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一、对价原则中“对价”的释义“对价”一词，从字面看颇为费解，而且在英美法中的定义也是晦涩难懂的。
因此，有必要对“对价”一词在现代合同法中的特殊含义加以解释，有助于我们更好地理解对价原则。
“对价”也称“约因”，为英美合同法所特有。
英美合同法和商业惯例确立了一条基本制度，没有对价的合同不具有法律约束力。
这条制度适用于大多数合同，只有少数所谓“要式契约”除外。
在英美普通法中，一般把对价分为三种：第一种，待履行的对价（Exeoutoryconsideratin），是指当事人承诺提供并准备提供的对价。
第二种，己履行的对价（Exeeutedeonsideration）是指当事人中的一方以其作为要约或承诺的行动，已经全部完成了他依据合同所承担的义务。
这种对价又分两种情况：一是当事人一方的行为是以要约的方式作出的，如卖方主动向买方发货，当买方接受货物时买卖合同即告成立，但此时卖方已经履行了交货义务，对此买方有义务支付合理的价金；另一是当事人一方以承诺方式作出的；第三种，过去的对价（Pasteonsideration）。
前两种对价是有效的；第三种对价是无效的。
在合同的交易理论中，对价意指受诺人为诱导承诺而给予立约人的东西。
根据交易理论，对价的作用是使承诺可以强制履行。
美国的法庭在本世纪早期接受了交易理论，并采纳了对价可以使承诺可强制履行的法律原则。
后来随着时间的推移，这一原则的例外越来越多，法庭逐渐废弃了这一原则而最终采纳了抽象原则。
尽管法庭不愿承认他们在放弃这一原则，但是其做法却明显带有废弃的色彩，因为他们改变了对价的含义，也就是说，法庭所使用的“对价”一词不再指“受约人为诱导承诺而给予立约人的东西”，而是开始指“使承诺可以强制履行的东西”。
[1]此外，为了适应现代商业发展的需要，美国《统一商法典》第1一107条规定：“在受损方签署并递交了书面的弃权声明之后，任何因对方违约而产生的请示权或其他权利均可被无代价地全部或部分放弃。
IntroductionSomething of value must be provided by each party to the contract in order to induce the other to sign the contract. This exchange of value can be called consideration in the field of Law. The value exchanged can take the form of money, physical objects, services, promised actions, endurance from a future action, and much more(Beatson, 2002, p88). The purpose of this essay is to find out why consideration is important in contract and whether there is any alternative for it. The essay is organised as follows: the definition of consideration, the rules of consideration, the importance of consideration and its relationship with the promissory estoppel. What is mainly argued in this essay is that consideration plays an indispensable role in contract despite some problems it has and it cannot be replaced by other doctrines like promissory estoppel (Mayne, 2009, p4).Main Body1. DefinitionAccording to Currie v Misa (1875), consideration was defined as: a valid consideration is consisted of either a loss to the promisee or a benefit to the promisor. However, this definition has some deficiencies when contracts are based just on an exchange of promises. For instance, if A promises to buy a car from B for £2000 and B promises to sell the car to A for £2000, the consideration in this contract presents itself by the exchange of promises. The definition thus becomes meaningless. Therefore, a preferable definition was summed up by S ir Frederick Pollock(1950): “An act or forbearance of one party, or the promise thereof, is the price for which the promises of the other is bought, and the promises thus g iven for value is enforceable.”This definition was approved to be more representative than the concept of benefit and loss by the House of Lords(cited in Richards, 2011, p.61-62).2. The rules of considerationAlthough the definition of consideration is direct and simple, it is wrong to regard it as a single coherent principle. Actually the doctrine of consideration as we know today is made up of a series of sub-principles and their exceptions (Richards, 2011, p.62). The sub-principles can be divided into three main categories as below (McKendrick, 1998, p.86).(1). Consideration can be executed or executory but it cannot be past(Richards, 2011, p62).(2). “Considerat ion must move from the promisee” (Beatson, 2002, p95).(3). Consideration must be sufficient but it need not be adequate(Lilienthal, 2011).When it comes to exceptions, it can be concluded that if either the promisor or the promisee already had a legal duty to pay such payment, it cannot be seen as consideration in the legal perspective(Lilienthal, 2011).3. Why consideration is important?Consideration is one of the primary constituent parts of an “enforceable contract” in English Law(Richards, 2011, p.60). It has many functions which make it indispensable in contract.Firstly, the doctrine of consideration has many functions. The most important function of consideration is to connect the two promises. This main function is less being talked about because consideration has already been regarded as a precondition of a valid contract(Bucher, no date, p21).Secondly, the reason why consideration is so important is its openness and elasticity. It gives the judge “room for discretion” when being used in specific cases. That is also the reason why consideration must be contained in every valid contract. (Bucher, no date, p22)Finally, consideration is a necessity for the formation of each simple contract. A contract without consideration is not suable. Moreover, It can also be used to make a distinction between “binding promises” and which can be regarded as “gratuitous” (Mayne, 2009, p.1). In each case, it became indispensable to ask whether the promisor receives any interest or the promiseeassumes any loss as long as it is related to contract. If the answer was no, the promise was “gratuitous” rather than “binding”(Beatson, 2002, p.92).4. Relationship between consideration and promissory estoppelIt can be seen from the definition of consideration that consideration is required in most agreements if they want to be enforced by the Court (Lilienthal, 2011). However, in practical situations, there aresome gratuitous gift contracts, which mean the donor promises to give something to the donee for free. If the promisor breaches his promise, there is no legal basis to remedy the detriment of the promisee. It is extremely unfair to promisee who suffers loss due to the reliance to the promisor (Beatson, 2002, p112). However, it can be argued that this problem of consideration has been mitigated through the development of the law in the fields of promissory estoppel (Mayne, 2009, p1).According to Denning J (cited in McKendrick, 2003, p.117), promissory estoppel can be defined as: When a person makes a clear statement of his future conduct whatever by words or behaviour, showing the statement to be reliable and to affect the relationship between the parties, and the other person changes his legal position because of the reliance on the promise, the first person will be prevented from doingwhat is contrary to the premier statement.However, what can be seen from the definition of promissory estoppel is that there are five important elements included, such as the promise to future conduct, the reliance and it must be inequitable for the promisor to breach his promise. Only meets all of these elements can promissory estoppel come intoforce. What’s more, the gratuitous contracts are in the minority of practical cases after all, which means the use of promissory estoppel is still limited and it cannot meet the needs of all contracts (McKendrick, 2003, p117-118). Therefore, in view of this it is possible to draw a conclusion that although promissory estoppel does have solved some problems of consideration, it cannot be an alternative of consideration. It can only be regarded as a supplement of consideration(Mayne, 2009, p4).ConclusionIn conclusion, although the role of consideration is not as significant as it was before in the modern law of contract because of the mitigating effects of modern legal developments in the field of promissory estoppel and other doctrines, considerationis still very important toidentify whether legal relations have been set up(Mayne, 2009, p4).。
The Main Components of a Contract 合同翻译基础合知望达汇编整理2020.9目录一、合同的结构 (3)二、引言和“鉴于”条款（Preamble & recitals） (5)2.1 合同主体条款Contracting parties (5)2.2 “引言”部分Recitals (6)2.3 有效对价Good and valuable consideration (6)2.4 公平交易Arm's Length terms (7)三、责任与义务（Obligations of the parties）条款 (8)3.1 各方义务（Obligations of the parties）条款 (8)四、价格（Price）条款与支付（Payment terms）条款 (9)4.1 价格条款（Price） (9)4.2支付条件条款（Payment terms） (10)五、合同有效期条款（Terms of contract） (10)5.1 生效Effectiveness (10)5.2 合同期的延长Extension of availability (11)5.3 合同中止/暂停Suspension of contract (11)5.4 合同终止Termination of contract (12)六、损害赔偿条款（Indemnification） (13)七、陈述与保证条款（Representations and warranties） (14)八、保险要求INSURANCE REQUIREMENTS (15)九、不可抗力条款Force Majeure (16)十、合同争议解决（Disputes）条款 (18)十一、司法管辖Jurisdiction (23)十二、证明WITNESS与签署Signatures (24)12.1证明WITNESS (24)12.2 签署Signatures (25)十三、附件附录Schedule, Exhibit, Annex, Appendix, Attachment (25)13.1 附件Schedule (25)13.2 附件Exhibit (26)13.3 附录Appendix (27)13.4 附件/附录Annex (27)13.5 附件attachment (28)一、合同的结构1. 必备条款essential clauses / provisions2. 一般条款/通用条款general provisions3. 特殊条款/专用条款special provisions4. 章.条.款.项.目5. 首部non-operative part （当事人部分parties 陈述部分recital）经营地址，存续情况等6. 正文operative part7. 陈述部分recitals (包括：鉴于条款whereas clause和约因consideration)8. 尾部closing part （证明部分attestation 签字signature 附件appendix）9. 合同主体的名称.姓名和住所name and domicile of the parties10. 适格主体competent parties11. 标的contract object , subject matter12. 数量quantity 质量quality13. 价款或者报酬price or remuneration14. 对价consideration15. 履行时效.地点和方式time limit, place and method ofperformance16. 违约责任default / liability for breach of contract17. 除外规定exception18. 解决争议的方法methods to settle disputes19. 变更modification 终止termination 撤销cancellation 解除rescission20. 主体的变更或权利义务的整体转让novation21. 通知notice22. 违约责任default / breach of contract23. 救济remedies24. 责任的免除exception25. 不可抗力force majeure26. 争议的解决settlement of disputes27. 合同的生效effectiveness / validity28. 合同份数counterpart29. 合同的整体性entirety 合同的可分割性severability 合同的完整性entirety30. 文字效力language31. 法律适用applicable law / governing law32. 保密规定confidentiality33. 副本copies / counterparts34. 性别与单复数gender and singular / plural35. 合同尾部closing clauses / final clause(包括：证明条款attestation 签字部分testimonium / signature 附件部分addendum)二、引言和“鉴于”条款（Preamble & recitals）英语合同，在主体条款之后，往往会有一段“引言”。
对价与约因Document serial number【UU89WT-UU98YT-UU8CB-UUUT-UUT108】对价（consideration）与约因（cause）合同成立的诱因；致使缔约方缔结合同的原因、动机、代价或强迫性的影响力；一方当事人获得的权利、利益、利润或好处，或另一方当事人所遭受的损失或承担的义务。
这是有效合同存在并对当事人有法律约束力的基本且必须的要素：对价是英美合同法的重要概念。
其引入是基于以下的原因：按照传统的观点，合同是一项或一组这样的允诺〔promise)：它或它们一旦被违反，法律就会给予救济。
而要使允诺成为一项法律能为之提供救济的允诺，即成为有法律约束力的合同，则受允诺人（promisee〕必须向允诺人〔promisor〕提供某种与该诺言相对应的回报，这种回报就被认为是对价。
关于对价，有两种理论具有重要影响力：其一是19世纪初产生的「获益-受损公式」〔benefit-detriment〕，即如果允诺人从交易中获益，那么这种获益就是其作出允诺的充分对价；而另一方面，如果受诺人遭受了某种损害，那么这种损害也足以证明对方曾经作出过某种允诺。
其二是19世纪末产生的「对价的变换理论」〔bargain theory of consideration)，即：对价的本质在于它是作为允诺的动机或诱因而提出和接受的；反言之，允诺之做出亦是对价之给付的诱因。
整件事的根本就在于对价与允诺之间的互惠引诱关系。
该理论由于与商品经济的飞速发展极为适应，因此很快成为美国法中对价制度的新正统。
根据《美国(第二次)合同法重述》〔Restatement (Second) of Contracts〕，对价之意义，系指合乎法律规定之交换要素，其重心在于：1.受允诺人承诺或履行了其在法律上原无义务的作为或不作为，即受允诺人受有损害〔detriment；2.允诺人以其允诺交换磋商（bargain for）受诺人之作为或不作为。
合同翻译整理1. Now Therefore, in consideration of the premises, and the representations, warranties, covenants, and undertakings of the parties hereinafter set forth, and for other good and valuable consideration, the parties agree among themselves as follows.鉴于上述事实和各⽅在下⽂所作的陈述、保证、⽴约和承诺，及其他有效的有价约因/有效对价，现各⽅达成协议如下。
representation 陈述warranties 保证covenant 约定、契约undertaking 承诺good and valuable consideration 有效的对价约因有效对价指⾜以⽀持当事⼈之间交易的对价对价(consideration)原本是英美合同法中的重要概念，其内涵是⼀⽅为换取另⼀⽅做某事的承诺⽽向另⼀⽅⽀付的⾦钱代价或得到该种承诺的承诺。
对价：指当事⼈⼀⽅在获得某种时，必须给付对⽅相应的代价。
什么是约因⼀般⼜译为"约因",是缔约当事⼈之间,由于缔约⾏为,⼀⽅获得利益,⼀⽅遭受损失.例如,某甲同意按⼀定价钱出售货物给某⼄,约定⼄得到货物后于⼀定期限付款,但到期后⼄未付款,因⽽甲遭受损失,⼄获得利益.在这⾥,⼄⽀付⼀定数额的款项的约定,就是甲出售货物约定的"约因".约因是在"违约损害之诉"的基础上产⽣的.但是对价和约因⼜有不同，对价是有⾦钱价值的约因。
约因（consideration），是指当事⼈签订合同所追求的直接⽬的，约因和对价的区别是卖家和买家的区别。
与之⽐较2.作为合同法上相对应的两个概念，英美法的对价与法国法的约因具有某些相同的作⽤，即都是给予的确定以⼀个统⼀的标准，都能约束简单契约，使契约当事⼈的权利有所保障，并具有事先慎重考虑之表⽰。
国际合同法的相关规定一、合同的概念在国际交往中，买卖交易、货物运输与保险、公司的设立、产品的销售、代理人的委托，都要通过订立合同来实现。
（一）大陆法系的合同概念（二）英美法系的合同概念大陆法系主要从理论上认识合同，而英美法系注重在一个具体案件中如何为当事人提供救济。
合同的基本要素是当事人所做的允诺，而允诺的关键是其在法律上的可强制执行性。
合同是一份能够产生法律承认或者法律予以强制实施的义务的协议。
强调合同订立当事人之间的协商一致。
（三）我国法律中的合同概念合同是平等主体的自然人、法人、其它组织之间设立、变更、终止民事权利义务关系的协议。
从以上对各国法律的介绍来看，尽管各国法对合同的定义有所不同，但其实并无本质差别，都是把当事人之间的意思表示一致作为达成协议、形成合同关系的基本要素。
第二节合同成立各国合同法几乎都把双方当事人达成合意作为合同成立的要素，关于合同成立的含义存在形式和实质两种解释。
从形式上说，合同的成立是指合同关系经历了邀约阶段和承诺阶段，达成了合意。
从实质上说，合同的成立不仅包括具备了合意的形式，而且还不存在影响当事人合意的错误、欺诈、胁迫、重大失误等因素，也就是说合同获得了有效成立。
一、合同订立的过程——要约与承诺（一）要约1.要约的定义定义：又称为发盘、发价或报价等，凡向一个或一个以上特定的人提出的订立合同的建议，如果内容十分确定，并且表明发价人有当其发价一旦被接受就将受其约束的意思，即构成发价。
提出要约的人叫做要约人，其向对方叫做受要约人。
一项有效的要约必须具备以下条件：第一：要约的内容必须明确、肯定。
要约应当包括即将签订的合同的主要条款，能够表明当事人的基本权利义务。
关于要约应当明确协商哪些内容，现代合同法理论出现简洁化趋势，其中包含了空缺条款留待日后依照惯例确定的意思。
第二：要约必须表明要约人愿意按照自己要约中所提出的条件与对方订立合同的意旨。
要约邀请与要约的区别在于，后者一经对方承诺，要约人就应当受其约束，因为合同已告成立；而前者仅仅是做出让对方向自己发出要约的邀请，因此，即使对方予以回应，只要自己没有承诺，合同仍未成立。
第二章法律英语术语draft 法案，草案Government bill 政府议案to pass a bill, to carry a bill 通过议案to enact a law, to promulgate a law 颁布法律 ratification, confirmation 批准law enforcement 法律的实施to come into force 生效decree 法令clause 条款minutes 备忘录report 判例汇编codification 法律汇编legislation 立法legislator 立法者jurist 法学家jurisprudence 法学legitimation 合法化legality, lawfulness 法制，合法legal, lawful 合法的,依法的to contravene a law, to infringe a law, to break a law 违法 outlaw, outside the law 超出法律范围的offender 罪犯to abolish 废止，取消rescission, annulment 废除，取消repeal, revocation, annulment 废除(法律)cancellation, annulment, invalidation 废除(合同)cancellation (支票)作废annulment 撤消(遗嘱)repeal rescission 撤消(判决)revocation 撤消immunity 豁免，豁免权disability, legal incapacity 无资格 nonretroactive character 不溯既往性 prescription 剥夺公权attainder 公民权利的剥夺和财产的没收 constitutional law 宪法canon law 教会法规common law 习惯法criminal law 刑法administrative law 行政法civil law 民法commercial law, mercantile law 商法 law of nations 万国公法，国际法international law 国际法natural law 自然法labour laws 劳工法fiscal law 财政法Civil Suit Law, Code of civil law 民事诉讼法 Criminal Law 刑事诉讼法Military Law 军法Conscript Law 兵役法Copyright Law 著作权法penal code 刑法典code of mercantile law 商法典civil rights 民事权利，公民权利right of asylum 避难权human rights, rights of man 人权(customs) duties 关税death duty, death tax 遗产税royalties 版税Aabsolute proof 绝对证明absolute property 绝对财产（权）abstract of title 产权书摘要acceleration clause 提前（偿还）条款acceptance 承诺accident report 事故报告accident insurance 意外保险accusation 指控；控告accusatorial procedure 控告程序accusatorial process of proof 控告证明过程（程序） accusatorial system 控告或诉讼程序accused 被指控者accuser 控告人acknowledgement 认知(书)acquittal 无罪判决act 条例；作为Act for the prevention of Frauds and Perjuries 《预防诈欺和伪证条例》 action 诉讼；作为actual losses 实际损失adjudication 裁决；裁定administrative law 行政法administrative law judge 行政法法官administrative procedure 行政程序administrator 管理人；监管人admissible 可采的admissibility 可采性admit 采用；允许adoption 收养adulterous conduct 通奸行为ad valorem property tax 从价财产税adversarial hearing 对抗式听证会adversarial process 对抗式程序adversary 对手adversary trial system 对抗式（或抗辩）审判制度 advocacy 出庭辩护；诉讼代理advocate 辩护人；诉讼代理人affidavit 正式书面陈述affirm 维持（原判）affirmation 保证书；证词affirmative 确保的agency （行政）机关agency action 机关（行政）机关agreed upon remedies 补救协议agreement 协议agreement-as-written 书面协议agreement -in-fact 事实协议alibi 阿里白（不在犯罪场的证明）alienation of affection 离间夫妻关系 allegation 声称；指控allege 诉称；指控alleged offense 所控罪行alternate juror 替补陪审员amendment 修正案American Bar Association 美国律师协会 American Law Institute 美国法学会analogy 类推Anglo-American Legal System 英美法系 anonymous accusation 匿名控告appeal 上诉appear 出庭appellant 上诉人appellate action 上诉行为 appellate court 上诉法院 appellee 被上诉人appealer 上诉人appropriate 拨款appurtenant 附属物arbiter 仲裁人arbitrary武断的arbitration仲裁arraignment初审array 陪审员名单arrest 逮捕arrest warrant 逮捕令（证）arrestee 被捕人article 条款，文章article of authority 授权条款articles of confederation 《联帮条例》articles of incorporation 公司组织章程artificial person 法人Asian American legal defense and education fund亚裔美国人法律辩护与教育基金会 assault 意图或威胁伤害assert 主张，宣称asset 资产assistant attorney 助理法官associate judge 副法官associate justice 副大法官assumption 违约合同，违约赔偿之诉assumption 假定attempt 意图，企图attempted escape 逃脱未遂attestation 证词attorney 代理人，律师attorney at law 律师attorney general 检察长authentication 鉴定authority 权力，法源，权威性依据 automobile insurance 机动车保险 automobile tort 机动车侵权行为 autonomy 自治（权）Bban 禁令，禁止banishment 流放bankruptcy 破产bankruptcy discharge 破产债务解除 bankruptcy judge 破产法官bar 律师职业bar association 律师协会barrister 出庭律师battery 殴打bench trial 法官审beneficiary 受益人benefit 收益，福得bigamy 重婚罪bill of lading 提单bill of right 《人权法案》bind over 具保，具结binder 临时保险单binding 有约束力binding contract 有约束力的合同binding force 约束力binding interpretation 有约束力的解释black-letter law （普通接受之基本原则的）黑体字法 black nation bar association 全美黑人律师协会blue sky law 蓝天法（关于股票买卖控制的法律）Board of Governors（ABA）（美国律师协会的）董事会 body of law 法体bond 债券；保释金bond instrument 债券契据branding 鞭笞breach 违约；破坏bride 贿赂bribery 贿赂（罪）bright-line test 明显界限检验标准broker 中间人brokerage fee 佣金；中介费brother-sister corporation 兄弟公司；姊妹公司Bulk Sales Act《大宗销售条例》burden 责任burden of going forward with the evidence 先行举证责任 burden of persuasion 说服责任；证明责任burden of producing evidence 举证责任burden of proof 证明责任burglary入室盗窃（罪）business corporation实业公司business law 实业法business organization 实业组织buy-out agreement（股权）承买协议buy-sell agreement（股权）买卖协议bylaws（内部）章程CCalifornia Penal Code《加州刑法典》capital account 资本帐户 capital crime 可判死刑罪capital punishment 死刑capital surplus 资本盈余capitation tax 人头税career criminal 职业罪犯career judiciary 职业法官case briefing 案情摘要case-in-chief 主诉case law 判例法case method 案例教学法case report 判决报告case reports 判例汇编casualty insurance （意外伤害）保险catalog 商品目录（单）certificate 证书certificate of existence 实体存在证明（书） challenge 置疑；挑战challenge for cause有理回避chancery court 衡平法院charging instrument 控告文件checks and balances 制衡（原则）chief judge 首席法官chief justice 首席大法官child abuse 虐待儿童circuit court 巡回法院circuit judge 巡回法官circumstantial evidence 旁证；情况证据 citation 引证cite 援引；传讯civil court 民事法civil forfeiture 民事罚没civil law 民法Civil Law Legal System 民法体系civil liability 民事责任civil Liberty 民事自由civil Litigation民事诉讼civil procedure 民事诉讼程序civil suit民事诉讼Civil trial 民事审判Civil right 民权Civil right law 民权法Civil War Income Tax Act 《内战所得税条例》 Claim 诉讼请求，索赔Classification of law 法律分类Close corporation内部持股公司Closely held corporation 内部持股公司Closing 终结，成交，结帐Closing argument 最后论述Closing statement成交声明Code 法典Code of Judicial Conduct 《法官行为准则》 Codify 编成法典Co-felon 共同重罪犯Cohabitation 同居Collateral contract 附属合同Collegiate bench 合议席Collegiate panel 合议庭Commercial clause 商务条款，贸易条款Commercial law 商法Commercial paper 商务文件Commission佣金Commit 交托，犯（罪）Commitment 犯罪，许诺，委托Commitment of financing 融资许诺Common law 普通法Common law damages 普通法赔偿金Common law legal system(family) 普通法法系 Common law marriage 普通法婚姻Common property 共同财产Common stock 普通股票Community property 共同财产Comparative law 比较法Comparative negligence 比较过失Compensation 赔偿（金）Compensatory damage 应予赔偿之损害Competence 管辖权限Competency 有效性Complaint 控告，申诉Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act 《滥用毒品的综合预防与控制条例》Compulsory license 强制性许可Concur附条件地同意Concurring opinion 并存（判决）意见Confer 授与Conference 协商会议Confidential information 保密信息Confiscation 没收Conflict law 冲突法Congress 国会Consent 同意，认可Consideration 对价，约因Constitution 宪法Constitutional Convention 制宪会议Constitutional law 宪法Constitutional tort 宪法性侵权Constitutionality 合宪性Construction （法律的）结构，解释Construe 解释，分析Consultation 磋商Consumer protection statute 消费者保护法律Consumption tax 消费税Continental Law Legal System(or Family) 大陆法系Contingent fee 胜诉酬金Continuance 诉讼延期Contract 合同Contract dispute 合同纠纷Contract formation 合同构成Contract interpretation 合同解释 Contract law 合同法Contract performance 合同履行contractor 承包商contravence 触犯;违犯contributory negligence 共同过失 controlling law 应适应之法律conversion 非法占有convey 转让conveyance 转让convertible bond 可转换债券conviction 有罪判决convincing evidence 使人信服的证据copyright 版权;著作权corporal punishment肉体刑corporate camsel 公司法律顾问corporate excise tax 公司执照税corporate law 公司法corporation 公司corporation aggregate 合有公司corporation code 公司法典corporation law 公司法corporation sole 独有公司corpus 尸体;本金Council on legal Education Opportunities 法律教育机会委员会counselor (法律)顾问;律师counselor-at-law 律师court 法院;法官court decision 法院判决court fee 诉讼费court of appeals 上诉法院court of chancery 衡平法法院court of claims 索赔法院court of customs and Patent Appeals 关税及专利上诉法院 court of domestic relations 家庭关系法院court opinion 法院判决意见courtroom 法庭coverage 保险范围crime 犯罪crime code 刑法典crime homicide 有罪杀人crime justice system 刑事司法系统crime law 刑法crime liability 刑事责任crime procedure 刑事诉讼程序cross-examination 交叉盘问;盘诘cruel and unusual punishment 残忍和非常的刑罚 cumulative evidence 累计证据curative 临时监护的curriculum guide 课程指南custody 监护custom duty 关税customary law 习惯法customary practice 惯例customs court 关税法院Ddamage 损害;损伤damage claim 损害赔偿请求 damages 损害赔偿金deadlocked jury 僵局陪审团 death penalty 死刑death tax 遗产税debenture 债单(券)debt securities 债权证券 decide a case 判案deed 契约deed book 文契汇编defamation 诽谤default 不履行;违约defendant 被告人defence 辩护defence attorney 辩护律师defense's case-in-chief 辩护方主讼deficiency judgment 不足额判决degrees of murder (恶意)杀人罪的等级delegation 授权delegated legislation 授权立法deliberate intention 故意deliberation (陪审团)评议demonstrative evidence 示意证据deprivation 剥夺derogatory treatment of the work 对作品的贬毁性处理(或使用) designs 设计detract 毁损;贬低developer (土地)开发商dicta 判决附带意见dignity 尊严direct evidence 直接证据direct examination 直接盘问direct tax 直接税disa bility insurance 残疾保险disabled dependent child 无谋生能力的残疾儿童discharge 解雇;释放discount 贴现;折扣discovery 要求告知discrete risk transfer product 离散性风险转移(保险)产品 discretion 自由裁量权discriminatory 歧视性税收dispense 执行;施行dispute 争议;纠纷disposition 处置(权)dissent 异议;反对dissenting opinion 异议;反对意见dissolution 解散distort 歪曲;误解district attorney 地区检查官database right 数据权dividend 股息division of title 产权分割divorce 离婚docket 备审案件目录doctrine 法则;原则doctrine of constitutional supremacy 宪法至上原则 doctrine of Maranda Warnings 米兰达忠告原则document 文件;文书document of title 产权证书domant Commerce Clause 休眠的"贸易条款" domicile 住所地double jeopardy 一罪二审draft 起草;草拟draftman 起草者drug trade 毒品交易drug trafficking 毒品交易dry run 干转;排练due diligence 适当努力due process 正当程序Due Process Clause 正当程序条款due process test 正当程序检验标准duration 期限duress 强迫;胁迫duty 义务;关税duty of care 照看义务Eearnest money 定金easyment 地役权ecclesiastical court 宗教法庭 economic law 经济法effective date 生效日期effective time 生效时间element of crime 犯罪要素(件) empower 授权enact 制定;颁布en banc 全体法官出庭审判encroachment 侵占encumbered property 抵押财产enforce 实施；执行enforceable 可强制执行的enforceability 可执行性enforcement of Law 执法English-American Legal System (or Family) 英吉利法系 enjoin(衡平）强制令entail 限定继承entity 实体environmental impact statement 环境影响报告environmental Law 环境保护法Environmental protection Agency(EPA) 环境保护局environmental quality 环境质量equal protection clause 平等保护条款equitable relief 衡平救济equity 衡平法equity Law 衡平法equity precedent 衡平法判例equity securities 产权证券；衡平证券 error 过错 escape 逃走；逃脱escrow 第三者保存合同essential justice 实质公正estate 财产；遗产estate tax 遗产税ＥＵ Directive 欧盟指令evaluate 评价evict 逐出（租户）evidence 证据evidentiary presumption 证据推定evidentiary rule 证据规则ex aequo at bono 公平且善良examine 检查；盘问examination 检查；盘问exception 例外exception clause 例外条款excise tax 执照税exclude 排除exclusive listing 读家上市exclusive right 排他性权利exclusive tax situs 唯一征税地点 excusable homicide 可宽恕之杀人 execute 执行；签属execution 执行executive acts 行政条例executive branch 行政部门executive order 行政命令executor (遗嘱）执行人executor of estate 遗产执行人exemption 免除；豁免exhibit 展示物（证）exigent circumstance 紧急情况existing securities 上市证券exparte 单方面的expectation damages 预期赔偿金expert 专家（证人）expert testimony 专家证言expert witness 专家证人express contract 明示合同express statutory provision 法律明文规定 express warranty 明示保证（保修）ex rel 依据告发face amount 面颊face value 面植facilitate 促使：利于fact 事实fact in issue 争议事实factor 因素；代理商Factors Lien Act 《代理商留置权条例》Fair trial 公平审判false imprisonment 非法拘禁family law 家庭法fault 过错fault principle 过错原则feasibility study 可行性研究Federal Administrative Procedure Act 《联邦行政程序》 Federal Antitrust Law 《联邦犯托拉斯法》federal convention 联邦制宪会议federal crime of murder 联邦杀人罪Federal Housing Act 《联邦住房条例》Federal Income Tax Act 《联邦所得税条例》federal judge 联邦法官Federal rules of civil procedure 《联邦民事诉讼规则》Federal rules of criminal procedure 《联邦刑事诉讼规则》 Federal rules of evidence 《联邦证据规则》Federal securities act 《联邦证券条例》federal supremacy 联邦至上（原则）Federal tort claims act 《联邦侵权索赔条例》felon 重罪犯felony 重罪felony-murder 重罪杀人fiduciary 受托人file 档案；注册file a petition 呈交诉状；提出请求 fine 罚金fingerprint 手印fire insurance 火灾保险fire protection 消防first degree murder 一级谋杀first instance 一审fixture （不动产）附属物flogging 烙印force of law 法律效力forcible felony 暴力性重罪foreign exchange risk 外汇风险forfeiture 没收；罚没form contract 格式合同form of evidence 证据的形式formal adjudication 正式裁决 formal rulemaking 正式规则制定。
Consideration对价（约因）Consideration 对价Something bargained for and received by a promisor from a promisee. Common types of consideration include real or personal property, a return promise, some act, or a forbearance. Consideration or a valid substitute is required to have a contract. Consideration is one of the three basic elements of contract formation in common law, the other two being offer and acceptance. it is not present in other legal systems.立诺人从承诺人那里讨价还价并得到的东西。
常见的对价类型包括不动产或动产、回报承诺、某种作为或不作为。
合同要求有对价或者有效的替代物。
在英美法中，对价是合同形成的三个基本要素之一，其他两个要素是要约和承诺。
这在其他法律体系中是不存在的。
1. Definition of Consideration 对价的定义There are various definitions to consideration,likeConsideration is some benefit received by a party who gives a promise or performs an act, or some detriment suffered by a party who receives a promise.“A valuable consideration, in the sense of the law, may consist either in some right, interest, profit of benefit accruing to one party or some forbearance,detriment, loss or responsibility given, suffered or undertaken by the other.”对价有多种定义，比如：对价是指承诺人或者行为人获得的利益，或者承诺人受到的损害。
合同法中的consideration编号：_______________________甲方：_______________________乙方：_______________________地址：_______________________联系人：_______________________联系电话：_______________________签订日期：_______________________签订地址：_______________________第一条协议目的及背景a. 协议目的① 本协议旨在明确甲乙双方在合同履行过程中的权利和义务。
② 双方同意按照合同的相关条款履行各自义务，并提供必要的支持与协助。
③ 本协议的签署表示双方在合作过程中相互尊重、共同努力，达成合作目标。
④ 甲乙双方将本协议作为未来合作的依据，并以此为准绳。
b. 协议背景① 甲方需要乙方提供某些具体服务，乙方同意按照甲方要求提供相应的服务。
② 本协议签署前，甲乙双方已进行充分沟通，确保双方需求与能力相匹配。
③ 本协议的签订符合双方的商业利益需求及合作意图。
④ 甲乙双方承认协议条款对双方具有法律效力，并愿意遵守相关约定。
c. 双方理解① 双方同意本协议将为未来的合作奠定基础，保证履约过程的顺畅。
② 协议中的所有条款已明确并被双方认可，任何一方不得随意修改。
③ 双方将严格按照约定的时间、条件及质量标准执行本协议。
④ 任何违反协议条款的行为将视为违约，违约方需承担相应的法律责任。
第二条对价（Consideration）a. 对价的构成① 本协议中的对价是指甲乙双方为履行协议约定所提供的货物、服务或其他有价之物。
② 甲方向乙方支付的款项或提供的其他利益，视为甲方履行其义务的对价。
③ 乙方向甲方提供的服务、产品或其他承诺视为乙方履行义务的对价。
④ 双方同意在履行本协议时，严格按照约定的对价支付与接收。
b. 对价支付方式① 甲方应按照协议中约定的方式支付对价，具体金额与支付方式双方已确认。
