢；析出相；时效强化（关键词3～6个，用小5号宋体）Ageing strengthening effect of precipitates containing copper in structural steels (首个单词首字母大写，其余均小写，4号黑正，居中)XXX Xxx-xxx 1,3 , XXX Xxx-xxx 2, XXX Xxx-xxx 1 （5号罗马字体，居中）(1. Department of Materials; University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China; 2.…… 3. ……)（5号罗马字体，居中）Abstract : 英文摘要(一般不超过150字)包括目的(Purposes)，主要的研究过程(Procedures)及所采用的方法(Methods)，由此得到的主要结果(Results)和得出的重要结论(Conclusions)。

用过去时态叙述作者的工作和研究方法，用现在时态叙述结论Key words : (3~5个）（小5号罗马字体）1 写作格式（一级标题用4号仿体）正文内容不少于2500字，总字数一般不超过6 000字(4页)。

History of infrared detectorsA.ROGALSKI*Institute of Applied Physics, Military University of Technology, 2 Kaliskiego Str.,00–908 Warsaw, PolandThis paper overviews the history of infrared detector materials starting with Herschel’s experiment with thermometer on February11th,1800.Infrared detectors are in general used to detect,image,and measure patterns of the thermal heat radia−tion which all objects emit.At the beginning,their development was connected with thermal detectors,such as ther−mocouples and bolometers,which are still used today and which are generally sensitive to all infrared wavelengths and op−erate at room temperature.The second kind of detectors,called the photon detectors,was mainly developed during the20th Century to improve sensitivity and response time.These detectors have been extensively developed since the1940’s.Lead sulphide(PbS)was the first practical IR detector with sensitivity to infrared wavelengths up to~3μm.After World War II infrared detector technology development was and continues to be primarily driven by military applications.Discovery of variable band gap HgCdTe ternary alloy by Lawson and co−workers in1959opened a new area in IR detector technology and has provided an unprecedented degree of freedom in infrared detector design.Many of these advances were transferred to IR astronomy from Departments of Defence ter on civilian applications of infrared technology are frequently called“dual−use technology applications.”One should point out the growing utilisation of IR technologies in the civilian sphere based on the use of new materials and technologies,as well as the noticeable price decrease in these high cost tech−nologies.In the last four decades different types of detectors are combined with electronic readouts to make detector focal plane arrays(FPAs).Development in FPA technology has revolutionized infrared imaging.Progress in integrated circuit design and fabrication techniques has resulted in continued rapid growth in the size and performance of these solid state arrays.Keywords:thermal and photon detectors, lead salt detectors, HgCdTe detectors, microbolometers, focal plane arrays.Contents1.Introduction2.Historical perspective3.Classification of infrared detectors3.1.Photon detectors3.2.Thermal detectors4.Post−War activity5.HgCdTe era6.Alternative material systems6.1.InSb and InGaAs6.2.GaAs/AlGaAs quantum well superlattices6.3.InAs/GaInSb strained layer superlattices6.4.Hg−based alternatives to HgCdTe7.New revolution in thermal detectors8.Focal plane arrays – revolution in imaging systems8.1.Cooled FPAs8.2.Uncooled FPAs8.3.Readiness level of LWIR detector technologies9.SummaryReferences 1.IntroductionLooking back over the past1000years we notice that infra−red radiation(IR)itself was unknown until212years ago when Herschel’s experiment with thermometer and prism was first reported.Frederick William Herschel(1738–1822) was born in Hanover,Germany but emigrated to Britain at age19,where he became well known as both a musician and an astronomer.Herschel became most famous for the discovery of Uranus in1781(the first new planet found since antiquity)in addition to two of its major moons,Tita−nia and Oberon.He also discovered two moons of Saturn and infrared radiation.Herschel is also known for the twenty−four symphonies that he composed.W.Herschel made another milestone discovery–discov−ery of infrared light on February11th,1800.He studied the spectrum of sunlight with a prism[see Fig.1in Ref.1],mea−suring temperature of each colour.The detector consisted of liquid in a glass thermometer with a specially blackened bulb to absorb radiation.Herschel built a crude monochromator that used a thermometer as a detector,so that he could mea−sure the distribution of energy in sunlight and found that the highest temperature was just beyond the red,what we now call the infrared(‘below the red’,from the Latin‘infra’–be−OPTO−ELECTRONICS REVIEW20(3),279–308DOI: 10.2478/s11772−012−0037−7*e−mail: rogan@.pllow)–see Fig.1(b)[2].In April 1800he reported it to the Royal Society as dark heat (Ref.1,pp.288–290):Here the thermometer No.1rose 7degrees,in 10minu−tes,by an exposure to the full red coloured rays.I drew back the stand,till the centre of the ball of No.1was just at the vanishing of the red colour,so that half its ball was within,and half without,the visible rays of theAnd here the thermometerin 16minutes,degrees,when its centre was inch out of the raysof the sun.as had a rising of 9de−grees,and here the difference is almost too trifling to suppose,that latter situation of the thermometer was much beyond the maximum of the heating power;while,at the same time,the experiment sufficiently indi−cates,that the place inquired after need not be looked for at a greater distance.Making further experiments on what Herschel called the ‘calorific rays’that existed beyond the red part of the spec−trum,he found that they were reflected,refracted,absorbed and transmitted just like visible light [1,3,4].The early history of IR was reviewed about 50years ago in three well−known monographs [5–7].Many historical information can be also found in four papers published by Barr [3,4,8,9]and in more recently published monograph [10].Table 1summarises the historical development of infrared physics and technology [11,12].2.Historical perspectiveFor thirty years following Herschel’s discovery,very little progress was made beyond establishing that the infrared ra−diation obeyed the simplest laws of optics.Slow progress inthe study of infrared was caused by the lack of sensitive and accurate detectors –the experimenters were handicapped by the ordinary thermometer.However,towards the second de−cade of the 19th century,Thomas Johann Seebeck began to examine the junction behaviour of electrically conductive materials.In 1821he discovered that a small electric current will flow in a closed circuit of two dissimilar metallic con−ductors,when their junctions are kept at different tempera−tures [13].During that time,most physicists thought that ra−diant heat and light were different phenomena,and the dis−covery of Seebeck indirectly contributed to a revival of the debate on the nature of heat.Due to small output vol−tage of Seebeck’s junctions,some μV/K,the measurement of very small temperature differences were prevented.In 1829L.Nobili made the first thermocouple and improved electrical thermometer based on the thermoelectric effect discovered by Seebeck in 1826.Four years later,M.Melloni introduced the idea of connecting several bismuth−copper thermocouples in series,generating a higher and,therefore,measurable output voltage.It was at least 40times more sensitive than the best thermometer available and could de−tect the heat from a person at a distance of 30ft [8].The out−put voltage of such a thermopile structure linearly increases with the number of connected thermocouples.An example of thermopile’s prototype invented by Nobili is shown in Fig.2(a).It consists of twelve large bismuth and antimony elements.The elements were placed upright in a brass ring secured to an adjustable support,and were screened by a wooden disk with a 15−mm central aperture.Incomplete version of the Nobili−Melloni thermopile originally fitted with the brass cone−shaped tubes to collect ra−diant heat is shown in Fig.2(b).This instrument was much more sensi−tive than the thermometers previously used and became the most widely used detector of IR radiation for the next half century.The third member of the trio,Langley’s bolometer appea−red in 1880[7].Samuel Pierpont Langley (1834–1906)used two thin ribbons of platinum foil connected so as to form two arms of a Wheatstone bridge (see Fig.3)[15].This instrument enabled him to study solar irradiance far into its infrared region and to measure theintensityof solar radia−tion at various wavelengths [9,16,17].The bolometer’s sen−History of infrared detectorsFig.1.Herschel’s first experiment:A,B –the small stand,1,2,3–the thermometers upon it,C,D –the prism at the window,E –the spec−trum thrown upon the table,so as to bring the last quarter of an inch of the read colour upon the stand (after Ref.1).InsideSir FrederickWilliam Herschel (1738–1822)measures infrared light from the sun– artist’s impression (after Ref. 2).Fig.2.The Nobili−Meloni thermopiles:(a)thermopile’s prototype invented by Nobili (ca.1829),(b)incomplete version of the Nobili−−Melloni thermopile (ca.1831).Museo Galileo –Institute and Museum of the History of Science,Piazza dei Giudici 1,50122Florence, Italy (after Ref. 14).Table 1. Milestones in the development of infrared physics and technology (up−dated after Refs. 11 and 12)Year Event1800Discovery of the existence of thermal radiation in the invisible beyond the red by W. HERSCHEL1821Discovery of the thermoelectric effects using an antimony−copper pair by T.J. SEEBECK1830Thermal element for thermal radiation measurement by L. NOBILI1833Thermopile consisting of 10 in−line Sb−Bi thermal pairs by L. NOBILI and M. MELLONI1834Discovery of the PELTIER effect on a current−fed pair of two different conductors by J.C. PELTIER1835Formulation of the hypothesis that light and electromagnetic radiation are of the same nature by A.M. AMPERE1839Solar absorption spectrum of the atmosphere and the role of water vapour by M. MELLONI1840Discovery of the three atmospheric windows by J. HERSCHEL (son of W. HERSCHEL)1857Harmonization of the three thermoelectric effects (SEEBECK, PELTIER, THOMSON) by W. THOMSON (Lord KELVIN)1859Relationship between absorption and emission by G. KIRCHHOFF1864Theory of electromagnetic radiation by J.C. MAXWELL1873Discovery of photoconductive effect in selenium by W. SMITH1876Discovery of photovoltaic effect in selenium (photopiles) by W.G. ADAMS and A.E. DAY1879Empirical relationship between radiation intensity and temperature of a blackbody by J. STEFAN1880Study of absorption characteristics of the atmosphere through a Pt bolometer resistance by S.P. LANGLEY1883Study of transmission characteristics of IR−transparent materials by M. MELLONI1884Thermodynamic derivation of the STEFAN law by L. BOLTZMANN1887Observation of photoelectric effect in the ultraviolet by H. HERTZ1890J. ELSTER and H. GEITEL constructed a photoemissive detector consisted of an alkali−metal cathode1894, 1900Derivation of the wavelength relation of blackbody radiation by J.W. RAYEIGH and W. WIEN1900Discovery of quantum properties of light by M. PLANCK1903Temperature measurements of stars and planets using IR radiometry and spectrometry by W.W. COBLENTZ1905 A. EINSTEIN established the theory of photoelectricity1911R. ROSLING made the first television image tube on the principle of cathode ray tubes constructed by F. Braun in 18971914Application of bolometers for the remote exploration of people and aircrafts ( a man at 200 m and a plane at 1000 m)1917T.W. CASE developed the first infrared photoconductor from substance composed of thallium and sulphur1923W. SCHOTTKY established the theory of dry rectifiers1925V.K. ZWORYKIN made a television image tube (kinescope) then between 1925 and 1933, the first electronic camera with the aid of converter tube (iconoscope)1928Proposal of the idea of the electro−optical converter (including the multistage one) by G. HOLST, J.H. DE BOER, M.C. TEVES, and C.F. VEENEMANS1929L.R. KOHLER made a converter tube with a photocathode (Ag/O/Cs) sensitive in the near infrared1930IR direction finders based on PbS quantum detectors in the wavelength range 1.5–3.0 μm for military applications (GUDDEN, GÖRLICH and KUTSCHER), increased range in World War II to 30 km for ships and 7 km for tanks (3–5 μm)1934First IR image converter1939Development of the first IR display unit in the United States (Sniperscope, Snooperscope)1941R.S. OHL observed the photovoltaic effect shown by a p−n junction in a silicon1942G. EASTMAN (Kodak) offered the first film sensitive to the infrared1947Pneumatically acting, high−detectivity radiation detector by M.J.E. GOLAY1954First imaging cameras based on thermopiles (exposure time of 20 min per image) and on bolometers (4 min)1955Mass production start of IR seeker heads for IR guided rockets in the US (PbS and PbTe detectors, later InSb detectors for Sidewinder rockets)1957Discovery of HgCdTe ternary alloy as infrared detector material by W.D. LAWSON, S. NELSON, and A.S. YOUNG1961Discovery of extrinsic Ge:Hg and its application (linear array) in the first LWIR FLIR systems1965Mass production start of IR cameras for civil applications in Sweden (single−element sensors with optomechanical scanner: AGA Thermografiesystem 660)1970Discovery of charge−couple device (CCD) by W.S. BOYLE and G.E. SMITH1970Production start of IR sensor arrays (monolithic Si−arrays: R.A. SOREF 1968; IR−CCD: 1970; SCHOTTKY diode arrays: F.D.SHEPHERD and A.C. YANG 1973; IR−CMOS: 1980; SPRITE: T. ELIOTT 1981)1975Lunch of national programmes for making spatially high resolution observation systems in the infrared from multielement detectors integrated in a mini cooler (so−called first generation systems): common module (CM) in the United States, thermal imaging commonmodule (TICM) in Great Britain, syteme modulaire termique (SMT) in France1975First In bump hybrid infrared focal plane array1977Discovery of the broken−gap type−II InAs/GaSb superlattices by G.A. SAI−HALASZ, R. TSU, and L. ESAKI1980Development and production of second generation systems [cameras fitted with hybrid HgCdTe(InSb)/Si(readout) FPAs].First demonstration of two−colour back−to−back SWIR GaInAsP detector by J.C. CAMPBELL, A.G. DENTAI, T.P. LEE,and C.A. BURRUS1985Development and mass production of cameras fitted with Schottky diode FPAs (platinum silicide)1990Development and production of quantum well infrared photoconductor (QWIP) hybrid second generation systems1995Production start of IR cameras with uncooled FPAs (focal plane arrays; microbolometer−based and pyroelectric)2000Development and production of third generation infrared systemssitivity was much greater than that of contemporary thermo−piles which were little improved since their use by Melloni. Langley continued to develop his bolometer for the next20 years(400times more sensitive than his first efforts).His latest bolometer could detect the heat from a cow at a dis−tance of quarter of mile [9].From the above information results that at the beginning the development of the IR detectors was connected with ther−mal detectors.The first photon effect,photoconductive ef−fect,was discovered by Smith in1873when he experimented with selenium as an insulator for submarine cables[18].This discovery provided a fertile field of investigation for several decades,though most of the efforts were of doubtful quality. By1927,over1500articles and100patents were listed on photosensitive selenium[19].It should be mentioned that the literature of the early1900’s shows increasing interest in the application of infrared as solution to numerous problems[7].A special contribution of William Coblenz(1873–1962)to infrared radiometry and spectroscopy is marked by huge bib−liography containing hundreds of scientific publications, talks,and abstracts to his credit[20,21].In1915,W.Cob−lentz at the US National Bureau of Standards develops ther−mopile detectors,which he uses to measure the infrared radi−ation from110stars.However,the low sensitivity of early in−frared instruments prevented the detection of other near−IR sources.Work in infrared astronomy remained at a low level until breakthroughs in the development of new,sensitive infrared detectors were achieved in the late1950’s.The principle of photoemission was first demonstrated in1887when Hertz discovered that negatively charged par−ticles were emitted from a conductor if it was irradiated with ultraviolet[22].Further studies revealed that this effect could be produced with visible radiation using an alkali metal electrode [23].Rectifying properties of semiconductor−metal contact were discovered by Ferdinand Braun in1874[24],when he probed a naturally−occurring lead sulphide(galena)crystal with the point of a thin metal wire and noted that current flowed freely in one direction only.Next,Jagadis Chandra Bose demonstrated the use of galena−metal point contact to detect millimetre electromagnetic waves.In1901he filed a U.S patent for a point−contact semiconductor rectifier for detecting radio signals[25].This type of contact called cat’s whisker detector(sometimes also as crystal detector)played serious role in the initial phase of radio development.How−ever,this contact was not used in a radiation detector for the next several decades.Although crystal rectifiers allowed to fabricate simple radio sets,however,by the mid−1920s the predictable performance of vacuum−tubes replaced them in most radio applications.The period between World Wars I and II is marked by the development of photon detectors and image converters and by emergence of infrared spectroscopy as one of the key analytical techniques available to chemists.The image con−verter,developed on the eve of World War II,was of tre−mendous interest to the military because it enabled man to see in the dark.The first IR photoconductor was developed by Theodore W.Case in1917[26].He discovered that a substance com−posed of thallium and sulphur(Tl2S)exhibited photocon−ductivity.Supported by the US Army between1917and 1918,Case adapted these relatively unreliable detectors for use as sensors in an infrared signalling device[27].The pro−totype signalling system,consisting of a60−inch diameter searchlight as the source of radiation and a thallous sulphide detector at the focus of a24−inch diameter paraboloid mir−ror,sent messages18miles through what was described as ‘smoky atmosphere’in1917.However,instability of resis−tance in the presence of light or polarizing voltage,loss of responsivity due to over−exposure to light,high noise,slug−gish response and lack of reproducibility seemed to be inhe−rent weaknesses.Work was discontinued in1918;commu−nication by the detection of infrared radiation appeared dis−tinctly ter Case found that the addition of oxygen greatly enhanced the response [28].The idea of the electro−optical converter,including the multistage one,was proposed by Holst et al.in1928[29]. The first attempt to make the converter was not successful.A working tube consisted of a photocathode in close proxi−mity to a fluorescent screen was made by the authors in 1934 in Philips firm.In about1930,the appearance of the Cs−O−Ag photo−tube,with stable characteristics,to great extent discouraged further development of photoconductive cells until about 1940.The Cs−O−Ag photocathode(also called S−1)elabo−History of infrared detectorsFig.3.Longley’s bolometer(a)composed of two sets of thin plati−num strips(b),a Wheatstone bridge,a battery,and a galvanometer measuring electrical current (after Ref. 15 and 16).rated by Koller and Campbell[30]had a quantum efficiency two orders of magnitude above anything previously studied, and consequently a new era in photoemissive devices was inaugurated[31].In the same year,the Japanese scientists S. Asao and M.Suzuki reported a method for enhancing the sensitivity of silver in the S−1photocathode[32].Consisted of a layer of caesium on oxidized silver,S−1is sensitive with useful response in the near infrared,out to approxi−mately1.2μm,and the visible and ultraviolet region,down to0.3μm.Probably the most significant IR development in the United States during1930’s was the Radio Corporation of America(RCA)IR image tube.During World War II, near−IR(NIR)cathodes were coupled to visible phosphors to provide a NIR image converter.With the establishment of the National Defence Research Committee,the develop−ment of this tube was accelerated.In1942,the tube went into production as the RCA1P25image converter(see Fig.4).This was one of the tubes used during World War II as a part of the”Snooperscope”and”Sniperscope,”which were used for night observation with infrared sources of illumination.Since then various photocathodes have been developed including bialkali photocathodes for the visible region,multialkali photocathodes with high sensitivity ex−tending to the infrared region and alkali halide photocatho−des intended for ultraviolet detection.The early concepts of image intensification were not basically different from those today.However,the early devices suffered from two major deficiencies:poor photo−cathodes and poor ter development of both cathode and coupling technologies changed the image in−tensifier into much more useful device.The concept of image intensification by cascading stages was suggested independently by number of workers.In Great Britain,the work was directed toward proximity focused tubes,while in the United State and in Germany–to electrostatically focused tubes.A history of night vision imaging devices is given by Biberman and Sendall in monograph Electro−Opti−cal Imaging:System Performance and Modelling,SPIE Press,2000[10].The Biberman’s monograph describes the basic trends of infrared optoelectronics development in the USA,Great Britain,France,and Germany.Seven years later Ponomarenko and Filachev completed this monograph writ−ing the book Infrared Techniques and Electro−Optics in Russia:A History1946−2006,SPIE Press,about achieve−ments of IR techniques and electrooptics in the former USSR and Russia [33].In the early1930’s,interest in improved detectors began in Germany[27,34,35].In1933,Edgar W.Kutzscher at the University of Berlin,discovered that lead sulphide(from natural galena found in Sardinia)was photoconductive and had response to about3μm.B.Gudden at the University of Prague used evaporation techniques to develop sensitive PbS films.Work directed by Kutzscher,initially at the Uni−versity of Berlin and later at the Electroacustic Company in Kiel,dealt primarily with the chemical deposition approach to film formation.This work ultimately lead to the fabrica−tion of the most sensitive German detectors.These works were,of course,done under great secrecy and the results were not generally known until after1945.Lead sulphide photoconductors were brought to the manufacturing stage of development in Germany in about1943.Lead sulphide was the first practical infrared detector deployed in a variety of applications during the war.The most notable was the Kiel IV,an airborne IR system that had excellent range and which was produced at Carl Zeiss in Jena under the direction of Werner K. Weihe [6].In1941,Robert J.Cashman improved the technology of thallous sulphide detectors,which led to successful produc−tion[36,37].Cashman,after success with thallous sulphide detectors,concentrated his efforts on lead sulphide detec−tors,which were first produced in the United States at Northwestern University in1944.After World War II Cash−man found that other semiconductors of the lead salt family (PbSe and PbTe)showed promise as infrared detectors[38]. The early detector cells manufactured by Cashman are shown in Fig. 5.Fig.4.The original1P25image converter tube developed by the RCA(a).This device measures115×38mm overall and has7pins.It opera−tion is indicated by the schematic drawing (b).After1945,the wide−ranging German trajectory of research was essentially the direction continued in the USA, Great Britain and Soviet Union under military sponsorship after the war[27,39].Kutzscher’s facilities were captured by the Russians,thus providing the basis for early Soviet detector development.From1946,detector technology was rapidly disseminated to firms such as Mullard Ltd.in Southampton,UK,as part of war reparations,and some−times was accompanied by the valuable tacit knowledge of technical experts.E.W.Kutzscher,for example,was flown to Britain from Kiel after the war,and subsequently had an important influence on American developments when he joined Lockheed Aircraft Co.in Burbank,California as a research scientist.Although the fabrication methods developed for lead salt photoconductors was usually not completely under−stood,their properties are well established and reproducibi−lity could only be achieved after following well−tried reci−pes.Unlike most other semiconductor IR detectors,lead salt photoconductive materials are used in the form of polycrys−talline films approximately1μm thick and with individual crystallites ranging in size from approximately0.1–1.0μm. They are usually prepared by chemical deposition using empirical recipes,which generally yields better uniformity of response and more stable results than the evaporative methods.In order to obtain high−performance detectors, lead chalcogenide films need to be sensitized by oxidation. The oxidation may be carried out by using additives in the deposition bath,by post−deposition heat treatment in the presence of oxygen,or by chemical oxidation of the film. The effect of the oxidant is to introduce sensitizing centres and additional states into the bandgap and thereby increase the lifetime of the photoexcited holes in the p−type material.3.Classification of infrared detectorsObserving a history of the development of the IR detector technology after World War II,many materials have been investigated.A simple theorem,after Norton[40],can be stated:”All physical phenomena in the range of about0.1–1 eV will be proposed for IR detectors”.Among these effects are:thermoelectric power(thermocouples),change in elec−trical conductivity(bolometers),gas expansion(Golay cell), pyroelectricity(pyroelectric detectors),photon drag,Jose−phson effect(Josephson junctions,SQUIDs),internal emis−sion(PtSi Schottky barriers),fundamental absorption(in−trinsic photodetectors),impurity absorption(extrinsic pho−todetectors),low dimensional solids[superlattice(SL), quantum well(QW)and quantum dot(QD)detectors], different type of phase transitions, etc.Figure6gives approximate dates of significant develop−ment efforts for the materials mentioned.The years during World War II saw the origins of modern IR detector tech−nology.Recent success in applying infrared technology to remote sensing problems has been made possible by the successful development of high−performance infrared de−tectors over the last six decades.Photon IR technology com−bined with semiconductor material science,photolithogra−phy technology developed for integrated circuits,and the impetus of Cold War military preparedness have propelled extraordinary advances in IR capabilities within a short time period during the last century [41].The majority of optical detectors can be classified in two broad categories:photon detectors(also called quantum detectors) and thermal detectors.3.1.Photon detectorsIn photon detectors the radiation is absorbed within the material by interaction with electrons either bound to lattice atoms or to impurity atoms or with free electrons.The observed electrical output signal results from the changed electronic energy distribution.The photon detectors show a selective wavelength dependence of response per unit incident radiation power(see Fig.8).They exhibit both a good signal−to−noise performance and a very fast res−ponse.But to achieve this,the photon IR detectors require cryogenic cooling.This is necessary to prevent the thermalHistory of infrared detectorsFig.5.Cashman’s detector cells:(a)Tl2S cell(ca.1943):a grid of two intermeshing comb−line sets of conducting paths were first pro−vided and next the T2S was evaporated over the grid structure;(b) PbS cell(ca.1945)the PbS layer was evaporated on the wall of the tube on which electrical leads had been drawn with aquadag(afterRef. 38).。

ENGLISH英语abrasive belt 砂带abrasruingabstersion/ washing洗净accuracy 精确性accuracy/exactness 精确性aciculareacrual time 实际时间add blinder 添加眼罩add bond添加粘结剂addition 增加物adjustment调节器african mahagonyair blow 鼓风air piping 空气管道air vent 气孔alder桤木alloy 合金alpha iron α-Fealumina 氧化铝aluminium bronze铝青铜合金amortization 分期偿还ancillary 辅助anneal退火annealing box/can 退火箱annealing furnace 退火炉andode etching 阳极电解腐蚀anodising阳极氧化anti friction 抗磨擦apparatus 设备apple tree苹果树arc 弧arm advance/return ADVANCE / RETURN asbestos 石棉as-cast铸态ashassembly / base装备/底部attachment 附件austenite /tic冶体automatic feeding自动进料装置axis 轴bafflebainite 贝氏体baking / cooking 烘培balance print 平衡芯头banking up 堆积base 底座basic 基础batch 批量bath 浴battery 电池bauxite 矾土铁铝氧石bearing 轴承bearing bush 轴承衬beech水青冈belt conveyor 带式传送机berylium copperbinder 包扎工具blast 喷砂器blind feeder暗冒口flake graphite 片状石墨flange支撑间blister 水泡block and tackle 滑轮和滑车设备blow （锻压时）打击blow gun 喷枪blow hole 喷枪口blower 吹风机blowing 吹风blowing core box 吹风芯盒blowsuplarblueing 蓝化处理bond 粘结剂bond /bond line 胶层，溶合线boring 钻botom ejector plate 喷射底板botting 堵住铁口bottom ejector plate 底部排出器bottom pouring ladle 下浇包boxwood 黄杨木brace 支柱bracket/ holder 支架/固定器brake 刹车，闸brass 黄铜breaking 破坏brick 砖块brittleness 脆性broaching 饺孔bronze 青铜bucket / bin 桶bucket elevator 链斗升降机buckling 扣住buffing 抛光bull's eye 黄铁矿结核bumper bar 缓冲杆，保险杠bunker 储藏库，料仓burden / charge 上料burn on 焊接burner 火炉burnishing /poliching 抛光burnt metal 过烧金属burring 去毛刺bush 衬套bush / socket 衬套/插座butterfly valve 蝶形阀cable conveyor 钢缆传送机cadmium plating 镀镉calcium钙calorising表面渗铝cam pin 偏心销camber 拱形camshaft 凸轮油capstan 绞盘，起锚机captive foundry 静态铸造carbon 碳carburizing 增碳剂case harden 表面硬化case harding / cementation 表面硬化/粘固cast iron 铸铁casting 铸件casting /pouring 铸件casting bay 毛坯筐cavitty / impression 压痕cement 水泥cementite 碳化铁centrifugal casting 离心浇注法centrifugal casting mach. 离心浇注机centring pin 球端芯轴chamotte 火泥，耐火黏土channel 水道charcoal 木炭charcoal powder木炭粉charge 装料charging 上料charging door / hole 加料门，加料口chemical analysis 化学分析chestnut 栗，栗木chill 激冷铸型chill depth 激冷深度chill test 激冷测试chill test piece 激冷测试试样chilled iron 激冷铸铁chink / chasm 裂缝chiseling 凿子chlorine 氯choke 阻气门choked 阻塞chopper 断路器chromating 染色处理chuck 卡盘Cinder 煤渣，灰烬Clamp 夹具clamp release 夹具发放clamper slider夹具滑动器clay 粘土cleaning 清洗clearance 清除clearance print 推动芯头clogging 堵塞closing 结尾、终止coal dust 煤尘coalescence 结合coat / dress /paint 涂料，涂层coating 涂料coating waregouse 涂料库cohesion 结合coke 焦炭cold chamber 冷冻室cold laps/shut 冷隔cold shut 冷隔/冷结colloidal /bentonite 胶体colorimetry 比色法combined carbon 化合碳connection 连接connector 连接器constituent 要素container 容器，集装箱content 容量continuous conveyor 传送器contraction 收缩control 控制器control cabinet 操作室（楼箱) controlled atmosphere 受控（人造）大气converter 转炉conveyor 转送器cooling /chilling 冷却cooling modulus 冷却模数copper 铜copy milling machine 靠模铣床core 芯core blower芯型吹砂机core box 芯盒core carrier 烘干器core carrier plate 烘芯托板core making 制芯core making machine 制型芯机core sample 矿样core shooter射芯机core shooting 射芯coreprint 型心座corrossion / etching 侵蚀cost price 成本价cotter制销counter boring 埋头孔钻counter pressure 反压cover表面crab 主芯骨crack 裂纹crack gold/hot 冷裂/热裂crazing 细裂纹creep limit 蠕变极限critical solidification rate 临界凝固速度crush 碾碎primary graphite 初生石墨print out 打印pouring-hole /pouring slot 浇料口precipitation仓促cupola 炮塔cupro manganese 铜锰合金cut 切削cut off disc 切掉保温垫cutter 刀具cutting out 切掉cycle time 周期时间cylinder 气缸cylinder tube 圆柱管dam type lip ladle 水坝形的浇包dampen 潮湿damper 节气闸damping /cushion 衬垫dashed 虚线data management 数据管理datas 数据decant 轻轻倒出decarburization 脱碳decoring 除芯defective plotting 缺陷测绘defects 缺陷deflection 偏差degas 除去瓦斯degreasing 脱脂degree of ramming 打结炉底温度radioscopy 放射线透视ram 捣紧densener 激冷材料deoxidize 除氧depth 深度descale 除锅垢despatch / pakaging 包裹destructive testing 破坏性试验detachable part 可分开的零件device 装置dextrin 糊精die内模die assembly 模具，压模装置die casting 拉模铸造die coating 金属性涂料，脱模剂die locking machinism 合型机制die open /close/look 开口锻模/闭口锻模diffusion扩散dimble 带有水道的沟壑dip coat 綅渍涂层dipping 綅渍direct pressure closing 直压法directional solidification 定向凝固dirt trap 集渣器disable 阻塞discharge出料，排放display 显示器distortion 变形distributor分配器doser 计量加料器dowel 销子dowel pin 结合销draft/ taper 通风/锥度draftsman 绘图员draught 通风draw 绘图draw bar 拉杆draw piece 深冲材料drawback 缺点，障碍drawings 制图dressing 涂料drilling 钻dross filtrer 渣过滤器drum ladle 鼓形浇包dry enamelling 干法搪瓷drying 烘干DYNAMIC TEST 动态测试impact冲力impeller raming 推动器紧实imprint 印痕improved plotting 改良的测绘impurities 杂质inclusion 内砂index /number 索引/数量induction 感应ingate 内浇口ingot锭铁ingot mould 锭模injection 注入injection chamber 压射室injection piston 注射柱塞injector channel 注射器管道 inoculation孕育input /output 输入/输出insert 刀头insulat 保温垫interlock 联锁装置intermedicte part 中间部分internal stresses 内应力iodine碘酒iron 铁iron carbide 碳化铁isotope 同位素jib crane 动臂起重机jig 夹具joint / connecter 连接物joint face 结合面joint flash 型芯飞边joint line 分型线jolt ramming 震实keep in stock 有库存key 栓kiln 干燥炉kish 集结石墨knock/ shake out 铸件震动脱砂knock out grid 脱砂机knuckle 关节knuckle joint 铰接ladle bogie 浇包转向架ladle pouring 浇注包ladler / ladle device 浇包装置lamella/flake 薄片lamellare 薄片层的larch落叶松lathing 板条lead 铅lead bath quench 铅淬火槽lead bronze 铅青铜leakage testing 泄露测试ledeburite 莱氏体lift truck叉车lifting举起lifting beam （安装机座用的）起重横梁lifting pin 起模顶杆light alloy 轻合金lighting up 点燃lime 石灰lining 炉衬lining a bearing 轴承加衬link连接liquation 熔解分析liquidus液相线lithium 锂loam 肥土locating point 定位点loose piece 活块low frequence 低频率machinability机械加工性能machining 机加工machining allowance 机械加工余量macrograph 肉眼图macrostructure 宏观组织magnesium 镁magnetic crack 磁力探伤magnetic drum 磁鼓magnetic separator 磁力分离机mahogany红褐色malleable cast iron 可锻的铸铁malleablising 韧性退火manganese锰maple 淡棕色martensite 马氏体martensitic quench 马氏体的淬火masonry 砌筑master alloy 母合金master plate 样板material store 材料储存matrix/metal die 矩阵/金属压型mechanical test 机械测试melt 熔炼melting 熔炼melting point 熔点melting range 熔化范围mercury 水银mesh 网孔metal penetration 金属渗入，机械粘砂metallography金相学metering 计量micro shrinkage 微型缩孔micrograph 显微照片microscopic examination 微观检验microstructure 金相检验mill研磨Squeeze moulding 压实造型Stabilizing / Stress relief 去除压力mis match/cross joint 横断节理mix 混合mixer 搅拌器mixing ladle 搅拌勺modulus of elasticity 弹性系数moisture 湿气molten aluminiun熔融铝水molybdenum 钼monorail 单轨mortar 灰泥mosaic structure 镶嵌结构mould assembly 合型mould cavity 模腔mould closing piston 铸型合箱活塞mould crack /crazing 铸型裂纹mould joint 模具结合处Stove /oven 炉moulding 模制moulding allowance 浇注余量moulding box 浇注箱moulding machine 切模机mounting block 架座movable die 可移动内模movable plate 可移动板multiplecore print 多样型芯座mushroom core print 蘑菇型芯座natural ageing 自然老化nick缺口nickel 镍nickel silver 镍黄铜nipple 螺纹接管nitrogene 氮nitrogenehardening 氮淬火nodular graph cast iron 可锻铸铁nodular graphite 可锻nodule /are 结节noise 噪音non destructive testing 非破坏性试验mormalize 正常化normalising正常化nozzle喷嘴nucleus 核nut 螺母Ultra light alloy 轻合金Undercooled graphite过冷石墨Undercut退刀槽Uneven ramming 不平整的打结炉底Unit load 单位荷载Unleaded 无铅的User 使用者User / MarkerVacuum 真空吸尘器Valve 阀Vent 通风孔Vent 通风孔Venturi 文氏管Vertical universal CNC milling 垂直万能CNC铣削Vibrating distributor 振动分配器Vibrating ramming 振动紧实Vibrator 振动器Viscosity 粘性Visual testing 目视检查Vitreous enamel 釉瓷Vitrification 玻璃化Vitrification glazeVoltage 电压Wall jib crane 动臂起重机Walnut核桃Washer 垫圈Water cooling 水内冷Water line 水位Water supply 供水系统Wax蜡Wear磨损Wedge gate 楔形浇口/浇道Wedge lock楔形锁块Welding焊接WELL / Crucible 坩埚Whistler 排气道White cast iron白口铸铁White metal 白合金Winch 绞盘Wind box 风箱Wire 金属丝Wiring pit 配线纹孔Working area 工作区域X ray X光zinc 锌Camshaft凸轮轴Carburettor 汽化器Connecting rod 连杆Crankshaft 机轴Crankshaft sprocket 曲轴链轮Cylinder head 气缸盖Durite 微暗煤Dipstick 量油计Distributor 分配器Engine block发动机组Valve springs 阀簧eject 喷射ejection hellejection plate 喷射板ejection release 排出ejector 排出器ejector box（压铸机）顶杆框ejector die 动型压铸机ejector pin 起模杆ejector plate排出器ejector plate stop 排出器填塞elaboration 精心制作elastic limit 弹性极限elasticity 弹性electric discharge machine 电腐蚀机electric hoist 电动平衡吊electrolitic copper 电解铜elevator升降机elm 榆树elongation 延长encodeur 编码enlarge coreprint 放大型心座entrapped cold shot 铁豆equilibrium diagram 合金的相图equivalence factor 等价因素erosion 腐蚀eutectic 共晶eutectoid 类低共熔体excess metal 多余金属exothermic breaker core 发热易割片extension延长failure rate故障率fatigue 疲劳fatigue limit 疲劳极限fatigue stength 疲劳强度feeder 进料器feeder head 冒口feeder neck 冒口颈feeding orifice 加料口ferrite铁素体ferro alloy 铁合金fettle 修坯fettler/dresser 梳理机废料清除工fettling 涂炉材料fettling / grinding 涂炉材料/研磨fettling tool 涂炉材料工具figging point结晶点filing 锉fillet 嵌条filling 填充filter loading 过滤载荷fine lapping细研磨fines 细屑finishing 修整fir 冷杉fire box燃烧室fireclay 耐火土fixed die（压铸用的）定模fixed plate 固定板块flash 毛刺flash / beard 毛刺flexible hose 柔软管flow lines 变形流线fluidity 流动性fluidity /castability 流动性/铸造性flour spar 氟石，萤石fluorine 氟flux covering 助熔剂fluxing 稀释foam 泡沫forehearth 前炉forging 锻造foundry铸造foundry blacking 涂料foundryman 铸造工人fracture破裂frame 框架freezing range 凝固区间freezing solidification 凝固friction 磨擦fritting /sintering 烧结front plate前挡门板fuel 燃料fuel oil 燃料油full cure 充分硫化furance kiln热炉干燥窑gagger /lifter升降机gamma ray伽马射线gamma ray inspection 伽马射线检测gantry crane 高架移动起重机gas emission瓦斯泄出gas injection注气，煤气喷射gassy 气体的gate area 内浇道买农机gating system 门控系统gauge量规gear 齿轮，传动装置glaze /to/ 釉料goliath crane巨型起重机goose neck nozzle鹅颈喷嘴grading 等级grain 颗粒grain refinement 晶粒细化法graphite 石墨graphite rosette 菊花状石墨graphite carbone 碳石墨graphitisation石墨化grate 壁炉grease 油脂green sand绿砂grey cast iron 灰口铸铁grid 湿型砂grind研磨grinder 研磨者grinding wheel 砂轮groove 凹槽gross blowholes 通风孔guard 防护装置guckling / wraping 变形guide pin 定位销guide post （冲压模）导柱guide track 导轨guillotine 闸刀gumming 树胶分泌，涂胶hand labour 手工handle 炳handling 操作handling equipment 装卸设备handling time 操作时间hard chrome platened 硬铬压盘hard spot 硬点hardness 硬度hardness brinell 布氏硬度hardness test 硬度测量hearth壁炉heat treatment cycle curve 热处理循环曲线图表high frequency 高频率hindeded contraction 受阻收缩hoist 平衡吊holding 支撑，保温holding block 安装木架holding furnace 保温炉hood 护罩hoot 吊钩hot chamber 热室hot spot 热点hot tear/hot crack 热撕裂hydraulic tank 液压箱hydrogen 氢hypereutectic 过共晶的hypereutectoid （冶）过共析的hyperquench 过淬火hypoeutectic 亚共晶的hypoeutectoid 亚共析的oak 橡木oil chalk test 渗油刷白探裂法open coreprint 敞开型芯座open time打开时间open time limit打开时间极限operations操作orientation 定位osmondite 奥氏体变态体oval bush半圆/半沉套overflow well 溢流井oxide氧化物oxygen 氧padding 填料pallet 货盘parameter control 参数控制part list 零件单parting line 分割线parting powder 离型粉pasty state 粘结状态pattern making制模工作pattern plate磨板pear tree 梨树pearlite / tique 珠光体pendulum conveyor传送带permanent mold永久铸模permeability 渗透性phenolic resin 酚醛树脂phosphating 磷化phosphor bronze 磷青铜pig iron 生铁pillar/ bar /frame 柱子/横木/结构pin 钉pine 松树pin-holes 针孔pit 凹陷pitch 斜度pitting 蚀损斑planing刨plaster /gypsum石膏，灰泥plasticity 可塑性plate conveyor 板式运送机plates金属板platform / pallet 平台/货盘plug 插拴plumbago 石墨plunger 活塞plunger-rod 活塞棒plunger-type die cas. Mach. 活塞式内模浇注pneumatic hoist气动绞车pneumatic ramming 风捣锤poplar 白杨木porosity 砂眼port 港口portable grinder 可提携式打磨机potassium 钾pot-wash清洗浇注包pour /cast 浇注pouring basin 转包，浇注槽pouring bush 浇口杯pouring ladle 浇包precipitation anneal 仓促退火precipitation hardening 淀积（脱熔）硬化precision moulding 精确浇注preheat 预先加热preheater预热器pressure die casting 压铸pressure guage 压力计product clamp/release 产品夹具product passing confirm 产品通过确认properties 性能puller core 型芯拉出器pulley block hoist 滑轮组平衡吊pulveriser 粉磨机pusher pin 推针pyrometer 高温计quality 质量quarry sand 采砂场quartz 石英quench 淬火quench bucket 淬火桶rabble 搅拌rabling 搅拌rack 架radiant 辐射的radiograph 射线照片ram / jack 捣紧ram the sand 捣锤砂子rate of production 生产速度raw material 原材料reduction减少refine 精炼refractory 难熔的refractory brick 耐火砖registration 注册reheating 重新加热reliability 可靠性remelting 再熔化removable core 活动芯子remove dust 除尘reset 重新设置resilience 有弹力resistance/strenght 阻力returns 回炉料rinsing残渣rod 棒,杆rod plunger 柱塞杆roller 滚压机roller conveyor 滚压机传送带rolling 旋转rosette graphite 菊花状石墨rotary screen 滚筒筛rotating table 回转工作台rough 粗燥roughness 粗燥程度run 运转runner 横浇道runnerscrap 回炉浇冒口running 浇注running /feeding layout 浇冒口设计running /fiding system 浇冒口系统safety device 安全装置safety guard 安全防护装置safety layout 安全布局safety valve 安全阀safety wedge 安全楔salt bath quench 盐浴淬火alt spray test 盐喷试验sample 样品sampling 取样sampling spoon 取样勺sand blast 喷砂设施sand blasting 喷砂处理sand blasting apparatus 喷砂设备sand plant 烘砂车间sand blaster 喷砂器saturated 渗透的sawing 锯开scab铸造表面粘砂scale 刻度，衡量scale/ scaling 刻度/缩放比例scrap 残余物scrap casting 毛坯报废scrap returns 回炉废料screw 螺丝钉screw conveyor 螺旋运输机screw elevator 螺旋升运机scum 浮渣sedimentation 沉淀segregation 隔离selected scrap 挑选的废品sensor /switch 传感器/开关setting pressure 设定压力shaft 轴shank小吊包shatter value 震裂值shaving die 刮边模shear 修剪shell 壳shell core 壳芯shell mould 壳型shell pattern 壳型模型shim薄垫片short run / misrun 未注满shot钢丸shot / grit 喷丸shot blast 喷丸shot blasting 喷丸处理shot peening 喷丸硬化shot stroke 压射冲程shot unit /equipment 喷丸装置shrink 收缩Shrinkage / Sink / Sinking 缩孔Shrinkage 缩孔Shrinkage/ shrink hole 缩孔Shuttle 梭子Side gateSieve/screen 滤网Silica 硅石Silicon 硅Silicon copper 硅铜Silver 银Skim 去除Skip 急速改变Skip急速改变Slag 炉渣Slag 炉渣Slag 炉渣Slag pocket/trap 渣坑Slagging 造渣Slag-off 除渣Slat conveyor 板条式输送机Slaving 辅助设备Sleeve 套Slide 滑动Sliding plate 滑床台Slit gateSlot 槽缝Slotting 立刨Slurry 泥浆Small scrap 小的废品smelt/TO/Smooth/even 平滑/平稳Snap flask mouldingSnoutSodium 钠Softening软化Soldering软焊Soldering 软焊Solenoid valve 螺线管阀门Solid solution 固溶体SolidusSolubility 溶度Soot 烟灰Sorbite 索氏体Soundness 坚固Special bronze 特殊青铜Specification 规格Specimen / Test piece 样品/试样Spectrography 射谱术Speed / Velocity 速度Speeder handle 调速器把手SPHER. GRAPH.CAST IRON 曲线图，铸铁Spheroid / roidal/ Ation 球状体Spherioidal graphite 球状石墨Spindle core 管状芯骨Split nuts对开螺母Spotting / Gage point 测定定位Spout/lip 喷口Spray 喷射Spray tool 喷射工具Spring 弹簧Spring release 弹簧式脱开装置Sprout / Launder 流水槽Sprue 注口/熔渣Sprue /down gate直浇口Squeeze head 压头，压板Stack 堆Stack mouldStage/plantform /stand平台Stainless 不锈的Static test 静力测试Steadite 斯氏体/磷共晶Steel 钢Steel works钢厂Sticking /clagging 凝结Stipping plateStock yard /stock ground 原料厂Stop adjustableStopper 制动器Stopper rod 止动杆Stoppered pouring basin 拔塞浇注槽Storage 储存库Strainer 滤网Strainer core滤器芯Stress 压力Stress relief anneal 退火Strickling 刮光Strip/stripping 剥Stroke 敲击Suction conveyorSulphur 硫磺Super/under cooling 过度冷却Superheating 过热Surface folding表面褶皱Surface protection 表面保护Surface treatment 表面处理Swell 膨胀Swirl 漩涡Switch 开关Tap hole 出铁口，出渣口Tapping 出渣，出铁Twmper 回火Temperature 温度Tensile strength 抗拉力tensile strength tester 拉力仪tensile test 拉力测试test bar 试样棒test block 试样TESTING 测试TESTS 测试Thermal cycle 热循环Thermal shock 热冲击Thermit process 铝热法Thermocouple 热电偶Thermosetting 热硬化性的Tie rod / Tie bar 尖端杆Tilting ladle 倾动式前炉Time adjusting 时间调整Timer 定时器Tin 锡Tinning 镀锡Titanium 钛Ram(to) 撞锤Toggle 套索钉Tolerance 公差TON 吨Tong 钳Tonnage排水量Top ejector plate 顶部排出器Top surface porosity 顶面表面砂眼Torsion 转矩Total carbon 碳总数Toughness 刚性Transformation temperature转变温度Trimming process 清理焊缝Troostite 屈氏体Truck卡车Trunnion 耳轴Tumbling barrel滚桶Turn over 营业额Turnbukle 螺丝扣Turning 旋转Turntable 转盘Tuyere 鼓风口PISTON 活塞Piston ring 活塞环Push rod 制动缸推杆Rocker box cover 摇杆箱盖Rocker gear 摇杆齿轮Starter motor启动电动机Exhaust manifold 排气集管exhaust pipe 排气管fan 鼓风机Flywheel 调速轮inlet manifold 进口集管little end 小头，小端main bearing 主轴承oil drain plug 放油口插栓oil filler cap 加油口盖oil filter 滤油器oil pump housing 油泵外壳Sump 机油箱Thermostat 温度调节装置。