Classroom Interaction and Second Language Acquisition：The More Interactions

运用交互式教学法增强高级英语教学的实效性关于运用交互式教学法增强高级英语教学的实效性传统的高级英语教学的授课模式基本都是以教师为中心，教师负责课堂上每时每刻的活动，学生“可理解的输入”多，而缺乏“可理解的输出”，缺少真实地道的语言环境和操练的机会，这是导致目前学生英语综合应用能力，特别是听说能力低的原因之一，对学生的英语学习会产生较大的负面影响。

一、交互式教学法的内涵交互式教学法（interactive language teaching）又叫做互动教学法或互动合作学习法，这种教学方法起源于 20 世纪 70 年代的美国，是当今越来越被关注和广泛运用的一种有效的教学方法。

哈佛大学语言学教授 Wilga M. Rivers 是交互式教学的主要倡导者，她提倡的人际交互观认为交际是语言教学的目标，而交际的本质在于交互。

交互指的是使用语言时注意力指向传递或接受的真实信息。

语言学习即接受和表达信息之间的交互。

交互的作用主要体现为：可以增加学生的语言存储量，在此基础上使用语言表达真实的语篇意义，而正在建构的意义与大脑中的图示相互作用，最终提高语言学习者的语言水平。

[3]二、交互式教学模式的应用路径交互式教学法主张教师应采取以学生为中心，给学生创造更多语言输出的机会，让学生在语言实践中主动地掌握语言，并培养学生主动参与、主动学习的能力。

同时，教师要在保持原有的教学组织形式的基础上，尽可能多地开展课堂交际活动。

在这类活动中，学生起主体作用，是活动的主要参加者，教师则起着组织和指导的作用。

在课堂教学中创设更多情境，让学生有机会运用自己学到的语言材料，注意在情境中掌握句型结构，把从输入到输出的过程缩短，使学生的英语语言水平得到充分的锻炼，从而以量变促质变，提高学生语言应用能力。

以下将以张汉熙主编的《高级英语》（第三版）[4]为例，基于交互式教学法，从语言输入和语言输出两个角度，结合课堂教学的实践，从如下几个方面做出尝试：（一）语言输入阶段1.师生角色的重新定位，为师生交互营造良好的课堂气氛建构主义学习理论认为，知识是个体与环境交互作用的过程中逐渐建构的。

SYLLABUSCourse: Theoretical Foundations of ESL 二语习得与教学研究Instructor: Dr Xiaoguang ChengTime: Fall of 2011Course Materials:Brown, H. D. 2007 (Fifth Edition). Principles of language learning and teaching.NY: Pearson..Mitchell, R. and F. Myles. 2004. (Second Edition). Second language learning theories.London: Arnold.Order of Presentations:1. B. Chap 1. Language, learning, and teaching2. M & M. Chap 1. Second language learning: key concepts and issues3. M & M. Chap 2. The recent history of second language learning research4. B. Chap 2. First language acquisition （biological）5. B. Chap 3. Age and acquisition （biological）6. B. Chap 4. Human learning （cognitive）7. B. Chap 5. Styles and strategies （cognitive）8. B. Chap 6. Personality factors （affective）9. B. Chap 7 Sociocultural factors （sociocultural）10. B. Chap 8. Communicative competence （pragmatic）11. B. Chap 9. Cross-linguistic influence and learner language （linguistic）12. B. Chap 10. Toward a theory of second language acquisition13. M & M. Chap 3. Linguistics and language learning: the Universal Grammar approach14. M & M. Chap 4. Cognitive approaches to second language learning15. M & M. Chap 5. Functional/pragmatic perspectives on second language learning16. M & M. Chap 6. Input and interaction in second language learning17. M & M. Chap 7. Sociocultural perspectives on second language learning18. M & M. Chap 8. Sociolinguistic perspectives19. M & M. Chap 9. ConclusionDescription of the Course:Teaching is the most complicated human undertaking, and teaching ESL is more so because it involves almost all the disciplines of human study that one can think of—linguistics, pragmatics, philosophy, psychology, cognition, culture, sociology, communication, education, and so on. Therefore, English teachers and English graduate students must assume a rational approach, secure a solid foundation in the rationales of all related theoretical models, and study and research the nature and characteristics of English learning and teaching so as to eliminate all irrationality, intuition, and recklessness in their teaching practices. (英语教学专业的研究生和英语教师必须具有这些相关学科和英语教学的理论知识，研究、了解和掌握英语教与学的性质、特点和规律，从而避免非理性、直觉性和盲目性，科学地指导英语教与学的实践。

《第二语言习得概论》课程教学大纲课程编码：30615001 学分： 2学分总学时：36学时说明【课程性质】《第二语言习得概论》是英语专业任意选修课。

【教学目的】帮助学习者在语言基础知识学习的基础上，掌握一些基本的教学理论，并使他们在学习的过程中形成自己的教学思路，为今后的教学实践或对其进一步的研究做准备。

【教学任务】通过对语言学习者学习语言过程的讨论，帮助学生将模糊的、无意识的实践性内容变成明确的、有意识的理论方法。

使他们在以后的教学中，能够批判性地接受现行的一些教学方法，并在实践过程中根据不同的受教育对象将其不断完善。

【教学内容】绪论；学习者语言的本质、中介语、中介语的社会层面；中介语的话语层面；中介语的心理语言学层面；中介语的语言学层面；二语习得中的个体差异；课堂教学和二语习得；结论【教学原则和方法】教学原则：理论和实践相结合，突出指导性和应用性。

教学方法：教师提出问题，并组织学生讨论，围绕具体问题进行讲解。

教师讲解与学生练习结合，学生每次课后书面回答具体问题。

【先修课程要求】“语言学概论”、“英语学习理论”课程的学习，有一定语言实践经验。

【教材与主要参考书】教材：Rod Ellis 《第二语言习得》上海外语教育出版社,2000年。

参考书：P. M. Lightbown and N. Spada 《语言学习机制》上海外语教育出版社, 20XX年。

Rod Ellis《第二语言习的研究》上海外语教育出版社, 1994年。

大纲内容第一部分Introduction: Describing and Explaining L2 Acquisition【教学目的和要求】教学目的：本章是全书的绪论，学习的目的是弄清第二语言习得的概念和目标。

教学要求：明确什么是学习者语言等相关概念，从而在整体上使学生对第二语言习得的基本理论有个概括性的了解。

【内容提要】Ⅰ.The definition of second language acquisitionⅡ.The goals of second language acquisitionⅢ.Two case studiesⅣ.Methodological issuesⅤ.Issues in the description of learner languageⅥ.Issues in the explanation of L2 acquisition【教学重点与难点问题】教学重点：the definition of second language acquisition教学难点：the goals of second language acquisition【复习参考题】1. In what respects is Wes a ‘good language learner’ and on what respects is he not one?2. What is your own definition of a ‘good language learner’?第二部分The Nature of Learner Language【教学目的和要求】教学目的：学生了解学习者语言的本质。

Bio data:Chair, Graduate School of Education; Professor, Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages; Applied Language studies and Linguistics dept.Professor Ellis, a renowed linguist, received his Doctorate from the University of London and his Master of Education from the University of Bristol. A former Professor at Temple University both in Japan and the US. Prof. Ellis has taught in numerous positions in England, Japan, the US, Zambia and New Zealand. Dr. Ellis who is known as the “Father of Second Language Acquisition”, has served as the Director of the Institute of Language Teaching and Learning at the University of Auckland. Author of numerous student and teacher training textbooks for Prentice Hall and Oxford University Press, Prof. Ellis’s textbooks on Second Language Acquisition and Grammar are core textbooks in TESOL and Linguistics programs around the world.From a paper Principles of Instructed Language Learning（待查）Rod ELLIS新西兰奥克兰大学教授Prof.of University of Auckland, New ZealandRod Ellis is currently Professor in the Department of Applied Language Studies and Linguistics, University of Auckland, where he teaches postgraduate courses on second language acquisition, individual differences in language learning and task-based teaching. His published work includes articles and books on second language acquisition, language teaching and teacher education. His books include Understanding Second Language Acquisition (BAAL Prize 1986) and The Study of Second Language Acquisition (Duke of Edinburgh prize 1995). More recently, Task-Based Learning and Teaching early (2003) and (with Gary Barkhuizen) Analyzing Learner Language in (2005) ), were published by Oxford University Press. He has also published several English language textbooks, including Impact Grammar (Pearson: Longman). He is also currently editor of the journal Language Teaching Research. In addition to his current position in New Zealand, he has worked in schools in Spain and Zambia and in universities in the United Kingdom, Japan and the United States. He has also conducted numerous consultancies and seminars throughout the world. Rod Ellis ，上海外国语大学，受聘为国家教育部第八批“长江学者奖励计划讲座教授”，聘任岗位：外国语言文学。

全日制教育硕士专业学位研究生培养方案与实施细则学科教学（英语）（外文学院2015年7月修订）一、培养目标培养掌握现代教育理论、具有较强的教育教学实践和研究能力的高素质的中小学英语课程专任教师与从事相关工作的教育教学管理人员。

具体要求为：1、拥护中国共产党的领导，热爱教育事业，具有良好的道德品质，遵纪守法，积极进取，勇于创新。

2、具有良好的学识修养和扎实的专业基础，了解学科前沿和发展趋势。

3、具有较强的教育实践能力，能胜任英语教育教学工作，在现代教育观念指导下运用所学理论和方法，熟练使用现代教育技术，解决教育教学中的实际问题；能理论结合实践，发挥自身优势，开展创造性的教育教学工作。

4、熟悉基础教育课程改革，掌握基础教育课程改革的新理念、新内容和新方法。

5、能熟练阅读本专业英语文献。

二、学习年限及课程设置全日制教育硕士（学科教学·英语）学习年限一般为3年；课程设置分为学位基础课，专业必修课，选修课程，实践教学，学术报告四个模块；总学分不少于38学分。

三、实践教学实践教学时间原则上不少于1年。

实践教学包括教育实习、教育见习、微格教学、教育调查、课例分析、班级与课堂管理实务等实践形式，其中到中小学进行实践活动的时间不少于半年。

四、教育方式本专业重视理论与实践相结合，采用课堂参与、小组研讨、案例教学、合作学习等多种方式相结合。

本专业建有稳定的教育实践基地，并聘请了多位校外兼职教育硕士导师。

五、学位论文与学位授予（一）学位论文选题应紧密联系基础教育实践，来源于中小学英语教育教学中的实际问题。

论文形式可以多样化，如调研报告、案例分析、校本课程开发、教材分析、教学案例设计等，字数不少于1.5万字。

（二）修满规定学分，并通过论文答辩者，经学位授予单位学位评定委员会审核，授予教育硕士专业学位，同时获得硕士研究生毕业证书。

六、其它非师范类专业毕业生入学后，应至少补修3门教师教育课程（如教育学，心理学、学科教学论），不计学分。

基于动态系统理论的课堂二语研究理论框架与研究方法一、概述随着全球化进程的加快，二语习得（Second Language Acquisition，简称SLA）已经成为教育领域和语言学研究的重要议题。

动态系统理论（Dynamic Systems Theory，简称DST）作为一种新兴的理论框架，为理解和研究二语习得提供了新的视角。

本文旨在探讨基于动态系统理论的课堂二语研究理论框架与研究方法，以期为二语习得的教学与实践提供有益的指导。

动态系统理论强调系统的动态性、复杂性和互动性，认为二语习得是一个不断变化和发展的过程，受到多种因素的共同影响。

该理论突破了传统二语习得理论的局限性，将二语习得视为一个由多个子系统相互作用构成的复杂动态系统。

这些子系统包括但不限于语言输入、语言输出、认知加工、情感因素、社会环境等。

这些子系统之间的相互作用和影响，共同塑造了二语习得的过程和结果。

基于动态系统理论的课堂二语研究理论框架，将课堂视为一个复杂的动态系统，关注教师、学生、教学内容、教学方法等多个因素之间的相互作用和影响。

该框架强调课堂环境的动态变化和学生个体差异对二语习得的影响，提倡在教学过程中注重学生的主动性和参与性，鼓励学生通过互动和合作进行语言学习和实践。

在研究方法上，基于动态系统理论的课堂二语研究注重定量和定性研究的结合，强调数据的收集和分析应该具有系统性和连续性。

通过运用多种研究工具和方法，如观察、访谈、问卷调查、语料库分析等，全面收集和分析课堂二语习得过程中的各种数据，揭示二语习得的动态变化和发展规律。

基于动态系统理论的课堂二语研究理论框架与研究方法，为二语习得的研究和实践提供了新的视角和工具。

通过深入探究课堂二语习得过程中的动态变化和影响因素，有助于我们更好地理解二语习得的本质和规律，为二语习得的教学与实践提供有益的启示和指导。

1. 简述动态系统理论（DST）的基本概念和原理动态系统理论（Dynamic Systems Theory，简称DST）是一种复杂系统分析方法，主要关注系统的动态性、非线性、交互性和复杂性。

Second-language acquisitionFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia(Redirected from Second language acquisition)Second-language acquisition or second-language learning is the process by which people learn a second language. Second-language acquisition (often abbreviated to SLA) also refers to the scientific discipline devoted to studying that process. Second language refers to any language learned in addition to a person's first language; although the concept is named second-language acquisition, it can also incorporate the learning of third, fourth, or subsequentlanguages.[1] Second-language acquisition refers to what learners do; it does not refer to practices in language teaching.The academic discipline of second-language acquisition is a subdiscipline of applied linguistics. It is broad-based and relatively new. As well as the various branches of linguistics, second-language acquisition is also closely related to psychology,cognitive psychology, and education. To separate the academic discipline from the learning process itself, the terms second-language acquisition research, second-language studies, and second-language acquisition studies are also used. SLA research began as an interdisciplinary field, and because of this it is difficult to identify a precise starting date. However, it does appear to have developed a great deal since the mid-1960s.[2] The term acquisition was originally used to emphasize the subconscious nature of the learningprocess,[3] but in recent years learning and acquisition have become largely synonymous.Second-language acquisition can incorporate heritage language learning,[4] but it does not usually incorporate bilingualism. Most SLA researchers see bilingualism as being the end result of learninga language, not the process itself, and see the term as referring to native-like fluency. Writers infields such as education and psychology, however, often use bilingualism loosely to refer to all forms of multilingualism.[5] Second-language acquisition is also not to be contrasted with theacquisition of a foreign language; rather, the learning of second languages and the learning of foreign languages involve the same fundamental processes in different situations.[6].There has been much debate about exactly how language is learned, and many issues are still unresolved. There are many theories of second-language acquisition, but none are accepted as a complete explanation by all SLA researchers. Due to the interdisciplinary nature of the field of second-language acquisition, this is not expected to happen in the foreseeable future.∙∙∙ 3 Learner languageo 3.1 Item and system learningo 3.2 Interlanguageo 3.3 Sequences of acquisitiono 3.4 Variabilityo 3.5 Language transfer∙ 4 Factors contributing to successful acquisitiono 4.1 External factors▪ 4.1.1 Input and interaction▪ 4.1.2 Social aspectso 4.2 Internal factors▪ 4.2.1 Cognitive approaches▪ 4.2.2 Sociocultural approaches▪ 4.2.3 Linguistic approaches∙ 5 Individual variationo 5.1 Affective factors∙ 6 In the classroom∙7 Factors contributing to acquisition difficultyo7.1 Phonologyo7.2 Grammaro7.3 For native English speakers∙8 See also∙9 Notes∙10 References∙11 Further reading∙12 External links[edit]HistoryAs SLA began as an interdisciplinary field, it is hard to pin down a precise starting date.[2] However, there are two publications in particular that are seen as instrumental to the development of the modern study of SLA: Pitt Corder's 1967 essay The Significance of Learners' Errors, and Larry Selinker's 1972 article Interlanguage. Corder's essay rejected a behaviorist account of SLA and suggested that learners made use of intrinsic internal linguistic processes; Selinker's article argued that second-language learners possess their own individual linguistic systems that are independent from both the first and second languages.[7]In the 1970s the general trend in SLA was for research exploring the ideas of Corder and Selinker, and refuting behaviorist theories of language acquisition. Examples include research into error analysis, studies in transitional stages of second-language ability, and the "morpheme studies" investigating the order in which learners acquired linguistic features. The 70s were dominatedby naturalistic studies of people learning English as a second language.[7]By the 1980s, the theories of Stephen Krashen had become the prominent paradigm in SLA. In his theories, often collectively known as the Input Hypothesis, Krashen suggested that language acquisition is driven solely by comprehensible input, language input that learners can understand. Krashen's model was influential in the field of SLA and also had a large influence on language teaching, but it left some important processes in SLA unexplained. Research in the 1980s was characterized by the attempt to fill in these gaps. Some approaches included Lydia White's descriptions of learner competence, and Manfred Pienemann's use of speech processing models and lexical functional grammar to explain learner output. This period also saw the beginning of approaches based in other disciplines, such as the psychological approach of connectionism.[7]The 1990s saw a host of new theories introduced to the field, such as Michael Long's interaction hypothesis, Merrill Swain's output hypothesis, and Richard Schmidt's noticing hypothesis. However, the two main areas of research interest were linguistic theories of SLA based upon Noam Chomsky's universal grammar, and psychological approaches such as skill acquisitiontheory and connectionism. The latter category also saw the new theories of processability and input processing in this time period. The 1990s also saw the introduction of sociocultural theory, an approach to explain second-language acquisition in terms of the social environment of the learner.[7] In the 2000s research was focused on much the same areas as in the 1990s, with research split into two main camps of linguistic and psychological approaches. VanPatten and Benati do not see this state of affairs as changing in the near future, pointing to the support both areas of research have in the wider fields of linguistics and psychology, respectively.[7][edit]Comparisons with first-language acquisitionPeople who learn a second language differ from children learning their first language in a number of ways. Perhaps the most striking of these is that very few adult second-language learners reach the same competence as native speakers of that language. Children learning a second language are more likely to achieve native-like fluency than adults, but in general it is very rare for someone speaking a second language to pass completely for a native speaker. When a learner's speech plateaus in this way it is known as fossilization.In addition, some errors that second-language learners make in their speech originate in their first language. For example, Spanish speakers learning English may say "Is raining" rather than "It is raining", leaving out the subject of the sentence. French speakers learning English, however, donot usually make the same mistake. This is because sentence subjects can be left out in Spanish, but not in French.[8] This influence of the first language on the second is known as language transfer.Also, when people learn a second language, the way they speak their first language changes in subtle ways. These changes can be with any aspect of language, from pronunciation and syntax to gestures the learner makes and the things they tend to notice.[9] For example, French speakers who spoke English as a second language pronounced the /t/ sound in French differently from monolingual French speakers.[10]This effect of the second language on the first led Vivian Cook to propose the idea of multi-competence, which sees the different languages a person speaks not as separate systems, but as related systems in their mind.[11][edit]Learner languageLearner language is the written or spoken language produced by a learner. It is also the main type of data used in second-language acquisition research.[12] Much research in second-language acquisition is concerned with the internal representations of a language in the mind of the learner, and in how those representations change over time. It is not yet possible to inspect these representations directly with brain scans or similar techniques, so SLA researchers are forced to make inferences about these rules from learners' speech or writing.[13][edit]Item and system learningThere are two types of learning that second-language learners engage in. The first is item learning, or the learning of formulaic chunks of language. These chunks can be individual words, set phrases, or formulas like Can I have a ___? The second kind of learning is system learning, or the learning of systematic rules.[14][edit]InterlanguageMain article: InterlanguageOriginally, attempts to describe learner language were based on comparing different languages and on analyzing learners' errors. However, these approaches weren't able to predict all the errors that learners made when in the process of learning a second language. For example, Serbo-Croat speakers learning English may say "What does Pat doing now?", although this is not a valid sentence in either language.[15]To explain these kind of systematic errors, the idea of the interlanguage was developed.[16] An interlanguage is an emerging language system in the mind of a second-language learner. A learner's interlanguage is not a deficient version of the language being learned filled with random errors, nor is it a language purely based on errors introduced from the learner's first language. Rather, it is a language in its own right, with its own systematic rules.[17] It is possible to view mostaspects of language from an interlanguage perspective, including grammar, phonology, lexicon, and pragmatics.There are three different processes that influence the creation of interlanguages:[15]∙Language transfer. Learners fall back on their mother tongue to help create their language system. This is now recognized not as a mistake, but as a process that all learners go through. ∙Overgeneralization. Learners use rules from the second language in a way that native speakers would not. For example, a learner may say "I goed home", overgeneralizing the English rule of adding -ed to create past tense verb forms.∙Simplification. Learners use a highly simplified form of language, similar to speech by children or in pidgins. This may be related to linguistic universals.The concept of interlanguage has become very widespread in SLA research, and is often a basic assumption made by researchers.[17][edit]Sequences of acquisitionMain article: Order of acquisitionIn the 1970s several studies investigated the order in which learners acquired different grammatical structures.[19] These studies showed that there was little change in this order among learners with different first languages. Furthermore, it showed that the order was the same for adults and children, and that it did not even change if the learner had language lessons. This proved that there were factors other than language transfer involved in learning second languages, and was a strong confirmation of the concept of interlanguage.However, the studies did not find that the orders were exactly the same. Although there were remarkable similarities in the order in which all learners learned second-language grammar, there were still some differences among individuals and among learners with different first languages. It is also difficult to tell when exactly a grammatical structure has been learned, as learners may use structures correctly in some situations but not in others. Thus it is more accurate to speakof sequences of acquisition, where particular grammatical features in a language have a fixed sequence of development, but the overall order of acquisition is less rigid.[edit]VariabilityAlthough second-language acquisition proceeds in discrete sequences, it does not progress from one step of a sequence to the next in an orderly fashion. There can be considerable variability in features of learners' interlanguage while progressing from one stage to the next.[20] For example, in one study by Rod Ellis a learner used both "No look my card" and "Don't look my card" while playing a game of bingo.[21] A small fraction of variation in interlanguage is free variation, when the learner uses two forms interchangeably. However, most variation is systemic variation, variation which depends on the context of utterances the learner makes.[20] Forms can vary depending on linguistic context, such as whether the subject of a sentence is a pronoun or a noun; they can vary depending on social context, such as using formal expressions with superiors and informal expressions withfriends; and also, they can vary depending on psycholinguistic context, or in other words, on whether learners have the chance to plan what they are going to say.[20] The causes of variability are a matter of great debate among SLA researchers.[21][edit]Language transferMain article: Language transferOne important difference between first-language acquisition and second-language acquisition is that the process of second-language acquisition is influenced by languages that the learner already knows. This influence is known as language transfer.[22] Language transfer is a complex phenomenon resulting from interaction between learners’ prior linguistic knowledge, thetarget-language input they encounter, and their cognitive processes.[23] Language transfer is not always from the learner’s native language; it can also be from a second la nguage, or athird.[23] Neither is it limited to any particular domain of language; language transfer can occur in grammar, pronunciation, vocabulary, discourse, and reading.[24]One situation in which language transfer often occurs is when learners sense a similarity between a feature of a language that they already know and a corresponding feature of the interlanguage they have developed. If this happens, the acquisition of more complicated language forms may be delayed in favor of simpler language forms that resemble those of the language the learner is familiar with.[23]Learners may also decline to use some language forms at all if they are perceived as being too distant from their first language.[23]Language transfer has been the subject of several studies, and many aspects of it remain unexplained.[23] Various hypotheses have been proposed to explain language transfer, but there is no single widely-accepted explanation of why it occurs.[25][edit]Factors contributing to successful acquisition[edit]External factors[edit]Input and interactionThe primary factor affecting language acquisition appears to be the input that the learner receives. Stephen Krashen took a very strong position on the importance of input, assertingthat comprehensible input is all that is necessary for second-language acquisition.[26][27] Krashen pointed to studies showing that the length of time a person stays in a foreign country is closely linked with his level of language acquisition. Further evidence for input comes from studies on reading: large amounts of free voluntary reading have a significant positive effect on learners' vocabulary, grammar, and writing.[28][29] Input is also the mechanism by which people learn languages according to the universal grammar model.[30]The type of input may also be important. One tenet of Krashen's theory is that input should not be grammatically sequenced. He claims that such sequencing, as found in language classrooms where lessons involve practicing a "structure of the day", is not necessary, and may even be harmful.[31]While input is of vital importance, Krashen's assertion that only input matters in second-language acquisition has been contradicted by more recent research. For example, students enrolled in French-language immersion programs in Canada still produced non-native-like grammar when they spoke, even though they had years of meaning-focused lessons and their listening skills were statistically native-level.[32] Output appears to play an important role, and among other things, can help provide learners with feedback, make them concentrate on the form of what they are saying, and help them to automatize their language knowledge.[33] These processes have been codified in the theory of comprehensible output.[34]Researchers have also pointed to interaction in the second language as being important for acquisition. According to Long's interaction hypothesis the conditions for acquisition are especially good when interacting in the second language; specifically, conditions are good when a breakdown in communication occurs and learners must negotiate for meaning. The modifications to speech arising from interactions like this help make input more comprehensible, provide feedback to the learner, and push learners to modify their speech.[35][edit]Social aspectsAlthough the dominant perspective in second-language research is a cognitive one, from the early days of the discipline researchers have also acknowledged that social aspects play an important role.[36]There have been many different approaches to sociolinguistic study of second-language acquisition, and indeed, according to Rod Ellis, this plurality has meant that "sociolinguistic SLA is replete with a bewildering set of terms referring to the social aspects of L2 acquisition".[37] Common to each of these approaches, however, is a rejection of language as a purely psychological phenomenon; instead, sociolinguistic research views the social context in which language is learned as essential for a proper understanding of the acquisition process.[38]Ellis identifies three types of social structure which can affect the acquisition of second languages: socialinguistic setting, specific social factors, and situational factors.[39] Socialinguistic setting refers to the role of the second language in society, such as whether it is spoken by a majority or a minority of the population, whether its use is widespread or restricted to a few functional roles, or whether the society is predominantly bilingual or monolingual.[40]Ellis also includes the distinction of whether the second language is learned in a natural or an educational setting.[41] Specific social factors that can affect second-language acquisition include age, gender, social class, and ethnic identity, with ethnic identity being the one that has received most research attention.[42] Situational factors are those which vary between each social interaction. For example, a learner may use morepolite language when talking to someone of higher social status, but more informal language when talking with friends.[43]There have been several models developed to explain social effects on language acquisition. Schumann's Acculturation Model proposes that learners' rate of development and ultimate level of language achievement is a function of the "social distance" and the "psychological distance" between learners and the second-language community. In Schumann's model the social factors are most important, but the degree to which learners are comfortable with learning the second language also plays a role.[44] Another sociolinguistic model is Gardner's socio-educational model, which was designed to explain classroom language acquisition.[45] The inter-group model proposes "ethnolinguistic vitality" as a key construct for second-language acquisition.[46]Language socialization is an approach with the premise that "linguistic and cultural knowledgeare constructed through each other",[47] and saw increased attention after the year 2000.[48] Finally, Norton's theory of social identity is an attempt to codify the relationship between power, identity, and language acquisition.[49][edit]Internal factorsInternal factors affecting second-language acquisition are those which stem from the learner's own mind. Attempts to account for the internal mechanisms of second-language acquisition can be divided into three general strands: cognitive, sociocultural, and linguistic. These explanations are not all compatible, and often differ significantly.[edit]Cognitive approachesMuch modern research in second-language acquisition has taken a cognitiveapproach.[50] Cognitive research is concerned with the mental processes involved in language acquisition, and how they can explain the nature of learners' language knowledge. This area of research is based in the more general area of cognitive science, and uses many concepts and models used in more general cognitive theories of learning. As such, cognitive theories view second-language acquisition as a special case of more general learning mechanisms in the brain. This puts them in direct contrast with linguistic theories, which posit that language acquisition uses a unique process different from other types of learning.[51][52]The dominant model in cognitive approaches to second-language acquisition, and indeed in all second-language acquisition research, is the computational model.[52] The computational model involves three stages. In the first stage, learners retain certain features of the language input in short-term memory. (This retained input is known as intake.) Then, learners convert some of this intake into second-language knowledge, which is stored in long-term memory. Finally, learners use this second-language knowledge to produce spoken output.[53] Cognitive theories attempt to codify both the nature of the mental representations of intake and language knowledge, and the mental processes which underlie these stages.In the early days of second-language acquisition research interlanguage was seen as the basic representation of second-language knowledge; however, more recent research has taken a number of different approaches in characterizing the mental representation of language knowledge.[54] There are theories that hypothesize that learner language is inherentlyvariable,[55] and there is the functionalist perspective that sees acquisition of language as intimately tied to the function it provides.[56] Some researchers make the distinctionbetween implicit and explicit language knowledge, and somebetween declarative and procedural language knowledge.[57] There have also been approaches that argue for a dual-mode system in which some language knowledge is stored as rules, and other language knowledge as items.[58]The mental processes that underlie second-language acquisition can be broken down intomicro-processes and macro-processes. Micro-processes include attention;[59] workingmemory;[60] integration and restructuring, the process by which learners change their interlanguage systems;[61] and monitoring, the conscious attending of learners to their own languageoutput.[62] Macro-processes include the distinction between intentional learning and incidental learning; and also the distinction between explicit and implicit learning.[63]Some of the notable cognitive theories of second-language acquisition include the nativization model,the multidimensional model and processability theory, emergentist models, the competition model, and skill-acquisition theories.[64]Other cognitive approaches have looked at learners' speech production, particularlylearners' speech planning and communication strategies. Speech planning can have an effect on learners' spoken output, and research in this area has focused on how planning affects three aspects of speech: complexity, accuracy, and fluency. Of these three, planning effects on fluency has had the most research attention.[65] Communication strategies are conscious strategies that learners employ to get around any instances of communication breakdown they may experience. Their effect on second-language acquisition is unclear, with some researchers claiming they help it, and others claiming the opposite.[66][edit]Sociocultural approachesWhile still essentially being based in the cognitive tradition, sociocultural theory has a fundamentally different set of assumptions to approaches to second-language acquisition based on the computational model.[67] Furthermore, although it is closely affiliated with other social approaches, it is a theory of mind and not of general social explanations of language acquisition. According to Ellis, "It is important to recognize ... that this paradigm, despite the label 'sociocultural' does not seek to explain how learners acquire the cultural values of the L2 but rather how knowledge of an L2 is internalized through experiences of a sociocultural nature."[67] The origins of sociocultural theory lie in the work of Lev Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist.[68][edit]Linguistic approachesLinguistic approaches to explaining second-language acquisition spring from the wider study of linguistics. They differ from cognitive approaches and sociocultural approaches in that they consider language knowledge to be unique and distinct from any other type of knowledge.[51][52] The linguistic research tradition in second-language acquisition has developed in relative isolation from the cognitive and sociocultural research traditions, and as of 2010 the influence from the wider field of linguistics was still strong.[50] Two main strands of research can be identified in the linguistic tradition: approaches informed by universal grammar, and typological approaches.[69]Typological universals are principles that hold for all the world's languages. They are found empirically, by surveying different languages and deducing which aspects of them could be universal; these aspects are then checked against other languages to verify the findings. The interlanguages of second-language learners have been shown to obey typological universals, and some researchers have suggested that typological universals may constrain interlanguage development.[70]The theory of universal grammar was proposed by Noam Chomsky in the 1950s, and has enjoyed considerable popularity in the field of linguistics. It is a narrowly-focused theory that only concentrates on describing the linguistic competence of an individual, as opposed to mechanisms of learning. It consists of a set of principles, which are universal and constant, and a setof parameters, which can be set differently for different languages.[71] The "universals" in universal grammar differ from typological universals in that they are a mental construct derived by researchers, whereas typological universals are readily verifiable by data from world languages.[70]It is widely accepted among researchers in the universal grammar framework that all first-language learners have access to universal grammar; this is not the case for second-language learners, however, and much research in the context of second-language acquisition has focused on what level of access learners may have.[71][edit]Individual variationMain article: Individual variation in second-language acquisitionThere is considerable variation in the rate at which people learn second languages, and in the language level that they ultimately reach. Some learners learn quickly and reach a near-native level of competence, but others learn slowly and get stuck at relatively early stages of acquisition, despite living in the country where the language is spoken for several years. The reason for this disparity was first addressed with the study of language learning aptitude in the 1950s, and later with the good language learner studies in the 1970s. More recently research has focused on a number of different factors that affect individuals' language learning, in particular strategy use, social and societal influences, personality, motivation, and anxiety. The relationship between age and the ability to learn languages has also been a subject of long-standing debate.。

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