外文翻译---建筑中的结构设计及建筑材料

中英文对照外文翻译(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)Create and comprehensive technology in the structure globaldesign of the buildingThe 21st century will be the era that many kinds of disciplines technology coexists , it will form the enormous motive force of promoting the development of building , the building is more and more important too in global design, the architect must seize the opportunity , give full play to the architect's leading role, preside over every building engineering design well. Building there is the global design concept not new of architectural design,characteristic of it for in an all-round way each element not correlated with building- there aren't external environment condition, building , technical equipment,etc. work in coordination with, and create the premium building with the comprehensive new technology to combine together.The premium building is created, must consider sustainable development , namely future requirement , in other words, how save natural resources as much as possible, how about protect the environment that the mankind depends on for existence, how construct through high-quality between architectural design and building, in order to reduce building equipment use quantity andreduce whole expenses of project.The comprehensive new technology is to give full play to the technological specialty of every discipline , create and use the new technology, and with outside space , dimension of the building , working in coordination with in an all-round way the building component, thus reduce equipment investment and operate the expenses.Each success , building of engineering construction condense collective intelligence and strength; It is intelligence and expectation that an architect pays that the building is created; The engineering design of the building is that architecture , structure , equipment speciality compose hardships and strength happenning; It is the diligent and sweat paid in design and operation , installation , management that the construction work is built up .The initial stage of the 1990s, our understanding that the concept of global design is a bit elementary , conscientious to with making some jobs in engineering design unconsciously , make some harvest. This text Hangzhou city industrial and commercial bank financial comprehensive building and Hangzhou city Bank of Communications financial building two building , group of " scientific and technological progress second prize " speak of from person who obtain emphatically, expound the fact global design - comprehensive technology that building create its , for reach global design outstanding architect in two engineering design, have served as the creator and persons who cooperate while every stage design and even building are built completely.Two projects come into operation for more than 4 years formally , run and coordinate , good wholly , reach the anticipated result, accepted and appreciated by the masses, obtain various kinds of honor .outstanding to design award , progress prize in science and technology , project quality bonus , local top ten view , best model image award ,etc., the ones that do not give to the architect and engineers without one are gratified and proud. The building is created Emphasizing the era for global design of the building, the architects' creation idea and design method should be broken through to some extent, creation inspirations is it set up in analysis , building of global design , synthesize more to burst out and at the foundation that appraise, learn and improve the integration capability exactly designed in building , possess the new knowledge system and thinking method , merge multi-disciplinary technology. We have used the new design idea in above-mentioned projects, have emphasized the globality created in building .Is it is it act as so as to explain to conceive to create two design overview and building of construction work these now.1) The financial comprehensive building of industrial and commercial bank of HangZhou,belong to the comprehensive building, with the whole construction area of 39,000 square meters, main building total height 84, 22, skirt 4 of room, some 6 storeys, 2 storeys of basements.Design overall thinking break through of our country bank building traditional design mode - seal , deep and serious , stern , form first-class function, create of multi-functional type , the style of opening , architecture integrated with the mode of the international commercial bank.The model of the building is free and easy, opened, physique was made up by the hyperboloid, the main building presented " the curved surface surrounded southwards ", skirt room presents " the curved surface surrounded northwards ", the two surround but become intension of " gathering the treasure ".Building flourishing upwards, elevation is it adopt large area solid granite wall to design, the belt aluminium alloy curtain wall of the large area and some glass curtain walls, and interweave the three into powerful and vigorous whole , chase through model and entity wall layer bring together , form concise , tall and straight , upward tendency of working up successively, have distinct and unique distinctions.Building level and indoor space are designed into a multi-functional type and style of opening, opening, negotiate , the official working , meeting , receiving , be healthy and blissful , visit combining together. Spacious and bright two storeys open in the hall unifiedly in the Italian marble pale yellow tone , in addition, the escalator , fountain , light set off, make the space seem very magnificent , graceful and sincere. Intelligent computer network center, getting open and intelligent to handle official business space and all related house distribute in all floor reasonably. Top floor round visit layer, lift all of Room visit layer , can have a panoramic view of the scenery of the West Lake , fully enjoy the warmth of the nature. 2) The financial building of Bank of Communications of Hangzhou, belong to the purely financial office block, with the whole construction area of 19,000 square meters, the total height of the building is 39.9 meters, 13 storeys on the ground, the 2nd Floor. Live in building degree high than it around location , designer have unique architectural appearance of style architectural design this specially, its elevation is designed into a new classical form , the building base adopts the rough granite, show rich capability , top is it burn granite and verticality bar and some form aluminum windows make up as the veneer to adopt, represent the building noble and refined , serious personality of the bank.While creating in above-mentioned two items, besides portraying the shape of the building and indoor space and outside environment minister and blending meticulously, in order to achieve the outstanding purpose of global design of the building , the architect , still according to the region and project characteristic, put forward the following requirement to every speciality:(1) Control the total height of the building strictly;(2) It favorable to the intelligent comfortable height of clearances to create; (3) Meet thefloor area of owner's demand;(4)Protect the environment , save the energy , reduce and make the investment;(5) Design meticulously, use and popularize the new technology; (6)Cooperate closely in every speciality, optimization design.Comprehensive technologyThe building should have strong vitality, there must be sustainable development space, there should be abundant intension and comprehensive new technology. Among above-mentioned construction work , have popularized and used the intelligent technology of the building , has not glued and formed the flat roof beam of prestressing force - dull and stereotyped structure technology and flat roof beam structure technology, baseplate temperature mix hole , technology of muscle and base of basement enclose new technology of protecting, computer control STL ice hold cold air conditioner technology, compounding type keeps warm and insulates against heat the technology of the wall , such new technologies as the sectional electricity distribution room ,etc., give architecture global design to add the new vitality of note undoubtedly.1, the intelligent technology of the buildingIn initial stage of the 1990s, the intelligent building was introduced from foreign countries to China only as a kind of concept , computer network standard is it soon , make information communication skeleton of intelligent building to pursue in the world- comprehensive wiring system becomes a kind of trend because of 10BASE-T. In order to make the bank building adapt to the development of the times, the designer does one's utmost to recommend and design the comprehensive wiring system with the leading eyes , this may well be termed the first modernized building which adopted this technical design at that time.(1) Comprehensive wiring system one communication transmission network, it make between speech and data communication apparatus , exchange equipment and other administrative systems link to each other, make the equipment and outside communication network link to each other too. It include external telecommunication connection piece and inside information speech all cable and relevant wiring position of data terminal of workspace of network. The comprehensive wiring system adopts the products of American AT&T Corp.. Connected up the subsystem among the subsystem , management subsystem , arterial subsystem and equipment to make up by workspace subsystem , level.(2) Automated systems of security personnel The monitoring systems of security personnel of the building divide into the public place and control and control two pieces of systemequipment with the national treasury special-purposly synthetically.The special-purpose monitoring systems of security personnel of national treasury are in the national treasury , manage the storehouse on behalf of another , transporting the paper money garage to control strictly, the track record that personnel come in and go out, have and shake the warning sensor to every wall of national treasury , the camera, infrared microwave detector in every relevant rooms, set up the automation of controlling to control.In order to realize building intellectuality, the architect has finished complete indoor environment design, has created the comfortable , high-efficient working environment , having opened up the room internal and external recreation space not of uniform size, namely the green one hits the front yard and roofing, have offered the world had a rest and regulated to people working before automation is equipped all day , hang a design adopt the special building to construct the node in concrete ground , wall at the same time.2, has not glued and formed the flat roof beam of prestressing force- dull and stereotyped structure technology and flat roof beam structure technologyIn order to meet the requirement with high assurance that the architect puts forward , try to reduce the height of structure component in structure speciality, did not glue and form the flat roof beam of prestressing force concrete - dull and stereotyped structure technology and flat roof beam structure technology after adopting.(1) Adopt prestressing force concrete roof beam board structure save than ordinary roof beam board concrete consumption 15%, steel consumption saves 27%, the roof beam reduces 300mm high.(2) Adopt flat roof beam structure save concrete about 10% consumption than ordinary roof beam board, steel consumption saves 6.6%, the roof beam reduces 200mm high.Under building total situation that height does not change , adopt above-mentioned structure can make the whole building increase floor area of a layer , have good economic benefits and social benefit.3, the temperature of the baseplate matches muscle technologyIn basement design , is it is it is it after calculating , take the perimeter to keep the construction technology measure warm to split to resist to go on to baseplate, arrange temperature stress reinforcing bar the middle cancelling , dispose 2 row receives the strength reinforcing bar up and down only, this has not only save the fabrication cost of the project but also met the basement baseplate impervious and resisting the requirement that splits.4, the foundation of the basement encloses and protects the new technology of design and operationAdopt two technological measures in enclosing and protecting a design:(1) Cantilever is it is it hole strength is it adopt form strengthen and mix muscle technology to design to protect to enclose, save the steel and invite 60t, it invests about 280,000 to save.(2) Is it is it protect of of elevation and keep roof beam technology to enclose , is it protect long to reduce 1.5m to enclose all to reduce, keep roof beam mark level on natural ground 1.5m , is it is it protect of lateral pressure receive strength some height to enclose to change, saving 137.9 cubic meters of concrete, steel 16.08t, reduces and invests 304,000 yuan directly through calculating.5, ice hold cold air conditioner technologyIce hold cold air conditioner technology belong to new technology still in our country , it heavy advantage that the electricity moves the peak and operates the expenses sparingly most. In design, is it ice mode adopt some (weight ) hold mode of icing , is it ice refrigeration to be plane utilization ratio high to hold partly to hold, hold cold capacity little , refrigeration plane capacity 30%-45% little than routine air conditioner equipment, one economic effective operational mode.Hold the implementation of the technology of the cold air conditioner in order to cooperate with the ice , has used intelligent technology, having adopted the computer to control in holding and icing the air conditioner system, the main task has five following respects:(1) According to the demand for user's cold load , according to the characteristic of the structure of the electric rate , set up the ice and hold the best operation way of the cold system automatically, reduce the operation expenses of the whole system;(2) Fully utilize and hold the capacity of the cold device, should try one's best to use up all the cold quantity held basically on the same day;(3) Automatic operation state of detection system, ensure ice hold cold system capital equipment normal , safe operation;(4) Automatic record parameter that system operate, display system operate flow chart and type systematic operation parameter report form;(5) Predict future cooling load, confirm the future optimization operation scheme.Ice hold cold air conditioner system test run for some time, indicate control system to be steady , reliable , easy to operate, the system operates the energy-conserving result remarkably.6, the compounding type keeps in the wall warm and insulates against heat To the area of Hangzhou , want heating , climate characteristic of lowering the temperature in summer in winter, is it protect building this structural design person who compound is it insulate against heat the wall to keep warm to enclose specially, namely: Fit up , keep warm , insulate against heat the three not to equal to the body , realize building energy-conservation better.Person who compound is it insulate against heat wall to combine elevation model characteristic , design aluminium board elevation renovation material to keep warm, its structure is: Fill out and build hollow brick in the frame structure, do to hang the American Fluorine carbon coating inferior mere aluminium board outside the hollow brick wall.Aluminium board spoke hot to have high-efficient adiabatic performance to the sun, under the same hot function of solar radiation, because the nature , color of the surface material are different from coarse degree, whether can absorb heat have great difference very , between surface and solar radiation hot absorption system (α ) and material radiation system (Cλ ) is it say to come beyond the difference this. Adopt α and Cλ value little surface material have remarkable result , board α、Cλ value little aluminium have, its α =0.26, Cλ =0.4, light gray face brick α =0.56, Cλ =4.3.Aluminium board for is it hang with having layer under air by hollow brick to do, because aluminium board is it have better radiation transfer to hot terms to put in layer among the atmosphere and air, this structure is playing high-efficient adiabatic function on indoor heating too in winter, so, no matter or can well realize building energy-conservation in winter in summer.7, popularize the technology of sectional electricity distribution roomConsider one layer paves Taxi " gold " value , the total distribution of the building locates the east, set up voltage transformer and low-voltage distribution in the same room in first try in the design, make up sectional electricity distribution room , save transformer substation area greatly , adopt layer assign up and down, mixing the switchyard system entirely after building up and putting into operation, the function is clear , the overall arrangement compactness is rational , the systematic dispatcher is flexible . The technology have to go to to use and already become the model extensively of the design afterwards.ConclusionThe whole mode designed of the building synthetically can raise the adaptability of the building , it will be the inevitable trend , environmental consciousness and awareness of saving energy especially after strengthening are even more important. Developing with the economy , science and technology constantly in our country, more advanced technology and scientific and technical result will be applied to the building , believe firmly that in the near future , more outstanding building global design will appear on the building stage of our country. We will be summarizing, progressing constantly constantly, this is that history gives the great responsibility of architect and engineer.译文：建筑结构整体设计-建筑创作和综合技术21世纪将是多种学科技术并存的时代，它必将形成推动建筑发展的巨大动力，建筑结构整体设计也就越来越重要，建筑师必须把握时机，充分发挥建筑师的主导作用，主持好各项建筑工程设计。

第三部分：外文翻译结构设计背景Background for Structural Design1. Practice versus TheoryWe hear much of the conflict between theory and practice. Actually, of course, there will be no conflict between good theory and good practice, although the two frequently seem at cross-purposes, particularly when both are bad. Bad theory develops from unjustifiably crude assumptions, while bad practice follows unjustifiably crude methods. When theory can be based upon correct premises and practice can be controlled by one who understands the theory involved, the two will agree. Nevertheless, there are certain considerations of practice that must be allowed to control design, particularly to facilitate construction. A few of the many problems that should influence the thinking of the designer and of the construction engineer will be discussed.2. Analytical CalculationsSince analysis precedes design, it will be useful to think over the process of analysis from the point of view of the practical designer. Analysis, to serve a useful purpose, must finally reach expression in terms of tons of steel, cubic yards of concrete, and board feet of structural timber. It is useless for the analyst or the designer to expect the construction engineer to worry about increasing the unit stress in a steel beam by a few hundred pounds per square inch above the allowable stress by the shifting of a partition. The field man knows that there are decisions he will have to make during erection that may influence the stress to a greater extent than the amount mentioned. For the same reason, he is not likely to be sympathetic when the blueprint carries a statement that a field connection is to be welded at a distance of 5 j ^ in. from a sheared edge.The accuracy of field work is seldom greater than a tolerance of in. and a sheared edge is far from a planed edge at best. The designer will cultivate the respect of the field man by avoiding such inconsistencies.With these considerations in mind, we may conclude that there is little reason for a designer to use log tables in making his usual calculations. A slide rule will provide all requisite accuracy; also, such calculations will actually command greater confidence. However, this does not justify the substitution of crude guesses for accurate analysis or for careful design calculations.Theory of ElasticityThere is no tool that has proved of greater value to the designer than the theory of elasticity. On the other hand, it is worth remembering that the significance of the word elasticity automatically rules out the effect of plastic flow or "yield". Hence, the distribution of stresses presented by this theory is the picture that would apply before any single particle had passed the yield point. As soon as any part of the structure begins to yield, the distribution of stress will change. Generally speaking, we find that plastic yielding tends to equalize stresses by a redistribution of moments, shears, and fiber stresses. The accomplished designer will be able to interpret and use the results of mathematical studies based upon the theory of elasticity, but he will not fail to readjust his ideas of structural action to allow for the influence of yielding beyond the elastic limit.3. DuctilityThis property has been mentioned as one which helps to reduce stress concentrations. For instance, according to the theory of elasticity, a small hole in a simple tension member will produce a stress concentration of three times the average unit stress in the member. Photo-elastically it hasbeen possible to measure stress concentrations around a hole of more than twice the average stress in the member. It is therefore surprising that rivet holes do not seem to reduce the ultimate static strength of a tension member (steel) by more than the influence of the reduction of effective area. The explanation must be that the steel around the rivet hole flows and thus permits a redistribution of stress so that the maximum unit stress at fracture is little greater than the average unit stress. There are innumerable similar conditions to be evaluated in structural design. All "stress raisers", such as notches, holes, threads, and cross-sectional changes, are best eliminated, but, if they are unavoidable, some reduction of their objectionable features will tie obtained from ductility.4. Cleavage or Brittle FractureA type of fracture not seen very frequently in buildings and bridges is a brittle running crack without visible yielding or plastic flow of the adjacent material. Many ships, tanks, and other steel plate structures, particularly when welded, have been destroyed by brittle fracture. When test coupons are cut from material adjacent to a brittle crack and pulled in uniaxial tension in a testing machine at room temperature, the material will usually stretch 20 percent or more in length before fracturing. Coupons removed from a weld adjacent to a brittle fracturing are likely to show even greater ductility than die parent metal. Hence, we can hardly blame either the weld or the plate itself for permitting the crack to progress catastrophically after its initiation. By checking the point of initiation, one invariably finds a stress concentration, such as a corner, a hole, or an arc strike in welding, but such concentrations of stress exist in other structures where brittle fracture does not occur.Lengthy investigations have isolated several factors that tend to produce a catastrophic brittle fracture if a small crack is initiated by a pointof high stress concentration. One significant embrittling factor is low temperature. Steels usually become brittle at a temperature well below zero degrees Fahrenheit. It is significant, however, that any temperature well below freezing will embrittle certain structural steels. The temperature below which given steel loses a significant fraction of its ductility or energy absorption before fracture, as measured by the Charpy test, is called its "transition temperature". We have learned that steels which have a transition temperature above the temperature of exposure in service are inherently subject to brittle fractured. The author observed a beam, attached to a wall column that fractured without visible ductile deformation when the wall was opened in winter for repair. The beam had served for thirty years while protected from winter temperatures by the heat of the building. Doubtless its transition temperature was above the temperature of the exposure.A second embrittling factor is triaxiality of tensile stresses. Theoretically a cube of any ductile material will lose all of its ductility and will fracture by pure cleavage if it is subjected to equal tensions of sufficient magnitude in any three perpendicular directions. Such perfection of triaxial tension is not likely to occur in a structure, but unequal tensions in three perpendicular directions are not uncommon. Any plate may be subject to biaxial tension; biaxial stress; in fact, is the usual reason for its existence. Then, as the author has shown, a third tension stress perpendicular to the plate at its mid-depth will develop from Poisson's ratio at the exact end of any tiny crack in the plate. Hence, at the end of any tiny crack-like imperfection in a plate or weld a condition of triaxial tension occurs that without doubt is an embrittling factor along with low temperature. If the imperfection develops into a visible crack, the triaxiality of tension continues to redevelop right at the end of theextending crack and thus encourages it to progress as a britde running fracture.A third embritting factor is any hidden stress that tends to build up the general tensile stress field since brittle fracture naturally does not occur under low stresses. Such hidden stresses are those due to changes in temperature of one part of a structure without equal temperature change for other integral parts, and also the residual stresses due to rolling, cooling, straightening, or forced fit during erection.A fourth embritting factor has been established by tests of prestrained material. It has been found by Mylonas and Drucker that a compressive prestrain of two or three percent across a notch followed by a relatively low tension in the same direction (less than one half of the yield tension) reduces residual ductility and may produce a brittle fracture.The four embrittling factors mentioned above are low temperature, triaxiality of tension, hidden stress fields that raise the anticipated level of stress, and loss of ductility due to prestraining in compression. Stress concentrations may be involved in the latter three factors. Each of these factors exists in some degree in every structure. In large plate structures, such as ships and tanks, the factors of embrittlement tend to combine to a dangerous degree. The designer needs to be aware of their inherent danger so that he may reduce by good design the possibility that such factors may combine to initiate a catastrophic fracture.5. The Factor of SafetySome writers have considered the factor of safety to be based upon ultimate strength, while others feel that the ratio of the elastic limit to the working stress is in reality the factor of safety. The latter point of view is certainly the more significant, but neither presents a correct picture. Theengineer is always willing to let the actual stress approach nearly the elastic limit. The range between the working stress and the elastic limit is mainly an allowance to cover unknown or partially unknown stresses.(1).Fabrication and Erection StressesIt is no secret that structural steel is handled rather roughly in the shop and in the field. Rivet holes seldom line up perfectly; hence they must be pulled into line. Welding warps and buckles the structure and leaves high residual stresses. During fabrication, bent shapes are straightened as a standard part of the fabrication process, and, of course, the elastic limit must be passed to accomplish this. The mere punching of a hole distorts the surrounding material and leaves high residual stresses. The writer is convinced that these processes will result in a structure having stresses, under the design loading, that reach the elastic limit over small areas. Such a structure would be highly unsafe if it were not constructed of a ductile material such as structural steel.(2).Knowledge of LoadsOne of the undeterminable factors in design may be the loading itself. Dead load can be estimated quite accurately, but live loading, wind, and impact, as well as traction, sway, and other inertia forces are extremely variable. Then there is the influence of temperature and the action of settling supports that often damage an otherwise well-designed structure. The engineering designer makes a sincere effort to evaluate the probable loads, but even his best judgment is unable to cope with the situation in all cases. One purpose, then, of the factor of safety is to provide some reasonable allowance for possible increased loading.(3).Knowledge of MaterialsMost design is based upon specifications that assume certain properties for the structural materials. The common specified minimum elastic limit for structural steel of one type is 33,000 lb/in2. This lower limit is controlled by mill tests. A batch of steel rolled into structural shapes has a number of coupons cut from it for testing. If we make thousands of such tests for a single batch of steel, a few will turn up that show a yield point considerably below 33,000 lb/in2. However, the chance is small that a limited number of mill tests will happen to locate the small amount of weak material. One who understands the theory of sampling is not surprised that constant strength of a product such as structural steel is not even approached. Many factors must be controlled in producing steel, each factor being permitted to vary within a limited range. These factors therefore combine to produce a variable product.6. Fabrication MethodsIt is the responsibility of the designer to understand fabrication methods and to fit each particular design to the fabrication facilities available. For instance, it is undesirable to select a beam that is longer than rolled sections stocked in local warehouses or longer than the possible situations that may need to be controlled for safe structure fabrication shop can handle properly. It is worth noting that each central warehouse provides the draftsmen in its vicinity with a list of maximum sizes of materials that are readily available. Special sizes may not he obtainable for months, even at an increased cost per pound. The designer should work with the shop man so that the resulting structure will be economical. An edge can often be finished by grinding, by milling, or, possibly, simply by burning. Knowledge of relative costs is necessary if one is to reach a proper decision.Field ErectionThe designer usually has more difficulty in cooperating with the field organization than with the shop. The reason is that field conditions are never under complete control. The weather, the soil, the kind of labor obtainable, and the vagaries of nature all combine at times to plague the field engineer so that he finds it difficult, if not impossible, to follow the exact plan presented to him. On the other hand, construction engineers are so versatile that they can usually accomplish the result desired even though some changes become necessary. The responsibility again falls upon the designer to consider the influence of all possible field conditions upon his design. Some designs must be made so that the structure can be erected by unskilled labor, while other structures may be dependent upon the services of welders and craftsmen of highly specialized qualifications. The writer knows of one bridge that was designed for transportation on the backs of camels and another that was brought to the site by airplanes. Even freight car or truck transportation introduces certain limitations that must be observed as to the over-all size or length of a given piece. possible situations that may need to be controlled for safe structural design. Standard sets of specifications are prepared under the sponsorship of the technical societies. Over a period of years such specifications have been written arid rewritten many times. The profession as a whole has used each specification and has either accepted or rejected it. Therefore, a standard set of specifications may be accepted to represent the best information available on the subject as of the date when it was written.7. Cost as a Major FactorThe previous discussion leads to the inevitable conclusion that only an economical design can be a good design. The designer will accomplish little if his structures are seldom built because of excessive cost. Therefore, the designer must balance himself between the danger of unsafe practiceon the one hand and over conservatism on the other. His best approach to the solution of this problem is to learn everything possible from the detailer, the shop man, and the construction engineer. If he knows the tolerances, clearances, and allowances introduced by the detailer, the sizes, tools and methods used by the shop, and the shapes, weights, and fits desired by the field organization, his designing is likely to be successful.In the study of costs, it is interesting to observe that certain structures commonly used in foreign countries are seldom used in the United States. There are the highest labor costs in the world, which explains the requirement of machine production in the United States. Slender structures are more likely to be found in Europe, where the high costs of material and low cost of labor make weight reduction important, a fact that is particularly evident in the field of reinforced concrete.8. SpecificationsAll structural design is controlled by specifications. Even if no limitation is placed upon the designer, he will still be very likely to depend upon a standard set of specifications for guidance. All large cities have building codes that specify not only working stresses and qualities of materials and workmanship, but such general features as window area, hallway widths, and fire provisions for a building, and similar features of other structures. The designer will follow the specifications of the local building code by necessity, but he will also usually follow the provisions of standard sets of specifications (AREA, AWS,ACI)for his own guidance. It is impossible for anyone designer to have experienced all of the al design. Standard sets of specifications are prepared under the sponsorship of the technical societies. Over a period of years such specifications have been written arid rewritten many times. The profession as a whole has used each specification and has either accepted or rejectedit. Therefore, a standard set of specifications may be accepted to represent the best information available on the subject as of the date when it was written.9. Structural FailuresThere are a great many minor structural failures, but unless there is loss of life or oilier newsworthy features about a particular failure, it never comes to the attention of anyone except the firm that repairs the damage. Frequently, the owner requests that no publicity be given to failure. Many failures are caused by improper details. It has been a habit of " handbook designers" to select members of ample size and then to connect them together inadequately. Most building failures due to wind can be traced to this weakness. Undoubtedly, this is due to the fact that member selection is often quite simple, while joint design requires a greater understanding of stress analysis.(1). SettlementCertainly the most common source of building failures is foundation settlement. The design problem involved is not to prevent settlement, which can never be done, but to obtain uniform settlement so that the structure will not be stressed thereby. For instance, if all footings of a building settle the same amount, the building will be uninjured. However, unless uniform settlement is certain, the designer should make an allowance for unequal settlement in his analysis. Hence, the ideal structure for such a location may be one that is flexible or deformable rather than rigid or ever stiff. For this reason, the simple span structure has long been pointed to as the ideal where unequal settlement is anticipated.(2).Excessive DeflectionA common error in design is to select a beam or truss properly for strength but to fail to check its load deflection. Excessive flexibility may produce cracked plaster, permit vibration amplitude to build up, or even lead to collapse. Complete collapse often results from excessive flexibility of flat roofs. The dead-load deflection produces a low spot in the roof that collects water or ice. The increased water or ice load produces further deflection which allows more water or ice to collect. The process of self- destruction is certain to continue to the point of collapse if the span is rather great, because a small added deflection produces a significant increase in water loading. The solution is either to increase stiffness to meet specifications or to camber the roof so heavily that water can never collect on it.10. ConclusionAll things considered, it is remarkable that catastrophic failures occur so seldom in structures. This fact has led many engineers to feel that absolute safety can be guaranteed by proper specifications. However, we have seen that both the loads and the strength of structural materials, members and joints are governed by the theory of probability. Therefore, although one might be able to design a structure with a probability of failure as low as one in a million, it is never possible to reduce the probability of failure for a complex structural assemblage to zero.。

外文资料：Prestressed Concrete BuildingsPrestressed concrete has been widely and successfully applied to building construction of all types.Both precast pretensioned members and cast-tensioned structures are extensively employed,sometimes in competition with one another, most effectively in combination wit each other.Prestressed concrete offers great advantages for incorporation in a totalaspects of these, that is, structure plus other building. It is perhaps the “integrative”functions,which have made possible the present growth in use of prestressed concrete buildings.These advantages include the following:Structural strength; Structure rigidity;Durability;Mold ability,into desired forms and shapes;Fire resistance;Architectural treatment of surfaces;Sound insulation;Heat insulation; Economy; Availability, through use of local materials and labor to a high degree.Most of the above are also properties of conventionally reinforced concrete. Presrressing,however,makes the structural system more effective by enabling elimination of the technical of difficulty,e.g.,cracks that spoil the architectural treatment.Prestressing greatly enhance the structure efficiency and economy permitting longer spans and thinner elements.Above all,it gives to the architect-engineer a freedom for variation and an ability to control behavior under service conditions.Although prestressed concrete construction involves essentially the same consideration and practices as for all structures, a number of special points require emphasis or elaboration.The construction engineer is involved in design only to a limited extent. First,he muse be able to furnish advice to the architect and engineer on what can he done. Because of his specialized knowledge of techniques relating to prestressed concrete construction, he supplies a very needed service to the architect-engineer.Second, the construction engineer may be made contractually responsible for the working drawings;that is,the layout of tendons,anchorage details,etc.It is particularly important that he gives careful attention to the mild steel and concrete details to ensure these are compatible with his presressing details.Third, the construction engineer is concerned with temporary stresses, stresses at release, stresses in picking, handling and erection, and temporary condition prior to final completion of the structure, such as the need of propping for a composite pour.Fourth,although the responsibility for design rests with the design engineer, nevertheless the construction engineer is also vitally concerned that the structure be successful form the point of view of structural integrity and service behavior. Therefore he will want to look at the bearing and connection details, camber, creep, shrinkage,thermal movements,durability provisions,etc.,and advise the design engineer of any deficiencies he encounters.Information on new techniques and especially application of prestressing to buildings are extensively available in the current technical literature of national and international societies.The International Federation of Prestressing(I.F.P)has attempted to facilitate the dissemination of this information by establishing a Literature Exchange Service,in which the prestressing journals of some thirty countries are regularly exchanged.In addition,an Abstract is published intermittently by I.F.P The Prestressed Concrete Institute(USA)regularly publishes a number of journals and pamphlets on techniques and applications, and proceduresare set up for their dissemination to architects and engineers as well as directly to the construction engineer. It is important that he keep abreast of these national and worldwide developments, so as to be able to recommend the latest and best that is available in the art,and to encourage the engineer to make the fullest and most effective use of prestressed concrete in their buildings.With regard to working drawings, the construction engineer must endeavor to translate the design requirements into the most practicable and economical details of accomplishment,in such a way that the completed element or structure fully complies with the design requirement;for example, the design may indicate only the center of gravity of prestressing and the effective prestress force. The working drawing will have to translate this into tendons having finite physical properties and dimensions.If the center of gravity of pre-stressing is a parabolic path then,for pre-tensioning,and approximation by chords is required,with hold-down points suitably located.The computation of pre-stress losses,form transfer stress to effective stress, must reflect the actual manufacturing and construction process used,as well as thorough knowledge of the properties of the particular aggregates and concrete mix to be employed.With post-tensioning, anchorages and their bearing plates must be laid out in their physical dimension. It is useful in the preparation of complex anchorage detail layouts to use full-scale drawings, so as to better appreciate the congestion of mild steel and anchorages at the end of the member. Tendons and reinforcing bars should be shown in full size rather than as dotted lines. This will permit consideration to be given as to how the concrete can be placed and consolidated.The end zone of both pre-tensioned and post-tensioned concrete memberssubject to high transverse or bursting stresses. These stresses are also influenced by minor concrete details,such as chamfers.Provision of a grid of small bars (sometimes heavy wire mesh is used), as close to the end of a girder as possible, will help to confine and distribute the concentrated forces. Closely spaced stirrups and/or tightly spaced spiral are usually needed at the end of heavily stressed members.Recent tests have confirmed that closeness of spacing is much more effective than increase in the size of bars. Numerous small bars, closely spaced, are thus the best solution.Additional mild-steel stirrups may also be required at hold-down points to resist the shear. This is also true wherever post-tensioned tendons make sharp bends. Practical consideration of concretion dictates the spacing of tendons and ducts. The general rules are that the clear spacing small be one-and-one-half times the maximum size of coarse aggregate. In the overall section, provision must be made for the vibrator stinger.Thus pre-stressing tendons must either be spaced apart in the horizontal plane, or, in special cases, bundled.In the vertical plane close contact between tendons is quite common.With post-tensioned ducts,however,in intimate vertical contact,careful consideration has to be given to prevent one tendon form squeezing into the adjacent duct during stressing.This depends on the size of duct and the material used for the duct.A full-scale layout of this critical cross section should be ually,the best solution is to increase the thickness ( and transverse strength ) of the duct, so that it will span between the supporting shoulders of concrete.As a last rest\ort it may be necessary to stress and grout one duct before stressing the adjacent one.This is time-consuming and runs the risks of grout blockage due to leaks from one duct to the other. Therefore the author recommendsthe use of heavier duct material,or else the respacing of the ducts.The latter,of course, may increase the prestressing force required.中文翻译：预应力混凝土建筑预应力混凝土已经广泛并成功地用于各种类型的建筑。

CONCRETE AND MORTAR1. Early History of Cement and ConcreteShelter from the very beginning of man/ existence, has demanded the application Of the best , available technology of the contemporary era. In the earliest ages, structures consisted of rammed earth, or stone blocks laid one on another without benefit of any bonding or cementing medium. Stability of the stone structures depended on the regular setting of the heavy stones , The earliest masonry probably consisted of sun-dried clay bricks, set in regular courses in thin layers of moist mud. When the moist mud dried, a solid clay wall resulted. Construction: of this kind was common in the dry desert areas of the world.Burnt gypsum as a cementing material was developed early in the Egyptian period and was apparently used in construction of some of the pyramids. Later the Greeks and Romans discovered methods of burning limestone to produce quicklime which was subsequently slaked for use in making mortar. Both the Greeks and the Romans learned that certain fine soil or earth, when mixed with the lime and the sand, produced a superior cementing material. The Greek material, a volcanic tuff from the island of Santorin , is still used in that part Of the world. The best of the materials used by the Romans was a tuff or ash from the vicinity of Pozzuoli near Mt. Vesuvius, hence the name “pozzolan”used to identify a certain type of mineral admixture used in concrete today.The cement produced by the Romans was a hydraulic cement, that is, it had the capability of hardening under water. Many of the Roman structures were constructed of a form of concrete, using these materials, and stone masonry was bonded with a mortar similarly composed.During the Middle Ages of history, the art of making good mortar was nearly lost, the low point having been reached in about the llth century, when much inferior material was used. Quality of the lime started to improve at this time and in the 14th century or later the use of pozzolans was again practised.One of the most famous projects of the comparatively recent period was theconstruction of the new Eddystone Lighthouse off the coast of England in 1757--59. John Smeaton, the engineer and designer of the structure, investigated many materials and methods of bonding the stones for the building.Engineering and scientific development was beginning to move rapidly at this time, and many researchers in several countries were investigating cementing agents made from gypsum, limestone and other natural materials. One discovery was a method of making a cement by burning a naturally occurring mixture of lime and clay. properties of the natural cement were very erratic because of variations in the proportions in the natural material, although use of this natural cement continued for many years.In 1824 Joseph Aspdin , a brickmason of Leeds, England, took out a patent on a material he called Portland cement, so called because concrete made with it was supposed to resemble the limestone quarried near Portland, England. Aspdin is generally credited with inventing a method of proportioning limestone and clay, burning the mixture at high temperature to produce clinkers, then grinding the clinkers to produce a hydraulic cement. His small kiln, producing about 16 tons of clinker at a time, required several days/or each burn. Expansion and development of cement manufacturing was slow for a number of years. About 1850, however, the industry had become well established not only in England, but also in Germany and Belgium.Shipments to the United States were started in 1868 and reached a peak about 1895, at which time production was well under way in the United States.Meanwhile the United States production of natural cement had been started early in the 19th century as a result of the demand for cement for construction of the Erie Canal and related works. Subsequent development of the rotary kiln led to large scale production of cement throughout the world.The use of concrete was expanded by the construction of railroads, bridges ,buildings and street pavements. Research in reinforcing concrete with steel rods had been started in France, and the year 1875 saw first use of reinforced concrete in the United States. Much'of the concrete at this time contained barely enough waterto enable the concrete to be rammed into place by the application of much hand labor. There then ensued a period of wet concrete in which the concrete was flowed into place. Many users of concrete, however, realized the folly of wet mixes, and about 1920 Duff Abrams revealed the results of his research and observations. He stated that the quality of concrete was directly affected by the amount of water in relation to the amount of cement ; within reasonable limits, the quality of the concrete decreases as the water-cement ratio goes up. This has become one of the basic laws of concrete technology.2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Concrete and Its Water-Cement RatioConcrete is a mixture of Portland cement, water, sand, and crushed gravel or stone. The water and cement form a cement paste in which the sand and stone or gravel are mixed. The sand and stone or gravel together make up the aggregate of a concrete mixture. The aggregate serves no structural function. It is merely ,a filler that adds low-cost bulk to the cement paste; it usually makes up about 75 percent of a given mass of concrete, by volume, although a poor aggregate can reduce the strength of a batch of concrete considerably, good aggregate adds only slightly to the strength of the cement.The two principal advantages of concrete as a construction material are its relative cheapness and the ease with which it can be handled and placed while it is in the plastic state.The principal structural advantages of concrete are its great compressive strength and its durability , Concrete can withstand very high compressive loads. This is what makes concrete so suitable for the foundations, walls, and columns of buildings, and for driveways and walks as well.The principal structural disadvantage of concrete is its poor tensile strength. That is, it cannot withstand pulling or bending loads without cracking or breaking. For this reason, steel rods, or reinforcement steel, are often embedded in concrete, the reinforcement steel providing the tensile strength the concrete lacks. Concrete withreinforcement steel embedded in it is reinforced concrete.In addition to its poor tensile strength, concrete, like most construction materials, expands in hot weather and when wet and contracts in cold weather and as it dries out. Unless these movements are allowed for during construction, the concrete will crack.And, contrary to common belief, solid concrete is not impervious to water. Some moisture will migrate into the best-made concrete. But if the concrete should be excessively porous ,which can happen if too much water has been used in mixing it, moisture can easily enter the concrete after it has cured. If this moisture should be present within the concrete when cold weather comes, the moisture may freeze, which may result in serious frost damage to the structure.Despite these limitations, concrete is an inherently strong and durable construction material. If the proportions of water, cement, and aggregate are carefully calculated and if the concrete is placed and allowed to cure according to simple but definite rules, it is possible to obtain from the concrete all the strength and durability that is inherent in it.The ratio of water to cement in a batch of concrete is the principal determinant of the concrete's final strength. At one time the instructions for preparing a batch of concrete would have contained proportions such as 1:2:4, indicating that 1 part of Portland cement to 2 parts of sand to 4 parts of gravel by volume were to be mixed together, after which sufficient water was to be added to obtain a workable mixture. This procedure ignored entirely the importance of the water-cement ratio. It also resulted very often in the preparation or a very weak concrete, since the natural tendency is to add enough water to make placement of the concrete as easy as possible-the sloppier the better, as far as the workmen are concerned. This manner of specifying the proportions of concrete is obsolete and should never be followed.In theory, it takes only 3 gal of water to hydrate completely 1 cu ft of cement. (A sack of cement contains 1 cu ft exactly, and the sack weighs 94 lb). But this water-cement ratio produces a mixture that is too stiff to be worked. In practice, therefore, additional water, between 4 and 8 gal per sack of cement, is used to obtain a workable mixture.But the greater the proportion of water in a water-cement ratio, the weaker the final concrete will be. The additional water that is necessary to achieve a workable batch will only evaporate from the concrete as the concrete sets, and it will leave behind in the concrete innumerable voids. This is the reason there will always be some porosity in concrete. When an excessive amount of water has been used, there will be an excessive number of voids, which may cause the concrete to leak badly. If these voids should be filled with moisture when cold weather comes, they will cause the frost damage alluded to above.As a general rule, therefore, 6 gal of water per sack of cement should be the maximum amount used for making concrete; and the less the amount of water that is used, the stronger the concrete will be. Also included in the 6 gal is whatever surface moisture is contained in the sand that is part of the aggregate.3.MortarMortar is a mixture of a cementitious material (which may be portland cement or lime or both) and sand. When water is added to these ingredients, the result is a plastic substance that is used to bind together bricks, tiles, concrete blocks, and other kinds of masonry units. After the mortar has set, the masonry units are bound together by the ,mortar in such a way that they form a single structural unit.Mortar is closely related to other cementitious materials such as concrete, plaster, and stucco, but it would be a mistake to confuse mortar with these other materials or attempt to use them as a substitute for mortar; the properties required of each are distinctive and differ from the others.By a mistaken analogy with a chain and its weakest link, it is a common belief that for any masonry construction to be strong, the mortar must be strong also. Very often, for example, a person who is familiar with concrete will infer that mortar, being a cementitious material like concrete, should have properties similar to those of concrete and be mixed and used in much the same way. w Since, for example, concrete has, or should have, a high compressive strength, mortar should have a high compressive strength also. But the primary function of mortar is to bind the masonryunits together, not to resist compressive loads or add to the strength of the masonry units.A great many tests have been made of brick walls built with mortars having a wide range of strength characteristics. ~ These tests show uniformly that a brick wall is strongest when the mortar used to bind the brick is weaker than the brick. Indeed, the mortar can be substantially weaker than the brick Without much affecting the overall strength of the construction. As long as the mortar is strong enough to resist the erosive effects of the weather and of freezing water, it is strong enough for use in the ordinary exterior wall.But suppose for the sake of argument that a brick wall has been built using a mortar that does have a compressive strength greater than that of the brick. ~Any stress this wall may be subjected to-the result of the settlement of the soil under the wall, say-will cause the brick to fracture along the line of greatest stress. This fracture will run in a single jagged crack right through the brick, from the top of the wall to the bottom.But when the mortar is weaker than the brick, as it should be, any stresses in the construction will be absorbed entirely by the mortar. The mortar will absorb these stresses in the form of a multitude of minute cracks invisible to the eye that leaves the basic strength of the construction unimpaired. The overall appearance of the wall and its structural integrity will be unchanged.Masonry constructions can, however, suffer from another type of failure. Sometimes stresses are relieved by a separation of the mortar from the brick. The result is a zig-zag crack through the mortar that follows the brick pattern. What has happened here is that the bond between the brick and the mortar was too weak, a consequence either of ignorance or poor workmanship, or both, since the last thing that should happen in a well-made masonry wall is for there to be a poor bond between the masonry units and the mortar. Either the mortar was incorrectly proportioned and mixed or it was improperly applied to the brick, or both, Freshly prepared mortar in which the cement, lime, and sand are accurately proportioned and mixed with the requited amount of water has a quality calledworkability or, sometimes, plasticity. Workability is as difficult to describe in words as the consistency of pancake batter or soft butter, but fresh mortar that doesn't have this quality will be incapable of bonding masonry units together as tightly as they should be, A workable mortar can be spread with a trowel smoothly, evenly, and without effort. The mortar has a cohesive quality that enables it to hold its shape and keeps it from falling of its own weight when it is troweled onto the side of a brick. A workable mortar has a give to it that enables a bricklayer to bed masonry units solidly into place. One can say that on a microscopic scale a workable mortar makes such intimate contact with the surface of a masonry unit that the bond between the mortar and the masonry unit is as strong as possible.建筑材料—混凝土与砂浆一、水泥与混凝土的早期历史自从人类开始存在时起，人的住处一直要求应用每个时代所能提供的最好的技术。

中文3220字附录：毕业设计外文翻译院（系）建筑工程学院专业土木工程班级姓名学号导师2011年4月15日英文：High-Rise Buildings and StructuralDesignAbstract：It is difficult to define a high-rise building . One may say that a low-rise building ranges from 1 to 2 stories . A medium-rise building probably ranges between 3 or 4 stories up to 10 or 20 stories or more . Although the basic principles of vertical and horizontal subsystem design remain the same for low- , medium- , or high-rise buildings , when a building gets high the vertical subsystems become a controlling problem for two reasons . Higher vertical loads will require larger columns , walls , and shafts . But , more significantly , the overturning moment and the shear deflections produced by lateral forces are much larger and must be carefully provided for .Key Words：High-Rise Buildings Structural Design Framework Shear Seismic SystemIntroductionThe vertical subsystems in a high-rise building transmit accumulated gravity load from story to story , thus requiring larger column or wall sections to support such loading . In addition these same vertical subsystems must transmit lateral loads , such as wind or seismic loads , to the foundations. However , in contrast to vertical load , lateral load effects on buildings are not linear and increase rapidly with increase in height . For example under wind load , the overturning moment at the base of buildings varies approximately as the square of a buildings may vary as the fourth power of buildings height , other things being equal.Earthquake produces an even more pronounced effect.When the structure for a low-or medium-rise building is designed for dead and live load , it is almost an inherent property that the columns , walls , and stair or elevator shafts can carry most of the horizontal forces . The problem is primarily shear resistance . Moderate addition bracing for rigid frames in“short”buildings can easily be provided by filling certain panels ( or even all panels ) without increasing the sizes of the columns and girders otherwise required for vertical loads.Unfortunately , this is not is for high-rise buildings because the problem is primarily resistance to moment and deflection rather than shear alone . Special structural arrangements will often have to be made and additional structural material is always required for the columns , girders , walls , and slabs in order to made a high-rise buildings sufficiently resistant to much higher lateral deformations .As previously mentioned , the quantity of structural material required per square foot of floor of a high-rise buildings is in excess of that required for low-rise buildings . The vertical components carrying the gravity load , such as walls , columns , and shafts , will need to be strengthened over the full height of the buildings . But quantity of material required for resisting lateral forces is even more significant .With reinforced concrete , the quantity of material also increases as the number of stories increases . But here it should be noted that the increase in the weight of material added for gravity load is much more sizable than steel , whereas for wind load the increase for lateral force resistance is not that much more since the weight of a concrete buildings helps to resist overturn . On the other hand , the problem of design for earthquake forces . Additional mass in the upper floors will give rise to a greater overall lateral force under the of seismic effects .In the case of either concrete or steel design , there are certain basic principles for providing additional resistance to lateral to lateral forces and deflections in high-rise buildings without too much sacrifire ineconomy .1、Increase the effective width of the moment-resisting subsystems . This is very useful because increasing the width will cut down the overturn force directly and will reduce deflection by the third power of the width increase , other things remaining cinstant . However , this does require that vertical components of the widened subsystem be suitably connected to actually gain this benefit.2、Design subsystems such that the components are made to interact in the most efficient manner . For example , use truss systems with chords and diagonals efficiently stressed , place reinforcing for walls at critical locations , and optimize stiffness ratios for rigid frames .3、Increase the material in the most effective resisting components . For example , materials added in the lower floors to the flanges of columns and connecting girders will directly decrease the overall deflection and increase the moment resistance without contributing mass in the upper floors where the earthquake problem is aggravated .4、Arrange to have the greater part of vertical loads be carried directly on the primary moment-resisting components . This will help stabilize the buildings against tensile overturning forces by precompressing the major overturn-resisting components .5、The local shear in each story can be best resisted by strategic placement if solid walls or the use of diagonal members in a vertical subsystem . Resisting these shears solely by vertical members in bending is usually less economical , since achieving sufficient bending resistance in the columns and connecting girders will require more material and construction energy than using walls or diagonal members .6、Sufficient horizontal diaphragm action should be provided floor . This will help to bring the various resisting elements to work together instead of separately .7、Create mega-frames by joining large vertical and horizontal components such as two or more elevator shafts at multistory intervalswith a heavy floor subsystems , or by use of very deep girder trusses .Remember that all high-rise buildings are essentially vertical cantilevers which are supported at the ground . When the above principles are judiciously applied , structurally desirable schemes can be obtained by walls , cores , rigid frames, tubular construction , and other vertical subsystems to achieve horizontal strength and rigidity . Some of these applications will now be described in subsequent sections in the following .Shear-Wall SystemsWhen shear walls are compatible with other functional requirements , they can be economically utilized to resist lateral forces in high-rise buildings . For example , apartment buildings naturally require many separation walls . When some of these are designed to be solid , they can act as shear walls to resist lateral forces and to carry the vertical load as well . For buildings up to some 20storise , the use of shear walls is common . If given sufficient length ,such walls can economically resist lateral forces up to 30 to 40 stories or more .However , shear walls can resist lateral load only the plane of the walls ( i.e.not in a diretion perpendicular to them ) . Therefore ,it is always necessary to provide shear walls in two perpendicular directions can be at least in sufficient orientation so that lateral force in any direction can be resisted . In addition , that wall layout should reflect consideration of any torsional effect .In design progress , two or more shear walls can be connected to from L-shaped or channel-shaped subsystems . Indeed , internal shear walls can be connected to from a rectangular shaft that will resist lateral forces very efficiently . If all external shear walls are continuously connected , then the whole buildings acts as a tube , and is excellent Shear-Wall Systems resisting lateral loads and torsion .Whereas concrete shear walls are generally of solid type withopenings when necessary , steel shear walls are usually made of trusses . These trusses can have single diagonals , “X”diagonals , or“K”arrangements . A trussed wall will have its members act essentially in direct tension or compression under the action of view , and they offer some opportunity and deflection-limitation point of view , and they offer some opportunity for penetration between members . Of course , the inclined members of trusses must be suitable placed so as not to interfere with requirements for windows and for circulation service penetrations though these walls .As stated above , the walls of elevator , staircase ,and utility shafts form natural tubes and are commonly employed to resist both vertical and lateral forces . Since these shafts are normally rectangular or circular in cross-section , they can offer an efficient means for resisting moments and shear in all directions due to tube structural action . But a problem in the design of these shafts is provided sufficient strength around door openings and other penetrations through these elements . For reinforced concrete construction , special steel reinforcements are placed around such opening .In steel construction , heavier and more rigid connections are required to resist racking at the openings .In many high-rise buildings , a combination of walls and shafts can offer excellent resistance to lateral forces when they are suitably located ant connected to one another . It is also desirable that the stiffness offered these subsystems be more-or-less symmertrical in all directions .Rigid-Frame SystemsIn the design of architectural buildings , rigid-frame systems for resisting vertical and lateral loads have long been accepted as an important and standard means for designing building . They are employed for low-and medium means for designing buildings . They are employed for low- and medium up to high-rise building perhaps 70 or 100 stories high . When compared to shear-wall systems , these rigid frames bothwithin and at the outside of a buildings . They also make use of the stiffness in beams and columns that are required for the buildings in any case , but the columns are made stronger when rigidly connected to resist the lateral as well as vertical forces though frame bending .Frequently , rigid frames will not be as stiff as shear-wall construction , and therefore may produce excessive deflections for the more slender high-rise buildings designs . But because of this flexibility , they are often considered as being more ductile and thus less susceptible to catastrophic earthquake failure when compared with ( some ) shear-wall designs . For example , if over stressing occurs at certain portions of a steel rigid frame ( i.e.,near the joint ) , ductility will allow the structure as a whole to deflect a little more , but it will by no means collapse even under a much larger force than expected on the structure . For this reason , rigid-frame construction is considered by some to be a “best”seismic-resisting type for high-rise steel buildings . On the other hand ,it is also unlikely that a well-designed share-wall system would collapse.In the case of concrete rigid frames ,there is a divergence of opinion . It true that if a concrete rigid frame is designed in the conventional manner , without special care to produce higher ductility , it will not be able to withstand a catastrophic earthquake that can produce forces several times lerger than the code design earthquake forces .Therefore , some believe that it may not have additional capacity possessed by steel rigid frames . But modern research and experience has indicated that concrete frames can be designed to be ductile , when sufficient stirrups and joinery reinforcement are designed in to the frame . Modern buildings codes have specifications for the so-called ductile concrete frames . However , at present , these codes often require excessive reinforcement at certain points in the frame so as to cause congestion and result in construction difficulties 。

中文1717字附录Philosophy of Structural DesignA structural engineering project can be divided into three phases: planning, design, and construction.Structural design involves determining the most suitable proportions of a structure and dimensioning the structural elements and details of which it is composed. This is the most highly technical and mathematical phase of a structural engineering project, but it cannot-and certainly should not-be conducted without being fully coordinated with the planning and construction phases of the project. The successful designer is at all times fully conscious of the various considerations that were involved in the preliminary planning for the structure and, likewise, of the various problems that may later be encountered in its construction.Specially, the structural design of any structure first involves the establishment of the loading and other design conditions that must be resisted by the structure and therefore must be considered in its design. Then comes the analysis (or computation ) of the internal gross forces (thrust, shears, bending moments, and twisting moments), stress intensities, strains, deflections, and reactions produced by the loads, temperature, shrinkage, creep, or other design conditions. Finally comes the proportioning and selection of materials of the members and connections so as to resist adequately the effects produced by the design conditions. The criteria used to judge whether particular proportions will result in the desired behavior reflect accumulated knowledge (theory, field and model tests, and practical experience), intuition, and judgment. For most common civil engineering structures such as bridges and buildings, the usual practice in the past has been to design on the basis of a comparison of allowable stress intensities with those produced by the service loadings and other design conditions. This traditional basis for design is called elastic design because the allowable stress intensities are chosen in accordance with the concept that the stress or strain corresponding to the yield point of the material should not be exceeded at the most highly stressed points of the structure. Of course, the selection of the allowable stresses may also be modified by a consideration of the permissible deflections of the structure.Depending on the type of structure and the conditions involved, the stress intensities computed in the analytical model of the actual structure for the assumed design conditions may or may not be in close agreement with the stress intensities produced in the actual structure by the actual conditions to which it is exposed. The degree of correspondence is not important, provided that the computed stress intensities can be interpreted in terms of previous experience. The selection of the service conditions and the allowable stress intensities provides a margin of safety against failure. The selection of the magnitude of this margin depends on the degree of uncertainty regarding loading, analysis, design, materials, and construction and onthe consequences of failure. For example, if an allowable tensile stress of 20000 psi is selected for structural steel with a yield stress of 33000 psi, the margin of safety (or factor of safety) provided against tensile yielding is 33000/20000, or 1.65.The allowable-stress approach has an important disadvantage in that it does not provide a uniform overload capacity for all parts and all types of structures. As a result, there is today a rapidly growing tendency to base the design on the ultimate strength and serviceability of the structure, with the older allowable-stress approach serving as an alternative basis for design. The newer approach currently goes under the name of strength design in reinforce-concrete design literature and plastic design in steel-design literature. When proportioning is done on the strength basis, the anticipated service loading is first multiplied by a suitable load factor (greater than 1), the magnitude of which depends upon the uncertainty of the loading, the possibility of its changing during the life of the structure, and, for a combination of loadings, the likelihood, frequency, and duration of the particular combination. In this approach for reinforced-concrete design, the theoretical capacity of a structural element is reduced by a capacity-reduction factor to provide for small adverse variations in material strengths, workmanship, and dimensions. The structure is then proportioned so that, depending on the governing conditions, the increased load would (1) cause a fatigue or a buckling or a brittle-fracture failure or (2) just produce yielding at one internal section (or simultaneous yielding at several sections) or (3) cause elastic-plastic displacement of the structure or (4) cause the entire structure to be on the point of collapse.Proponents of this latter approach argue that it results in a more realistic design with a more accurately provided margin of strength over the anticipated service conditions. These improvements result from the fact that nonelastic and nonlinear effects that become significant in the vicinity of ultimate behavior of the structure can be accounted for.In recent decades, there has been a growing concern among many prominent engineers that not only is the term “factor of safety”improper and unrealistic, but worse still a structural design philosophy based on this concept leads in most cases to an unduly conservative and therefore uneconomical design, and in some cases to an unconservative design with too high a probability of failure. They argue that there is no such thing as certainty, either of failure or of safety of a structure but only a probability of failure or a probability of safety. They feel, therefore, that the variations of the load effects and the variations of the structural resistance should be studied in a statistical manner and the probability of survival or the probability of serviceability of a structure estimated. It may not yet be practical to apply this approach to the design of each individual structure. However, it is believed to be practical to do so in framing design rules and regulations. It is highly desirable that building codes and specifications plainly state the factors and corresponding probabilities that they imply.If a good alignment requires a curved bridge-over a part or the total length thenall external longitudinal lines or edges of the structure should be parallel to the curved axis, thereby following again the guideline of good order.The transverse axis of piers or groups of columns should be rectangular (radial) to the curved axis, unless skew crossings over roads or rivers enforce other directions.The requirements of traffic design result occasionally in very acute angles or in level branching which cause difficulties for the bridge engineer to find pleasing solutions for the bridges.结构设计原理一个结构设计工程可以被分为三个阶段：计划、设计、施工。

毕业设计外文资料翻译原文题目：Talling building and Steel construction译文题目：高层建筑与钢结构院系名称：土木建筑学院专业班级：土木工程0806班学生姓名：学号：指导教师：教师职称：副教授附件： 1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文。

附件1：外文资料翻译译文高层建筑与钢结构摘要：近年来，尽管一般的建筑结构设计取得了很大的进步，但是取得显著成绩的还要属超高层建筑结构设计。

最初的高层建筑设计是从钢结构的设计开始的。

钢筋混凝土和受力外包钢筒系统运用起来是比较经济的系统，被有效地运用于大批的民用建筑和商业建筑中。

50层到100层的建筑被定义为超高层建筑。

而这种建筑在美国得到广泛的应用是由于新的结构系统的发展和创新。

关键词：高层建筑，结构设计，钢结构，发展创新，结构体系这样的高度需要增大柱和梁的尺寸，这样以来可以使建筑物更加坚固以至于在允许的限度范围内承受风荷载而不产生弯曲和倾斜。

过分的倾斜会导致建筑的隔离构件、顶棚以及其他建筑细部产生循环破坏。

除此之外，过大的摇动也会使建筑的使用者们因感觉到这样的的晃动而产生不舒服的感觉。

无论是钢筋混凝土结构系统还是钢结构系统都充分利用了整个建筑的刚度潜力，因此不能指望利用多余的刚度来限制侧向位移。

在钢结构系统设计中，经济预算是根据每平方英寸地板面积上的钢材的数量确定的。

钢结构中的体系：钢结构的高层建筑的发展是几种结构体系创新的结果。

这些创新的结构已经被广泛地应用于办公大楼和公寓建筑中。

刚性带式桁架的框架结构：为了联系框架结构的外柱和内部带式桁架，可以在建筑物的中间和顶部设置刚性带式桁架。

1974年在米望基建造的威斯康森银行大楼就是一个很好的例子。

框架筒结构：如果所有的构件都用某种方式互相联系在一起，整个建筑就像是从地面发射出的一个空心筒体或是一个刚性盒子一样。

这个时候此高层建筑的整个结构抵抗风荷载的所有强度和刚度将达到最大的效率。

这种特殊的结构体系首次被芝加哥的43层钢筋混凝土的德威特红棕色的公寓大楼所采用。

外文原稿2The Twelfth East Asia-Pacific Conference on Structural Engineering and Construction Design of Building Structures to Improve their Resistanceto Progressive CollapseD A Nethercot aa Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Imperial College LondonAbstract：It is rare nowadays for a ―new topic‖ to emerge within the relatively mature field of Structural Engineering. Progressive collapse-or, more particularly, understanding the mechanics of the phenomenon and developing suitable ways to accommodate its consideration within our normal frameworks for structural design-can be so regarded. Beginning with illustrations drawn from around the world over several decades and culminating in the highly public WTC collapses, those features essential for a representative treatment are identified and early design approaches are reviewed. More recent work is then reported, concentrating on developments of the past seven years at Imperial College London, where a comprehensive approach capable of being implemented on a variety of levels and suitable for direct use by designers has been under development. Illustrative results are used to assist in identifying some of the key governing features, to show how quantitative comparisons between different arrangements may now be made and to illustrate the inappropriateness of some previous design concepts as a way of directly improving resistance to progressive collapse.2011 Published by Elsevier Ltd.Keywords: Composite structures; Progressive Collapse; Robustness; Steel structures; Structural design1. IntroductionOver time various different structural design philosophies have been proposed, their evolutionary nature reflecting：* Growing concern to ensure adequate performance.* Improved scientific knowledge of behaviour.* Enhanced ability to move from craft based to science based and thus from prescriptive to quantitatively justified approachesThis can be traced through concepts such as: permissible stress, ultimate strength, limit states and performance based. As clients, users and the general public have become increasingly sophisticated and thus more demanding in their expectations, so it became necessary for designers to cover an ever increasing number and range of structural issues–mostly through consideration of the ―reaching this condition would be to a greater or lesser extent unacceptable‖ approach. Therefore issues not previously considered (or only allowed for in an implicit, essentially copying past satisfactory performance, way) started to require explicit attention in the form of: an assessment of demand, modelling behaviour and identification of suitable failure criteria. The treatment of topics such as fatigue, fire resistance, durability and serviceability can all be seen to have followed this pattern.To take a specific example: designing adequate fire resistance into steel framed buildings began (once the need had been recognised) with simple prescriptive rules for concrete encasement of vulnerable members but it has, in recent years, evolved into a sophisticated discipline of fire engineering, concerned with fire loading, the provision of protective systems such as sprinklers, calculation of response in the event of a fire and the ability to make quantitative comparisons between alternative structural arrangements. Not only has this led to obvious economic benefits in the sense of not providing fire protection where it gave only negligible benefit, it has also led to increased fire safety through better understanding of the governing principles and the ability to act intelligently in designing suitable arrangements based on a proper assessment of need.Prior to the Ronan Point collapse in London in 1968 the terms robustness, progressive collapse,disproportionate collapse etc., were not part of Structural Engineering vocabulary. Theconsequences of the damage done to that 22 storey block of pre-cast concrete apartments by a very modest gas explosion on the 18th floor led to new provisions in the UK Building Regulations, outlawing for many years of so called system built schemes, demolition of several completed buildings, temporary removal of gas in high rise construction and the formation of the Standing Committee on Structural Safety. Eventually, the benefits of properly engineered pre-fabrication were recognised, safe methods for the installation of gas were devised and the industry moved on. However, the structural design guidance produced at that time - that still underpins much present day provision - was essentially prescriptive in nature with no real link to actual performance.Subsequent incidences of progressive collapse such as the Murragh Building and the World Trade Centre brought increased attention to the actual phenomenon and issues of how it might reasonably be taken into account for those structural designs where it was considered appropriate. In doing this it is, of course, essential to include both the risk of a triggering incident and the consequences of a failure so that the resulting more onerous structural demands are used appropriately. Arguably, a disproportionate response in terms of requiring costly additional provisions in cases where the risks/consequences are very low/very minor may be as harmful as failing to address those cases where the risks/consequences are high/severe.This paper will review current approaches to design to resist progressive collapse and contrast these with work undertaken over the past seven years at Imperial College London, where the goal has been the provision of a realistically based method suitable for use in routine design. The essential features of the method will be presented, its use on several examples described and results presented to illustrate how it is leading to a better understanding of both the mechanics of progressive collapse and the ways in which structural engineers can best configure their structures so as to provide enhanced resistance2.Design to resist progressive collapseThe two most frequently used design approaches intended to address the issue of progressive collapse are:* Providing tying capacity* Checking alternate load pathsFigure 1: Tie Forces in a Frame StructureThe first is essentially prescriptive and consists of ensuring that beams, columns, connections and floor (or roof) can act together to provide a specified minimum level of horizontal tying resistance; the actual values required are normally related to the vertical loading. Figure 1, which is taken from recent US Guidance (SEI 2010), illustrates the principle. The approach is simple to appreciate, requires minimal structural calculation and, in situations where the original provisions are found to be inadequate, can be made to work by providing more substantial connections and/oradditional reinforcement in floor slabs In an interesting recent development, that recognizes the link to the generation of catenary action, US Guidance has restricted the use of tying between the structural members to situations in which it can be demonstrated that the associated connections can carry the required forces whilst undergoing rotations of 0.2 radiance. Where this is not possible, tying should act through the floors and the roof. However, recent studies (Nethercot et al 2010a; Nethercot et al 2010b) have suggested that tying capacity correlates poorly with actual resistance to progressive collapse. Moreover, being prescriptive, it does not permit the meaningful comparison of alternative arrangements - a fundamental feature of structural design.In its most frequently used form the alternative load path approach presumes the instantaneous loss of a single column and then requires that the ability of the resulting damaged structure to bridge the loss be demonstrated by suitable calculation (Gudmundsson and Izzuddin 2010). The approach may be implemented at varying levels of sophistication in terms of the analysis; for example, recent thinking in the United States (SEI 2010) makes provision for any of: linear static, non-linear static or non-linear dynamic analysis and provides some guidance on the use of each. It may also be used as the basis for more sophisticated numerical studies of particular structures and particular incidents e.g. forensic work; the best of these–which are likely to be computationally very demanding–have demonstrated their ability to closely replicate actual observed behaviour.3. Essential features of progressive collapseThree features have previously (Nethercot 2010) being identified as essential components of any reasonably realistic approach to design against progressive collapse:* Events take place over a very short timescale and the actual failure is therefore dynamic.* It involves gross deformations, generating large strains, leading to inelastic behaviour as well as change of geometry effects.* Failure essentially corresponds to an inability of the structure in its damaged state to adopt a new position of equilibrium without separation of key elements.Figure 2: Simplified multi-level approach for progressive collapse assessmentAdditional features, designed to make the approach attractive for use by practicing Engineers have also been proposed (Nethercot 2010):* Process should consist of a series of steps broadly similar in concept to those used for ―conventional‖ structural design.* It should, preferably, be capable of implementation at a variety at levels of complexity–with the choice reflecting the importance of the structure.* Any required analysis should utilise familiar techniques; where these require computations beyond ―hand methods‖, these should be based on the use of available analysis software.* A realistic and recognisable criterion of failure should be used.* Approach should permit study of cause and effect and be suitable for the making of quantitative comparisons.It was against this background that the studies at Imperial College London have been undertaken. An approach incorporating the three essential features but observing the five desirable features was originally developed (Vlassis 2007); it has subsequently been refined (Stylianidis 2010). Although the starting point was column removal, the approach contains a number of distinctive features:* Although dynamic response is allowed for, only static analysis is required (Izzuddin et al 2007).* The approach may be implemented at structure, sub-structure, floor grillage or individual beam level, see Figure 2.* A realistic criterion of failure is employed, corresponding to reaching the ductility limits in connections.* Quantitative comparisons between alternative structural arrangements may readily be made.* The approach may be implemented using only explicit formulae, thereby permitting simple and rapid calculation.Full details of the method, both in its original form which utilises ADAPTIC to perform the calculations and in its simplified form, may be found in the series of Imperial papers (2-12).*a) First yielding of the tensile components (top bolt row of the support connection)*b) Ultimate capacity of the beam flange at one of the connections (support)*c) Ultimate capacity of the system (failure of the bottom bolt row of the mid-span connection)*d) The axial load becomes zero (the deflection of the beam where the axial load changes from compressive to tensile)*e) The deflection of the beam where the axial load becomes equal to the flange capacity of one of the connections (mid-span connection)Figure 3: Non-linear static response for a single beam中文翻译2通过建筑结构设计以改善建筑物的抗倒性D A Nethercot a土木与环境工程学院——伦敦帝国学院摘要：如今的―新话题‖出现在相对成熟的结构工程领域这是一件罕见的事。

2011届毕业设计外文翻译结构设计系、部：机械系学生姓名：指导教师：专业：班级：完成时间：结构设计Augustine J.Fredrich摘要：结构设计是选择材料和构件类型，大小和形状以安全有用的样式承担荷载。

一般说来，结构设计暗指结构物如建筑物和桥或是可移动但有刚性外壳如船体和飞机框架的工厂稳定性。

设计的移动时彼此相连的设备（连接件），一般被安排在机械设计领域。

关键词：结构设计；结构分析；结构方案；工程要求Abstract: Structure design is the selection of materials and member type ,size, and configuration to carry loads in a safe and serviceable fashion .In general ,structural design implies the engineering of stationary objects such as buildings and bridges ,or objects that maybe mobile but have a rigid shape such as ship hulls and aircraft frames. Devices with parts planned to move with relation to each other(linkages) are generally assigned to the area of mechanical .Key words: Structure Design ；Structural analysis ；structural scheme ；Project requirementsStructure DesignStructural design involved at least five distinct phases of work: project requirements, materials, structural scheme, analysis, and design. For unusual structures or materials a six phase, testing, should be included. These phases do not proceed in a rigid progression , since different materials can be most effective in different schemes , testing can result in change to a design , and a final design is often reached by starting with a rough estimated design , then looping through several cycles of analysis and redesign . Often, several alternative designs will prove quite close in cost, strength, and serviceability. The structural engineer, owner, or end user would then make a selection based on other considerations.Project requirements. Before starting design, the structural engineer must determine the criteria for acceptable performance. The loads or forces to be resisted must be provided. For specialized structures, this may be given directly, as when supporting a known piece of machinery, or a crane of known capacity. For conventional buildings, buildings codes adopted on a municipal, county , or , state level provide minimum design requirements for live loads (occupants and furnishings , snow on roofs , and so on ). The engineer will calculate dead loads (structural and known, permanent installations ) during the design process.For the structural to be serviceable or useful , deflections must also be kept within limits ,since it is possible for safe structural to be uncomfortable “bounce”Very tight deflection limits are set on supports for machinery , since beam sag can cause drive shafts to bend , bearing to burn out , parts to misalign , and overhead cranes to stall . Limitations of sag less than span /1000 ( 1/1000 of the beam length ) are not uncommon . In conventional buildings, beams supporting ceilings often have sag limits of span /360 to avoid plaster cracking, or span /240 to avoid occupant concern (keep visual perception limited ). Beam stiffness also affects floor “bounciness,” which can be annoying if not controlled. In addition , lateral deflection , sway , or drift of tall buildings is often held within approximately height /500 (1/500 of the building height ) to minimize the likelihood of motion discomfort in occupantsof upper floors on windy days .Member size limitations often have a major effect on the structural design. For example, a certain type of bridge may be unacceptable because of insufficient under clearance for river traffic, or excessive height endangering aircraft. In building design, ceiling heights and floor-to-floor heights affect the choice of floor framing. Wall thicknesses and column sizes and spacing may also affect the serviceability of various framing schemes.Materials selection. Technological advances have created many novel materials such as carbon fiber and boron fiber-reinforced composites, which have excellent strength, stiffness, and strength-to-weight properties. However, because of the high cost and difficult or unusual fabrication techniques required , they are used only in very limited and specialized applications . Glass-reinforced composites such as fiberglass are more common, but are limited to lightly loaded applications. The main materials used in structural design are more prosaic and include steel, aluminum, reinforced concrete, wood , and masonry .Structural schemes. In an actual structural, various forces are experienced by structural members , including tension , compression , flexure (bending ), shear ,and torsion (twist) . However, the structural scheme selected will influence which of these forces occurs most frequently, and this will influence the process of materials selection.Tension is the most efficient way to resist applied loads ,since the entire member cross section is acting to full capacity and bucking is not a concern . Any tension scheme must also included anchorages for the tension members . In a suspension bridge , for example ,the anchorages are usually massive dead weights at the ends of the main cables . To avoid undesirable changes in geometry under moving or varying loads , tension schemes also generally require stiffening beams or trusses.Compression is the next most efficient method for carrying loads . The full member cross section is used ,but must be designed to avoid bucking ,either by making the member stocky or by adding supplementary bracing . Domed and archedbuildings ,arch bridges and columns in buildings frames are common schemes . Arches create lateral outward thrusts which must be resisted . This can be done by designing appropriate foundations or , where the arch occurs above the roadway or floor line , by using tension members along the roadway to tie the arch ends together ,keeping them from spreading . Compression members weaken drastically when loads are not applied along the member axis , so moving , variable , and unbalanced loads must be carefully considered.Schemes based on flexure are less efficient than tension and compression ,since the flexure or bending is resisted by one side of the member acting in tension while the other side acts in compression . Flexural schemes such as beams , girders , rigid frames , and moment (bending ) connected frames have advantages in requiring no external anchorages or thrust restrains other than normal foundations ,and inherent stiffness and resistance to moving ,variable , and unbalanced loads .Trusses are an interesting hybrid of the above schemes . They are designed to resist loads by spanning in the manner of a flexural member, but act to break up the load into a series of tension and compression forces which are resisted by individually designed tension and have excellent stiffness and resistance to moving and variable loads . Numerous member-to-member connections, supplementary compression braces ,and a somewhat cluttered appearance are truss disadvantages .Plates and shells include domes ,arched vaults ,saw tooth roofs , hyperbolic paraboloids , and saddle shapes .Such schemes attempt to direct all force along the plane of the surface ,and act largely in shear . While potentially very efficient ,such schemes have very strict limitations on geometry and are poor in resisting point ,moving , and unbalanced loads perpendicular to the surface.Stressed-skin and monologue construction uses the skin between stiffening ribs ,spars ,or columns to resist shear or axial forces . Such design is common in airframes for planes and rockets, and in ship hulls . it has also been used to advantage in buildings. Such a design is practical only when the skin is a logical part of the design and is never to be altered or removed .For bridges , short spans are commonly girders in flexure . As spans increaseand girder depth becomes unwieldy , trusses are often used ,as well as cablestayed schemes .Longer spans may use arches where foundation conditions ,under clearance ,or headroom requirements are favorable .The longest spans are handled exclusively by suspension schemes ,since these minimize the crucial dead weight and can be erected wire by wire .For buildings, short spans are handled by slabs in flexure .As spans increase, beams and girders in flexure are used . Longer spans require trusses ,especially in industrial buildings with possible hung loads . Domes ,arches , and cable-suspended and air –supported roofs can be used over convention halls and arenas to achieve clear areas .Structural analysis . Analysis of structures is required to ensure stability (static equilibrium ) ,find the member forces to be resisted ,and determine deflections . It requires that member configuration , approximate member sizes ,and elastic modulus ; linearity ; and curvature and plane sections . Various methods are used to complete the analysis .Final design . once a structural has been analyzed (by using geometry alone if the analysis is determinate , or geometry plus assumed member sizes and materials if indeterminate ), final design can proceed . Deflections and allowable stresses or ultimate strength must be checked against criteria provided either by the owner or by the governing building codes . Safety at working loads must be calculated . Several methods are available ,and the choice depends on the types of materials that will be used .Pure tension members are checked by dividing load by cross-section area .Local stresses at connections ,such as bolt holes or welds ,require special attention . Where axial tension is combined with bending moment ,the sum of stresses is compared to allowance levels . Allowable : stresses in compression members are dependent on the strength of material, elastic modulus ,member slenderness ,and length between bracing points . Stocky members are limited by materials strength ,while slender members are limited by elastic bucking .Design of beams can be checked by comparing a maximum bending stress toan allowable stress , which is generally controlled by the strength of the material, but may be limited if the compression side of the beam is not well braced against bucking .Design of beam-columns ,or compression members with bending moment ,must consider two items . First ,when a member is bowed due to an applied moment ,adding axial compression will cause the bow to increase .In effect ,the axial load has magnified the original moment .Second ,allowable stresses for columns and those for beams are often quite different .Members that are loaded perpendicular to their long axis, such as beams and beam-columns, also must carry shear. Shear stresses will occur in a direction to oppose the applied load and also at right angles to it to tie the various elements of the beam together. They are compared to an allowable shear stress. These procedures can also be used to design trusses, which are assemblies of tension and compression members. Lastly, deflections are checked against the project criteria using final member sizes.Once a satisfactory scheme has been analyzed and designed to be within project criteria, the information must be presented for fabrication and construction. This is commonly done through drawings, which indicate all basic dimensions, materials, member sizes, the anticipated loads used in design, and anticipated forces to be carried through connections.结构设计结构设计包含至少5个不同方面的工作：工程要求，材料，结构方案，分析和设计。

外文翻译---高层建筑及结构设计High-rise XXX to define。

Generally。

a low-rise building is considered to be een 1 to 2 stories。

while a medium-rise building ranges from 3 or 4 stories up to 10 or 20 stories or more。

While the basic principles of vertical and horizontal subsystem design remain the same for low-。

medium-。

or high-rise buildings。

the vertical subsystems XXX high-XXX requiring larger columns。

walls。

XXX。

XXX.The design of high-rise buildings must take into account the unique XXX by their height and the need to withstand lateral forces such as wind and earthquakes。

One important aspect of high-rise design is the framework shear system。

XXX。

braced frames。

or XXX the appropriate system depends on the specific building characteristics and the seismicity of the n in which it is located.Another key n in high-rise design is the seismic system。

建筑外文翻译外文文献英文文献混凝土强度和现代建筑材料以下是为大家整理的建筑外文翻译外文文献英文文献混凝土强度和现代建筑材料的相关范文，本文关键词为建筑,外文,翻译,文献,英文,混凝土,强度,现代,建筑材料,，您可以从右上方搜索框检索更多相关文章，如果您觉得有用，请继续关注我们并推荐给您的好友，您可以在英语学习中查看更多范文。

外文出处：buildingandenvironment12(20XX)186-191附件1：外文资料翻译译文混凝土强度和现代建筑材料文章摘要：钢筋混凝土可以用在框架结构上，常常用在预制构件并主要用在工业建筑相同结构建筑物上，混凝土也可以用在壳式建筑施工中，其表面同时也成为结构的组成部分。

现代建筑材料：大多数较大的建筑物都是由钢结构，钢筋混凝土以及预应力混凝土构成。

关键词：混凝土强度；现代建筑材料；高层建筑；框架结构在许多结构中,混凝土同时受到不同方向各种应力的作用.例如在梁中大部分混凝土同时承受压力和剪力,再楼板和基础中,混凝土同时承受两个相互垂直方向的压力外加剪力的作用.根据材料力学学习中已知的方法,无论怎样复杂的复合应力状态,都可化为三个相互垂直的主应力,它们作用在材料适当定向的单元立方体上.三个主应力中的任意一个或者全部既可是拉应力,也可是压应力.如果其中一个主应力为零,则为双轴应力状态。

如果有两个主应力为零，则为单轴应力状态，或为简单压缩或为简单拉伸。

在多数情况下，根据简单的试验，如圆柱体强度f'c和抗拉强度f't，只能够确定材料在单轴应力作用下的性能。

为了预测混凝土在双轴应力或三轴应力作用下的结构强度，在通过试验仅仅知道f'c或f'c与f't的情况下，需要通过计算确定混凝土在上述复合应力状态下的强度。

尽管人们连续不断地进行了大量的研究，但仍然没有得出有关混凝土在复合应力作用下的强度的通用理论。

经过修正的各种强度理论，如最大拉应力理论、莫尔-库仑理论和八面体应力理论(以上理论都在材料力学课本中讨论过)应用于混凝土，取得了不同程度的进展。

外文资料翻译The constraintion of reinforced concrete structure design ( part)Part 1. Reinforced ConcretePlain concrete is formed from a hardened mixture of cement ,water ,fine aggregate, coarse aggregate (crushed stone or gravel),air, and often other admixtures. The plastic mix is placed and consolidated in the formwork, then cured to facilitate the acceleration of the chemical hydration reaction lf the cement/water mix, resulting in hardened concrete. The finished product has high compressive strength, and low resistance to tension, such that its tensile strength is approximately one tenth lf its compressive strength. Consequently, tensile and shear reinforcement in the tensile regions of sections has to be provided to compensate for the weak tension regions in the reinforced concrete element.It is this deviation in the composition of a reinforces concrete section from the homogeneity of standard wood or steel sections that requires a modified approach to the basic principles of structural design. The two components of the heterogeneous reinforced concrete section are to be so arranged and proportioned that optimal use is made of the materials involved. This is possible because concrete can easily be given any desired shape by placing and compacting the wet mixture of the constituent ingredients are properly proportioned, the finished product becomes strong, durable, and, in combination with the reinforcing bars, adaptable for use as main members of any structural system.The techniques necessary for placing concrete depend on the type of member to be cast: that is, whether it is a column, a bean, a wall, a slab, a foundation. a mass columns, or an extension of previously placed and hardened concrete. For beams, columns, and walls, the forms should be well oiled after cleaning them, and the reinforcement should be cleared of rust and other harmful materials. In foundations, the earth should be compacted and thoroughly moistened to about 6 in. in depth to avoid absorption of the moisture present in the wet concrete. Concrete should always be placed in horizontal layers which are compacted by means of high frequency power-driven vibrators of either the immersion or external type, as the case requires, unless it is placed by pumping. It must be kept in mind, however, that over vibration can be harmful since it could cause segregation of the aggregate and bleeding of the concrete.Hydration of the cement takes place in the presence of moisture at temperatures above 50°F. It is necessary to maintain such a condition in order that the chemical hydration reaction can take place. If drying is too rapid, surface cracking takes place. This would result in reduction of concrete strength due to cracking as well as the failure to attain full chemical hydration.It is clear that a large number of parameters have to be dealt with in proportioning a reinforced concrete element, such as geometrical width, depth, area of reinforcement, steel strain, concrete strain, steel stress, and so on. Consequently, trial and adjustment is necessary in the choice of concrete sections, with assumptionsbased on conditions at site, availability of the constituent materials, particular demands of the owners, architectural and headroom requirements, the applicable codes, and environmental reinforced concrete is often a site-constructed composite, in contrast to the standard mill-fabricated beam and column sections in steel structures.A trial section has to be chosen for each critical location in a structural system. The trial section has to be analyzed to determine if its nominal resisting strength is adequate to carry the applied factored load. Since more than one trial is often necessary to arrive at the required section, the first design input step generates into a series of trial-and-adjustment analyses.The trial-and –adjustment procedures for the choice of a concrete section lead to the convergence of analysis and design. Hence every design is an analysis once a trial section is chosen. The availability of handbooks, charts, and personal computers and programs supports this approach as a more efficient, compact, and speedy instructional method compared with the traditional approach of treating the analysis of reinforced concrete separately from pure design.Part 2 Safety of StructuresThe principal scope of specifications is to provide general principles and computational methods in order to verify safety of structures. The “ safety factor ”, which according to modern trends is independent of the nature and combination of the materials used, can usually be defined as the ratio between the conditions. This ratio is also proportional to the inverse of the probability ( risk ) of failure of the structure.Failure has to be considered not only as overall collapse of the structure but also as unserviceability or, according to a more precise. Common definition. As the reaching of a “ limit state ” which causes the construction not to accomplish the task it was designed for. There are two categories of limit state :(1)Ultimate limit sate, which corresponds to the highest value of the load-bearing capacity. Examples include local buckling or global instability of the structure; failure of some sections and subsequent transformation of the structure into a mechanism; failure by fatigue; elastic or plastic deformation or creep that cause a substantial change of the geometry of the structure; and sensitivity of the structure to alternating loads, to fire and to explosions.(2)Service limit states, which are functions of the use and durability of the structure. Examples include excessive deformations and displacements without instability; early or excessive cracks; large vibrations; and corrosion.Computational methods used to verify structures with respect to the different safety conditions can be separated into:(1)Deterministic methods, in which the main parameters are considered as nonrandom parameters.(2)Probabilistic methods, in which the main parameters are considered as random parameters.Alternatively, with respect to the different use of factors of safety, computational methods can be separated into:(1)Allowable stress method, in which the stresses computed under maximum loads are compared with the strength of the material reduced by given safety factors.(2)Limit states method, in which the structure may be proportioned on the basis of its maximum strength. This strength, as determined by rational analysis, shall not be less than that required to support a factored load equal to the sum of the factored live load and dead load ( ultimate state ).The stresses corresponding to working ( service ) conditions with unfactored live and dead loads are compared with prescribed values ( service limit state ) . From the four possible combinations of the first two and second two methods, we can obtain some useful computational methods. Generally, two combinations prevail:(1)deterministic methods, which make use of allowable stresses.(2)Probabilistic methods, which make use of limit states.The main advantage of probabilistic approaches is that, at least in theory, it is possible to scientifically take into account all random factors of safety, which are then combined to define the safety factor. probabilistic approaches depend upon :(1) Random distribution of strength of materials with respect to the conditions of fabrication and erection ( scatter of the values of mechanical properties through out the structure );(2) Uncertainty of the geometry of the cross-section sand of the structure ( faults and imperfections due to fabrication and erection of the structure );(3) Uncertainty of the predicted live loads and dead loads acting on the structure;(4)Uncertainty related to the approximation of the computational method used ( deviation of the actual stresses from computed stresses ).Furthermore, probabilistic theories mean that the allowable risk can be based on several factors, such as :(1) Importance of the construction and gravity of the damage by its failure;(2)Number of human lives which can be threatened by this failure;(3)Possibility and/or likelihood of repairing the structure;(4) Predicted life of the structure.All these factors are related to economic and social considerations such as：(1) Initial cost of the construction;(2) Amortization funds for the duration of the construction;(3) Cost of physical and material damage due to the failure of the construction;(4) Adverse impact on society;(5) Moral and psychological views.The definition of all these parameters, for a given safety factor, allows construction at the optimum cost. However, the difficulty of carrying out a complete probabilistic analysis has to be taken into account. For such an analysis the laws of the distribution of the live load and its induced stresses, of the scatter of mechanical properties of materials, and of the geometry of the cross-sections and the structure have to be known. Furthermore, it is difficult to interpret the interaction between the law of distribution of strength and that of stresses because both depend upon the nature of the material, on the cross-sections and upon the load acting on the structure. These practical difficulties can be overcome in two ways. The first is to apply different safety factors to the material and to the loads, without necessarily adopting the probabilistic criterion. The second is an approximate probabilistic method whichintroduces some simplifying assumptions.钢筋混凝土结构设计制约因素（部分）第一部分：钢筋混凝土混凝土是由水泥、水、细骨料、粗骨料（碎石或；卵石）、空气，通常还有其他外加剂等经过凝固硬化而成。

结构分析一．建筑结构就工程的实质而言，建筑结构可定义为：以保持形状和稳定为目的的各个基本构件的组合体。

其基本目的是抵抗作用在建筑物上的各种荷载并把它传到地基。

从建筑学的角度来讲，建筑结构要做的更多。

它与建筑风格是不可分割的，在不同程度上是一种建筑风格的体现。

如能巧妙地设计建筑结构，则可建立或加强建筑空间与建筑平面之间的格调与节奏。

它在直观上可以是显性的或隐性的。

它能产生和谐体或对照体。

它可能既局限又开放。

不幸的是在一些情况下，它不能被忽视，它是存在的。

结构设计还必须维持建筑风格。

物理学和数学的原理及工具为区分在结构上的合理与不合理的形式提供了依据。

艺术家有时可以不必考虑科学就能画出图形，但建筑师却不行。

在建筑结构中至少三项内容存在：稳定性强度和刚度经济性在上述三项要求中，很明显维持建筑物形状的稳定性要求是首选。

一座不稳定的建筑结构意味着有不平衡的力或失去平衡状态，并且会导致建筑结构整体或部分产生加速度。

强度的要求意味着材料的选择要能抵抗荷载和变形引起的应力。

实际上，通常都提供一个安全系数为了在预计的荷载作用下，给定材料的应力不会接近破坏应力，被称为刚度的材料特性，需与强度要求一起考虑。

刚度不同于强度，因为它涉及荷载作用下结构应变的大小和变形的程度。

材料如具有很高的强度，但刚度较低，在外力作用下会因变形过大而失效。

建筑结构的经济性指的不仅仅是所用材料的费用。

建筑经济是一个复杂的问题，其中包括原材料、制作、安装和维修。

设计和施工中人工费及能源消耗的费用也要考虑。

施工的速度和工程成本（利息）也是需要考虑的因素。

对大多数设计情况，不仅仅只考虑一种建筑材料，经常存在一些有竞争性的选择，而具体应选择哪种并不明显。

除了这三种最基本要求之外，其他几种因素也值得重视。

首先，结构或结构体系必须和建筑物的功能相关而不应该与建筑风格相矛盾。

例如，线性功能要求显性结构，所以把保龄球场的顶部盖成圆形是不适合的。

剧院必须是较大跨度、中间没有障碍的结构，而高档商店却不是这样。

建筑英语翻译篇一：建筑类英文及翻译外文原文出处：Geotechnical, Geological, and Earthquake Engineering, 1, Volume 10, Seismic Risk Assessment and Retrofitting, Pages 329-342补充垂直支撑对建筑物抗震加固摘要：大量的钢筋混凝土建筑物在整个世界地震活跃地区有共同的缺陷。

弱柱，在一个或多个事故中，由于横向变形而失去垂直承载力。

这篇文章提出一个策略关于补充安装垂直支撑来防止房子的倒塌。

这个策略是使用在一个风险的角度上来研究最近实际可行的性能。

混凝土柱、动力失稳的影响、多样循环冗余的影响降低了建筑系统和组件的强度。

比如用建筑物来说明这个策略的可行性。

1、背景的介绍：建筑受地震震动，有可能达到一定程度上的动力失稳，因为从理论上说侧面上有无限的位移。

许多建筑物，然而，在较低的震动强度下就失去竖向荷载的支撑，这就是横向力不稳定的原因(见图16.1)。

提出了这策略的目的是为了确定建筑物很可能马上在竖向荷载作用下而倒塌，通过补充一些垂直支撑来提高建筑物的安全。

维护竖向荷载支撑的能力，来改变水平力稳定临界失稳的机理，重视可能出现微小的侧向位移(见图16.2)。

在过去的经验表明，世界各地的地震最容易受到破坏的是一些无筋的混凝土框架结构建筑物。

这经常是由于一些无关紧要的漏洞，引起的全部或一大块地方发生破坏，比如整根梁、柱子和板。

去填实上表面来抑制框架的内力，易受影响的底层去吸收大部分的内力和冲力。

这有几种过去被用过的方法可供选择来实施:1、加密上层结构，可以拆卸和更换一些硬度不够强的材料。

2、加密上层结构，可以隔离一些安装接头上的裂缝，从而阻止对框架结构的影响。

3、底楼，或者地板，可以增加结构新墙。

这些措施(项目1、2和3)能有效降低自重，这韧性能满足于一层或多层。

然而，所有这些都有困难和干扰。

在美国，这些不寻常的代价换来的是超过一半更有价值的建筑。

Detailed description
Building materials refer to various substances and materials used in the construction process, which can be natural or artificially synthesized, with different physical, chemical, and mechanical properties, used to meet the
requirements of building design and construction.
Classification of building materials
• Summary: Building materials can be classified according to different classification standards, such as usage location, function, material, etc.
• Meaning: With the acceleration of globalization and the deepening of the the Belt and Road Initiative, exchanges and cooperation between China and the world are increasingly frequent. Mastering the Chinese and English translations of building materials can help improve the internationalization level of China's construction industry and better participate in international competition and cooperation. At the same time, it also helps to improve the technical and management level of the construction industry, promoting the sustainable development of China's construction industry.

Concrete structure reinforcement designSheyanboⅠWangchenjiaⅡⅠ Foundation Engineering Co., Ltd. Heilongjiang Dongyu Ⅱ Heilongjiang Province, East Building FoundationEngineering Co., Ltd. Coal混凝土结构配筋设计佘艳波Ⅰ王晨佳ⅡⅠ基础工程有限公司黑龙江东宇Ⅱ黑龙江省东建筑地基基础工程有限公司煤摘要在长期的自然的环境下使用环境的功能结构，其功能减弱不可避免地渐渐地，我们的结构工程的责任不只是必须完成建设前期项目工作，但必须能够科学评价结构的破坏目标法律和程度，并采用有效的方法保证结构的安全使用，该结构加固将成为一个重要的工作。

什么可以预见将是21世纪，人类建筑的混凝土结构，钢结构，砌体式结构等为主另外，现阶段我会觉得在结构加固我们这方面的研究也应借此作为主要的突破方向。

关键词：混凝土结构加固砌体式结构钢筋结构加固1混凝土结构加固混凝土结构的加固分为直接加固，并加强间接两种，在设计时可根据实际条件和使用要求选择适宜的方法和必要的技术。

1.1直接加固的一般方法1.1.1放大段加固法添加混凝土现浇钢筋发生水平弯曲受压区混凝土构件，可能会增加部分有效高度，扩大截面面积，从而提高了组件的右侧部分反弯，斜截面抗切割能力部分刚度，起到加固补强的作用。

在适当的肌肉范围，改变混凝土弯曲的组件的右侧部分配套能力，随着钢筋面积和强度的提高增加。

在原来的组件的右侧部分钢筋的比例不太高的情况，增加了主要加固面积有可能提出的高原组件的右侧部分抗弯曲能力，有效地支持。

拉一节中，通过新的加拿大部分和原构件共同工作的领域添加现浇现浇混凝土外套组成部分增加，但提高了有效成分的配套能力，改善正常的经营业绩。

放大段加固法施工工艺简单，兼容，并具有成熟的设计和施工经验，在梁，板，柱，墙和一般结构用混凝土加固;但现场施工的湿作业时间长，对生产与生活有一定的影响，并加强建筑清拆后有一定减少。

Create and comprehensive technology in the structure globaldesign of the buildingThe 21st century will be the era that many kinds of disciplines technology coexists , it will form the enormous motive force of promoting the development of building , the building is more and more important too in global design, the architect must seize the opportunity , give full play to the architect's leading role, preside over every building engineering design well. Building there is the global design concept not new of architectural design,characteristic of it for in an all-round way each element not correlated with building- there aren't external environment condition, building , technical equipment,etc. work in coordination with, and create the premium building with the comprehensive new technology to combine together.The premium building is created, must consider sustainable development , namely future requirement , in other words, how save natural resources as much as possible, how about protect the environment that the mankind depends on for existence, how construct through high-quality between architectural design and building, in order to reduce building equipment use quantity and reduce whole expenses of project.The comprehensive new technology is to give full play to the technological specialty of every discipline , create and use the new technology, and with outside space , dimension of the building , working in coordination with in an all-round way the building component, thus reduce equipment investment and operate the expenses.Each success , building of engineering construction condense collective intelligence and strength; It is intelligence and expectation that an architect pays that the building is created; The engineering design of the building is that architecture , structure , equipment speciality compose hardships and strength happenning; It is the diligent and sweat paid in design and operation , installation , management that the construction work is built up .The initial stage of the 1990s, our understanding that the concept of global design is a bit elementary , conscientious to with making some jobs in engineeringdesign unconsciously , make some harvest. This text Hangzhou city industrial and commercial bank financial comprehensive building and Hangzhou city Bank of Communications financial building two building , group of " scientific and technological progress second prize " speak of from person who obtain emphatically, expound the fact global design - comprehensive technology that building create its , for reach global design outstanding architect in two engineering design, have served as the creator and persons who cooperate while every stage design and even building are built completely.Two projects come into operation for more than 4 years formally , run and coordinate , good wholly , reach the anticipated result, accepted and appreciated by the masses, obtain various kinds of honor .outstanding to design award , progress prize in science and technology , project quality bonus , local top ten view , best model image award ,etc., the ones that do not give to the architect and engineers without one are gratified and proud. The building is created Emphasizing the era for global design of the building, the architects' creation idea and design method should be broken through to some extent, creation inspirations is it set up in analysis , building of global design , synthesize more to burst out and at the foundation that appraise, learn and improve the integration capability exactly designed in building , possess the new knowledge system and thinking method , merge multi-disciplinary technology. We have used the new design idea in above-mentioned projects, have emphasized the globality created in building .Is it is it act as so as to explain to conceive to create two design overview and building of construction work these now.1) The financial comprehensive building of industrial and commercial bank of HangZhou, belong to the comprehensive building, with the whole construction area of 39,000 square meters, main building total height 84, 22, skirt 4 of room, some 6 storeys, 2 storeys of basements.Design overall thinking break through of our country bank building traditional design mode - seal , deep and serious , stern , form first-class function, create of multi-functional type , the style of opening , architecture integrated with the mode of the international commercial bank.The model of the building is free and easy, opened, physique was made up by the hyperboloid, the main building presented " the curved surface surrounded southwards ", skirt room presents " the curved surface surrounded northwards ", the two surround but become intension of " gathering the treasure ".Building flourishing upwards, elevation is it adopt large area solid granite wall to design, the belt aluminium alloy curtain wall of the large area and some glass curtain walls, and interweave the three into powerful and vigorous whole , chase through model and entity wall layer bring together , form concise , tall and straight , upward tendency of working up successively, have distinct and unique distinctions.Building level and indoor space are designed into a multi-functional type and style of opening, opening, negotiate , the official working , meeting , receiving , be healthy and blissful , visit combining together. Spacious and bright two storeys open in the hall unifiedly in the Italian marble pale yellow tone , in addition, the escalator , fountain , light set off, make the space seem very magnificent , graceful and sincere. Intelligent computer network center, getting open and intelligent to handle official business space and all related house distribute in all floor reasonably. Top floor round visit layer, lift all of Room visit layer , can have a panoramic view of the scenery of the West Lake , fully enjoy the warmth of the nature. 2) The financial building of Bank of Communications of Hangzhou, belong to the purely financial office block, with the whole construction area of 19,000 square meters, the total height of the building is 39.9 meters, 13 storeys on the ground, the 2nd Floor. Live in building degree high than it around location , designer have unique architectural appearance of style architectural design this specially, its elevation is designed into a new classical form , the building base adopts the rough granite, show rich capability , top is it burn granite and verticality bar and some form aluminum windows make up as the veneer to adopt, represent the building noble and refined , serious personality of the bank.While creating in above-mentioned two items, besides portraying the shape of the building and indoor space and outside environment minister and blending meticulously, in order to achieve the outstanding purpose of global design of the building , the architect , still according to the region and project characteristic, putforward the following requirement to every speciality:(1) Control the total height of the building strictly;(2) It favorable to the intelligent comfortable height of clearances to create;(3) Meet the floor area of owner's demand;(4)Protect the environment , save the energy , reduce and make the investment;(5) Design meticulously, use and popularize the new technology;(6) Cooperate closely in every speciality, optimization design. Comprehensive technologyThe building should have strong vitality, there must be sustainable development space, there should be abundant intension and comprehensive new technology. Among above-mentioned construction work , have popularized and used the intelligent technology of the building , has not glued and formed the flat roof beam of prestressing force - dull and stereotyped structure technology and flat roof beam structure technology, baseplate temperature mix hole , technology of muscle and base of basement enclose new technology of protecting, computer control STL ice hold cold air conditioner technology, compounding type keeps warm and insulates against heat the technology of the wall , such new technologies as the sectional electricity distribution room ,etc., give architecture global design to add the new vitality of note undoubtedly.1, the intelligent technology of the buildingIn initial stage of the 1990s, the intelligent building was introduced from foreign countries to China only as a kind of concept , computer network standard is it soon , make information communication skeleton of intelligent building to pursue in the world- comprehensive wiring system becomes a kind of trend because of 10BASE-T. In order to make the bank building adapt to the development of the times, the designer does one's utmost to recommend and design the comprehensive wiring system with the leading eyes , this may well be termed the first modernized building which adopted this technical design at that time.(1) Comprehensive wiring system one communication transmission network, it make between speech and data communication apparatus , exchange equipment andother administrative systems link to each other, make the equipment and outside communication network link to each other too. It include external telecommunication connection piece and inside information speech all cable and relevant wiring position of data terminal of workspace of network. The comprehensive wiring system adopts the products of American AT&T Corp.. Connected up the subsystem among the subsystem , management subsystem , arterial subsystem and equipment to make up by workspace subsystem , level.(2) Automated systems of security personnel The monitoring systems of security personnel of the building divide into the public place and control and control two pieces of system equipment with the national treasury special-purposly synthetically.The special-purpose monitoring systems of security personnel of national treasury are in the national treasury , manage the storehouse on behalf of another , transporting the paper money garage to control strictly, the track record that personnel come in and go out, have and shake the warning sensor to every wall of national treasury , the camera, infrared microwave detector in every relevant rooms, set up the automation of controlling to control.In order to realize building intellectuality, the architect has finished complete indoor environment design, has created the comfortable , high-efficient working environment , having opened up the room internal and external recreation space not of uniform size, namely the green one hits the front yard and roofing, have offered the world had a rest and regulated to people working before automation is equipped all day , hang a design adopt the special building to construct the node in concrete ground , wall at the same time.2, has not glued and formed the flat roof beam of prestressing force- dull and stereotyped structure technology and flat roof beam structure technology In order to meet the requirement with high assurance that the architect puts forward , try to reduce the height of structure component in structure speciality, did not glue and form the flat roof beam of prestressing force concrete - dull and stereotyped structure technology and flat roof beam structure technology after adopting.(1) Adopt prestressing force concrete roof beam board structure save than ordinary roof beam board concrete consumption 15%, steel consumption saves 27%, the roof beam reduces 300mm high.(2) Adopt flat roof beam structure save concrete about 10% consumption than ordinary roof beam board, steel consumption saves 6.6%, the roof beam reduces 200mm high.Under building total situation that height does not change , adopt above-mentioned structure can make the whole building increase floor area of a layer , have good economic benefits and social benefit.3, the temperature of the baseplate matches muscle technologyIn basement design , is it is it is it after calculating , take the perimeter to keep the construction technology measure warm to split to resist to go on to baseplate, arrange temperature stress reinforcing bar the middle cancelling , dispose 2 row receives the strength reinforcing bar up and down only, this has not only save the fabrication cost of the project but also met the basement baseplate impervious and resisting the requirement that splits.4, the foundation of the basement encloses and protects the new technology of design and operationAdopt two technological measures in enclosing and protecting a design:(1) Cantilever is it is it hole strength is it adopt form strengthen and mix muscle technology to design to protect to enclose, save the steel and invite 60t, it invests about 280,000 to save.(2) Is it is it protect of of elevation and keep roof beam technology to enclose , is it protect long to reduce 1.5m to enclose all to reduce, keep roof beam mark level on natural ground 1.5m , is it is it protect of lateral pressure receive strength some height to enclose to change, saving 137.9 cubic meters of concrete, steel 16.08t, reduces and invests 304,000 yuan directly through calculating.5, ice hold cold air conditioner technologyIce hold cold air conditioner technology belong to new technology still in our country , it heavy advantage that the electricity moves the peak and operates theexpenses sparingly most. In design, is it ice mode adopt some (weight ) hold mode of icing , is it ice refrigeration to be plane utilization ratio high to hold partly to hold, hold cold capacity little , refrigeration plane capacity 30%-45% little than routine air conditioner equipment, one economic effective operational mode.Hold the implementation of the technology of the cold air conditioner in order to cooperate with the ice , has used intelligent technology, having adopted the computer to control in holding and icing the air conditioner system, the main task has five following respects:(1) According to the demand for user's cold load , according to the characteristic of the structure of the electric rate , set up the ice and hold the best operation way of the cold system automatically, reduce the operation expenses of the whole system;(2) Fully utilize and hold the capacity of the cold device, should try one's best to use up all the cold quantity held basically on the same day;(3) Automatic operation state of detection system, ensure ice hold cold system capital equipment normal , safe operation;(4) Automatic record parameter that system operate, display system operate flow chart and type systematic operation parameter report form;(5) Predict future cooling load, confirm the future optimization operation scheme.Ice hold cold air conditioner system test run for some time, indicate control system to be steady , reliable , easy to operate, the system operates the energy-conserving result remarkably.6, the compounding type keeps in the wall warm and insulates against heat To the area of Hangzhou , want heating , climate characteristic of lowering the temperature in summer in winter, is it protect building this structural design person who compound is it insulate against heat the wall to keep warm to enclose specially, namely: Fit up , keep warm , insulate against heat the three not to equal to the body , realize building energy-conservation better.Person who compound is it insulate against heat wall to combine elevation model characteristic , design aluminium board elevation renovation material to keepwarm, its structure is: Fill out and build hollow brick in the frame structure, do to hang the American Fluorine carbon coating inferior mere aluminium board outside the hollow brick wall.Aluminium board spoke hot to have high-efficient adiabatic performance to the sun, under the same hot function of solar radiation, because the nature , color of the surface material are different from coarse degree, whether can absorb heat have great difference very , between surface and solar radiation hot absorption system (α ) and material radiation system (Cλ ) is it say to come beyond the difference this. Adopt α and Cλ value little surface material have remarkable result , board α、Cλ value little aluminium have, its α =0.26, Cλ =0.4, light gray face brick α =0.56, Cλ =4.3.Aluminium board for is it hang with having layer under air by hollow brick to do, because aluminium board is it have better radiation transfer to hot terms to put in layer among the atmosphere and air, this structure is playing high-efficient adiabatic function on indoor heating too in winter, so, no matter or can well realize building energy-conservation in winter in summer.7, popularize the technology of sectional electricity distribution roomConsider one layer paves Taxi " gold " value , the total distribution of the building locates the east, set up voltage transformer and low-voltage distribution in the same room in first try in the design, make up sectional electricity distribution room , save transformer substation area greatly , adopt layer assign up and down, mixing the switchyard system entirely after building up and putting into operation, the function is clear , the overall arrangement compactness is rational , the systematic dispatcher is flexible . The technology have to go to to use and already become the model extensively of the design afterwards.ConclusionThe whole mode designed of the building synthetically can raise the adaptability of the building , it will be the inevitable trend , environmental consciousness and awareness of saving energy especially after strengthening are even more important. Developing with the economy , science and technology constantly in our country, more advanced technology and scientific and technical result will be applied to thebuilding , believe firmly that in the near future , more outstanding building global design will appear on the building stage of our country. We will be summarizing, progressing constantly constantly, this is that history gives the great responsibility of architect and engineer.汉语翻译建筑结构整体设计-建筑创作和综合技术21世纪将是多种学科技术并存的时代，它必将形成推动建筑发展的巨大动力，建筑结构整体设计也就越来越重要，建筑师必须把握时机，充分发挥建筑师的主导作用，主持好各项建筑工程设计。