英汉话题翻译200篇-英美研究

Unit 6 A Glimpse of English CultureBroadly speaking, the Englishman is a quiet, shy, reserved person who is fully relaxed only among people he knows well. When he encounters strangers or foreigners he often seems uneasy, even embarrassed. You have only to witness a commuter train any morning or evening to see the truth of this. Serious-looking businessmen and women sit reading their newspapers or dozing in a corner; no one speaks. In fact, to do so would seem most unusual. An Englishman, pretending to be giving advice to overseas visitors, once suggested, “On entering a railway carriage shake hands with all the passengers.” Needless to say, he was not being serious. There is an unwritten but clearly understood code of behaviour which, if broken, makes the person immediately suspect.In many parts of the world it is quite normal to know openly extremes of enthusiasm, emotion, excitement, etc. The Englishman is somewhat different. Of course, an Englishman feels no less deeply than any other nationality, but he tends to display his feelings far less. This is reflected in his use of language. Imagine a man commenting on the great beauty of a young girl. Whereas a ore emotional man might describe her as “an excellent jewel”, “extremely beautiful”, “precious”, the Englishman will flatly state “Um, she is all right”. An Englishman who has seen a highly successful and enjoyable film recommends it to a friend by commenting, “It‟s not bad, you know”, or on seeing very unusual scenery he might convey his pleasure by saying, “Nice, yes, very nice.” The overseas visitor must not be disappointed by this apparent lack of interest and involvement; he must realise that “all right”, “not bad”, and “nice”, very often have the sense of “first-class”, “excellent”, “beautiful”. This special use of language, particularly common in England, is known as “restrained statement”.To other Europeans, the best-known quality of the British, and in particular of the English, is “reserve”. A reserved person is one who does not talk very mu ch to strangers, does not show much emotion, and seldom gets excited. It is difficult to get to know a reserved person: he never tells you anything about himself, and you may work with him for years without ever knowing where he lives, how many children he has, and what his interests are. English people tend to be like that. If they are making a journey by bus, they will do their best to find an empty seat; if by train, an empty compartment. If they have to share the compartment with a stranger, they may travel many miles without starting a conversation. If a conversation does start, personal questions like “How old are you?” or even “What is your name?” are not easily asked, and it is quite possible for two people to know each other casually for years witho ut ever knowing each other‟s name. Questions like “Where did you buy your watch?” or “What is your salary?” are almost impossible. Similarly, conversation in Britain is in general much more quiet and restrained than, say, in Africa, and loud speech is considered ill-bred. (from A Background to English by P. S. Tregidgo, 1971)This reluctance to communicate with others is an unfortunate quality in some ways, since it tends to give the impression of coldness, and it is true that the English (except perhaps in the North) are not noted for their generosity and hospitality. On the other hand, they are perfectly human behind their barrier of reserve, and may be quite pleased when a friendly stranger or foreigner succeeds for a time in breaking the barrier down. We may also mention at this point that the people of the North and West, especially the Welsh, are much less reserved than those of the South and East. (Ibid.)Closely related to English reserve is English modesty. Within their hearts, the English are perhaps no less conceited than anybody else, but in their relations with others theyvalue at least a show of modesty. Self-praise is felt to be ill-bred. If a person is, let us say, very good at tennis, and someone asks him if he is a good player, he will seldom reply “yes”, because people will think him conceited. He will probably give an answer like, “I‟m not bad”, or “I think I‟m quite good”, or “Well, I‟m very keen on tennis” (i.e., I‟m very fond of it), or “Well, I managed to reach the finals in last year‟s local championships.” Even a definite achievement like the last-mentioned will often be stated in such a manner as to suggest that it was only due to an incomprehensible piece of good luck. This self-deprecation is typically English, and mixed with their reserve, it often produces a sort of general air of indifference which appears to foreigners as a pose, difficult to understand and even irritating. (Ibid.)The famous English sense of humour is similar. Its starting point is self-deprecation, and its great enemy is conceit. Its ideal is the ability to laugh at oneself—at one‟s own faults, one‟s own failures and embarrassments, even at one‟s own ideals. Here perhaps we are departing somewhat from the world of everyday people and straying into realms of literature and philosophy, but the quality is observable in individuals, and the criticism, “He has no sense of humour” is very commonly heard in Britain, where humour is so highly prized. Prince Philip, during a visit to Ghana in 1959, both praised it and illustrated it when he talked of “God‟s greatest gift to mankind—a sense of humour”. It is an attitude to life rather than the mere ability to laugh at jokes. This attitude is never cruel or disrespectful or malicious. The English do not laugh at a cripple or a madman, a tragedy or an honourable failure. Sympathy or admiration for artistic skill are felt to be stronger than laughter. (Ibid.)Since reserve, a sense of modesty, and a sense of humour are part of his own nature, the typical Englishman tends to expect them in others. He secretly looks down on more excitable nations, and likes to think of himself as more reliable than they. He distrusts exaggerated promises and shows of affection, especially if they are expressed in flowery language. He is even more distrustful of any kind of self-praise. This applies not only to what other people may tell him about themselves orally, but to the letters they may write to him. To those who are fond of these kinds of exaggeration, therefore, the Englishman may appear disconcertingly cold and skeptical, and they may be bewildered when his sense of humour is aroused by airs of dignity and importance. (Ibid.)Finally, sportsmanship. Like a sense of humour, this is an English ideal which not all Englishmen live up to. It must be realized that sport in its modern form is almost entirely a British invention. Boxing, rugby, association football, hockey, tennis and cricket were all first organized and given rules in Britain. Rules are the essence of sport, and sportsmanship is the ability to practise a sport in obedience to its rules, while also showing generosity to one‟s opponent and good temper in defeat. The high pressure of modern international sport makes these ideals difficult to maintain, but they are at least highly valued in Britain, and are certainly achieved there more commonly than among more hot-blooded races. Moreover, sportsmanship as an ideal is applied to life in general. This is proved by the number of sporting terms used in ordinary speech. To take boxing alone, a well-aimed and vigorous criticism is said to be “straight from the shoulder”, while an unfair one is “below the belt”. One of the most elementary rules of life is “never hit a man when he‟s down”—in other words, never take advantage of another‟s misfortune. English schoolboys often show this sense of sportsmanship to a surprisingly high degree in their relations with each other. And of course everybody talks of “fair play” and “playing the game”, or “playing fair”. (Ibid.)British habits of politeness are on the whole very informal. There are no complicatedgreetings, for instance: a simple …good morning‟ or a cheery wave of the hand across the street is quite satisfactory. Handshakes are only exchanged on a first introduction, or on special occasions, or as a token of agreement or congratulation. All politeness is based on the elementary rule of showing consideration for others, and fitly acknowledged the consideration they show to you. …Excuse me‟ is used as an advance apology for troubling somebody, as when passing in front of him or interrupting his conversation, or when putting a question to a stranger. …Sorry‟ expresses regret for an accidental disturbance or breach of manners. It also takes the place of …no‟ when you cannot accede to a request or an implied request like …May I borrow your pen?‟ or …Do you know the time?‟ or …Have you any size seven shoes?‟ …Pardon?‟ is the polite way of asking somebody to repeat what he has said. In Britain, except at school, …please‟ is no longer used in asking permission to speak, and the phrase …No, please‟, so common abroad, would sound most unusual in Britain itself. …Yes, please‟ is the commonest use of the word, and is the opposite of …No, thank you‟ when replying to an offer. A bare yes or no sounds very rude in this case. Similarly, a polite request does not begin with …I want‟ or …I think‟, but with a phrase like …Will (or would, can, could) you please…?‟ or …Would you mind…?‟ When the request is granted, and at any time when you are receiving something, however obviously you are entitled to it, you are always expected to say …Thank you‟. (Ibid.) British people do not readily ask each other to do anything which would involve real inconvenience: they prefer to wait for such service to be offered, rather than ask for it. If they do ask, then the request is accompanied by an implied apology like, …I don‟t really like asking you, but…‟ or, …I know the trouble I‟m causing you, but would you mind…?‟and so on. Similarly it is often polite to refuse an offer of service by means of such a reply as, …Oh! p lease don‟t bother‟, followed by an explanation of why you can do without it. In fact, without being conscious of it, British people sometimes make offers purely out of politeness, not really expecting them to be accepted, and offers of this kind are automatically refused with corresponding politeness. (Ibid.)If you are invited into a person‟s home, there are other questions to consider. For instance, what time should you arrive? If it is a social occasion, not a business one, it is not polite to arrive early. Your hostess will be preparing for you, and will be most embarrassed if you arrive before she is quite ready. Ten minutes late is excellent. Half an hour late is excessive, and requires apologies. Then too, the British are rather particular about table manners. The main thing is to sit up straight, copy everyone else, gaily asking what to do if you are not sure, and keep the conversation going. What time should you leave? There are no rules, but it is most impolite to stay too late, as it implies a lack of consideration for your hosts. If it is simply an invitation to an evening meal and conversation, you will probably take your leave between ten and eleven o‟clock. If you have been asked to stay for several days, you will conform as far as possible to the routine of the house, and your hostess will be very pleased if you give her a bunch of flowers, specially purchased, before you leave. If the invitation has been made purely to give you pleasure, a gift of money would be refused with some embarrassment. (Ibid.) Gifts are not the same as …tips‟. The tipping system is an evil in most European countries, and consists of a small extra payment made to certain employees. In Britain it is confined chiefly to waiters and taxi-drivers, to whom you give an extra tenth or eighth of the price of the meal or fare. Hotel servants and railway porters, too, expects a small tip if they are of service to you. Apart from these special cases, gifts of money are given only cautiously. This is because the offer of money makes an act of kindness seem like a mean desire for gain. If a kindly act has actually involved expense, it is only right to offer reimbursement, but most British people feel that kindness itself can only be repaid withgratitude, not with money. Thus, you do not offer money to a driver who gives you a lift, or to someone who stops to help you to mend a puncture or to give you first aid, though if you felt sufficiently grateful you might buy the person some cigarettes of a drink or some other small gift. As for a more important act like finding somebody a job or saving him from drowning—to expect money for doing something like that is almost unthinkable. (Ibid.)Politeness towards women is less observed today than it used to be. It is still considered polite to give up one‟s seat to a woman who is standing, to open doors for her, help her alight from the bus, carry things for her, to protect her from the traffic, and so on, and the maxim …Ladies first‟ is well known; but now that women are the equals of men in having the vote, taking paid employment and receiving higher education, they receive much less consideration than formerly, for the whole basis of politeness towards women is the feeling that they need protection. (Ibid.)The same principle applies to old people. If they are respected in Britain, it is because they are felt to be in need of protection and support. Old age and seniority alone do not command authority among the British: in fact modern life has been developing so fast that old people often appear tiresome and out of date. Thus, …We need some young blood‟ is often heard in organisations where the energy and modern methods of younger men are felt to be more likely to succeed than the long but partly irrelevant experience of older ones. The wisest of the older generation realise this. They either make an effort to remain young in heart and keep pace with the times, or else they let younger men take their place. (Ibid.)It follows that mature Europeans have no desire to grow old or to look older than they are. Women especially, for reasons of sexual attraction, long to …stay young‟, and there is no greater compliment to a mature woman than to be told …How young you look!‟ On the other hand, if a woman‟s h airstyle, make-up and clothes reveal an obvious effort to look artificially young, she is said to …look common‟, and is regarded with disapproval. (Ibid.)15. The Potential of Misunderstanding[原文]The potential for misunderstanding increases with people who speak English as a second language. The English that they learn in the classroom as children is not the same colloquial language that native speakers use. International English has a simple vocabulary and a standard pronunciation. Native English speakers have a variety of accents, colloquialisms, and slang that foreigners find as difficult to understand as a Cockney does Glaswegian. At international meetings and conferences in English it is most often the native English speakers who are criticized for being unintelligible.It is not an exaggeration that native English speakers should make a conscious effort to learn international English, perhaps by listening hard to their foreign colleagues. A first step is deliberately to try to avoid slang, jargon, and figures of speech like “what‟s the bottom line” and “it‟s well above board.” Phrases like “I wonder if you wouldn‟t mind…” and “it‟s not worth…” can be mystifying. The result may be a bland Eurospeak, but at least everyone will understand it. (902from Mind Your Manners by John Mole, 2003 p.14)[译文]Changes in Britain Since 1945The picture of Britain as a declining world power is common. In 1950 Britain‟s GDP (Gross Domestic Product) per capita ranked the seventh highest in the world. By 1970 its position had slumped to eighteenth, by 1981 to twenty-first. Yet it would be misleading to think that this meant that the British people were getting poorer in absolute terms. In fact the years since 1945 have seen a great improvement in the material standard of living for the majority of the population. The number of people who define themselves as middle-class has significantly increased over the period 1972-1985.Women are now increasing their numbers in higher education, the professions and white-collar jobs, but they still have great difficulty progressing to the senior ranks. They also continue to face problems in being selected as parliamentary candidates, or winning seats in the House of Commons, despite forming a 52% majority in the country.Some things, like divorce or abortion, have become easier now, if still controversial. Others, like racial discrimination, polluting the environment and drunken driving, have become less acceptable. Whether there have been any fundamental changes in the extent to which British people are equal, free, tolerant or caring is still a matter of much debated. (258 words, from Contemporary British Culture and Society, edited by Xiao Huiyun)Unit 7 American Culture and Values (1)美国的文化和价值观1. American Culture Is a Rich Mix[原文]It is more difficult to describe American culture than German or French because the United States is not just another country; it spans a continent, and has a population of over 250,000,000 people whose ancestors came from virtually every country in the world. American culture is a rich mix of Anglo-Saxon, French, German, Scandinavian, Spanish, Italian, Latin American, Native American, African, Polish, Russian, Japanese, Chinese, Korean, Filipino, Vietnamese, and Arab influences, just to name a few. In its early days the country was strongly influenced by the British and other people from northern Europe; its laws are based on British common law and American English has absorbed many northern European words. (111from Understanding Cultural Differences by Edward T. Hall and Mildred Reed Hall, 1990)[译文][评点]2. Many Cultures into OneDespite its ethnic diversity, the U.S. has managed to absorb bits and pieces of many cultures and weave them into a unique culture that is strikingly consistent and distinct. You can pick out Americans any place in the world, often very quickly, because of their behavior. Among their most observable traits are openness, friendliness, informality, optimism, creativity, loudness, and vitality. In common with others, Americans tend to be ethnocentric, in part because of the great size and economic power of the United States. Unlike the Germans and the French, Americans do not have close foreign neighbors with whom they interact constantly. The country shares borders with Canada and Mexico, but relatively few Americans have dealings with or know much about either country. While the United States has absorbed millions of people from countries around the globe, the core culture of the United States has its roots in northern European or Anglo-Saxon culture. (152from Understanding Cultural Differences by Edward T. Hall and Mildred Reed Hall, 1990)[译文][评点]3. A Sense of Expansiveness[原文]The size and scale of the United States and the feeling of open spaces are overpowering to visitors who are accustomed to the smaller scale of Europe. There is an expansiveness to the American character that is undoubtedly related to the geographical size of the country and to the lively frontier spirit that runs through American history. Many Europeans comment on how large American apartments and homes are. The separate bedrooms Americans provide for each of their children and the other special rooms set aside for adult use often surprise Europeans and attest to the values Americans place on individuality and personal privacy. Americans are proud of the amount and kind of living space they have and will show visitors around the entire house, something unheard of in France and Germany. (131from Understanding Cultural Differences by Edward T. Hall and Mildred Reed Hall, 1990)[译文][评点]4. Most Americans Are Monochronic[原文]The majority of Americans are monochronic, especially in business. This means that for them time is scheduled and compartmentalized so that people can concentrate on one thing at a time. Schedules are sacred and time commitments are taken very seriously. There are polychronic Americans, usually from families with origins in Latin America, the Mediterranean countries, or the Middle East. They handle time differently and neither prompt nor necessarily scrupulous in observing deadlines. There are also regional variations in the handling of time. In the Northwest, South, and Southwest, for instance, the rules governing punctuality are more relaxed. In their business and professional lives, however, most Americans adhere to the monochronic norms of Anglo-Saxon culture. Promptness is sacred, especially where business appointments are concerned. Being five minutes late calls for a brief apology; ten or fifteen minutesneeds a more elaborate apology, or, if possible, a telephone call warning of the delay. (151from Understanding Cultural Differences by Edward T. Hall and Mildred Reed Hall, 1990)[译文][评点]5. Americans Avoid Close Physical Contact[原文]Like Germans, Americans avoid close physical contact and keep their distance when conversing, automatically adjusting their chairs to a comfortable range. French conversational distance is closer than either the German or the American, which causes discomfort to the latter two. During conversation Americans maintain eye contact while listening but shift their eyes away and back when they speak; this level of contact is much less intense than that of the French. Americans gesture only moderately with their hands and arms, but their faces tend to be quite animated. Americans smile a lot in greetings and during formal introductions; except in large cities, they occasionally even smile at strangers they pass in the street. A strong handshake is the norm among American men and is associated with masculinity. Although some American business executives have an “open door” policy to encourage the idea of accessibility, they do prefer private offices to working together in large open spaces, which they find distracting. Remember that monochronic, low-context Americans are vulnerable to interruptions. (168from Understanding Cultural Differences by Edward T. Hall and Mildred Reed Hall, 1990)[译文][评点]6. High Mobility and Surface Friendship[原文]Americans are highly mobile. Statistics indicate that the average American family moves every four to five years; many American business firms transfer employees every two years. This frequency of moving means that Americans are forced to meet and interact with strangers and learn to make new friends easily. It also helps explain why many Americans form superficial relationships more often than deeper and more lasting ones. Sometimes the surface friendliness of Americans creates expectations among non-Americans that close friendships will develop, but more often than not, these expectations are disappointed. In the suburbs and in small towns, being a good neighbor means maintaining your property; lending tools, supplies and assistance; visiting across the fence; working together on projects; and sometimes trading invitations for coffee or dinner. Newcomers are generally welcomed with gifts of food, offers of assistance, and invitations to meet other neighbors. (143from Understanding Cultural Differences by Edward T. Hall and Mildred Reed Hall, 1990)[译文][评点]7. American Executives Are Workaholic[原文]Many Americans are still motivated by a strong work ethic which the early settlers from northern Europe brought with them when they came to the American continent. Europeans often observe that Americans schedule everything except time for relaxation. This is particularly true of American executives, who drive themselves hard, often at the expense of their families and their health. Americans have fewer holidays and take shorter vacations than do Europeans. Senior American executives often work fifty-six hours a week and take only fourteen days of vacation per year. In the opinion of many German and French executives, American executives are obsessed with work; “they‟re workaholics” was a comment we heard often. Like most Europeans who do not accept working on weekends or holidays, the Germans and the French reserve these times for themselves and their families. (136from Understanding Cultural Differences by Edward T. Hall and Mildred Reed Hall, 1990)[译文][评点]8. Bragging and Boastfulness[原文]Bragging and boastfulness are common among Americans, and there‟s a lot of informal jockeying for position in American groups. They tend to exaggerate, much to the distress of the Germans, and they enjoy writers wh o tell “tall tales.” In manner, Americans are not as serious as Germans and often use humor to diffuse tensions on the job and in social situations. Jokes are relished and a good sense of humor is much admired. Most Americans keep their social conversations light, rather than engaging in serious, intellectual or philosophical discussions, a trait which especially bothers Europeans. Generally, Americans have little interest in discussing philosophy—either traditional philosophy or political philosophy. They consider philosophy too theoretical or abstract. (116from Understanding Cultural Differences by Edward T. Hall and Mildred Reed Hall, 1990)[译文][评点]9. Attitudes toward Politics and Power[原文]Many Americans have little actual faith in political ideologies beyond the basic tenets of democracy. Nevertheless, they are patriotic, proud of their country, and believe strongly in democracy. Too much power and authority is considered unwise or even dangerous by Americans. Politicians who appear to seek power for its own sake are even more suspect than those seeking office for economic gain. As a result, politicians are especially adept at presenting an image of a “good old boy”—a submissive posture that diffuses the voter‟s hostility toward anyone with power an d influence. For the same reason, Americans like to poke fun at symbols of power, and they tell jokes about their political leaders incessantly. (114from Understanding Cultural Differences by Edward T. Hall and Mildred Reed Hall, 1990)[译文][评点]10. A Distrust of Authority[原文]Government is viewed as a necessary evil and is generally disliked and disparaged. Most Americans think their government is too large and that control over people is immoral; they like to quote Lord Acton: “All power corrupts and absolute power corrupts absolutely.” This distrust of authority leads to a certain ambivalence since Americans also admire decisive leaders. Given their attitude toward government, it is not surprising that many Americans take a dim view of politics and politicians. In fact, many Americans want nothing to do with political life, the result being a kind of apathy on the part of the American electorate. In a 1984 article, columnist Flora Lewis pointed out that in West Germany‟s last election, 89.1 percent of voters cast ballots; in France, 85.8 percent; in Britain, 72.7 percent; in Spain, 79.6 percent; in Italy, 89 percent. In the American presidential election of 1984, however, only 52.9 percent of eligible voters cast their ballots; and in 1988, only 50.16 percent voted. (163from Understanding Cultural Differences by Edward T. Hall and Mildred Reed Hall, 1990)[译文][评点]Unit 8 American Culture and Values (2)美国的文化和价值观1. The “Greatest” Country in the World?[原文]Americans generally believe that theirs is a superior country, probably the “greatest” country in the world. It is economically and militarily powerful; its influence extends to all parts of the globe. Americans generally believe their “democratic” political system is the best possible one, since it gives all citizens the right and opportunity to try to influence government policy, and since it protects citizens from arbitrary government actions. They also believe the system is superior because it gives them the freedom to complain about anything they consider wrong with it. Americans generally believe their country‟s “free enterprise” economic system h as enabled them to enjoy one of the highest standards of living in the history of the world. (116from American Ways: a guide for foreigners in the United States by Gary Althen, 1988)[译文][评点]2. Heroes in the Eyes of Americans[原文]Americans see as he roes those individuals who “stand out from the crowd” by doing something first, longest, most often, and otherwise “best.” Examples are aviators Charles Lindberg and Amelia Earhart. Americans admire people who have overcome adverse circumstances (for examp le, poverty or a physical handicap) and “succeeded” in life. Black educator Booker T. Washington is one example; the blind and deaf author and。