工程造价管理论文中英文对照资料外文翻译文献

外文文献：Project Cost Control: The Way it WorksBy R. Max WidemanIn a recent consulting assignment we realized that there was some lack of understanding of thewholesystem of project cost control, how it is setup and applied. So we decided to write up adescription ofhow it works. Project cost control is not that difficult to follow in theory.First you establish a set of reference baselines. Then, as work progresses, you monitor the work, analyzethe findings, forecast the end results and compare those with the reference baselines. If the end resultsare not satisfactory then you make adjustments as necessary to the work in progress, and repeat the cycleat suitable intervals. If the end results get really out of line with the baseline plan, you may have tochange the plan. More likely, there will be (or have been) scope changes that change the referencebaselines which means that every time that happens you have to change the baseline plan anyway.But project cost control is a lot more difficult to do in practice, as is evidenced by the number of projectsthat fail to contain costs. It also involves a significant amount of work, as we shall see, and we might aswell start at the beginning. So let us follow the thread of project cost control through the entire projectlife span.And, while we are at it, we will take the opportunity to point out the proper places for several significantdocuments. These include the Business Case, the Request for (a capital) Appropriation (for execution),Work Packages and the Work Breakdown Structure, the Project Charter (or Brief), the Project Budget orCost Plan, Earned Value and the Cost Baseline. All of these contribute to the organization's ability toeffectively control project costs.FootnoteI am indebted to my friend Quentin Fleming, the guru of Earned Value, for checking and correcting mywork on this topic.The Business Case and Application for (execution) FundingIt is important to note that project cost control is most effective when the executive managementresponsible has a good understanding of how projects should unfold through the project life span. Thismeans that they exercise their responsibilities at the key decision pointsbetween the major phases. Theymust also recognize the importance of project risk management for identifying and planning to head offat least the most obvious potential risk events.In the project's Concept Phase• Every project starts with someone identifying an opportunity or need. That is usually someone ofimportance or influence, if the project is to proceed, and that person often becomes the project'ssponsor.• To determine the suitability of the potential project, most organizations call for the preparation ofa "Business Case" and its "Order of Magnitude" cost to justify the value of the project so that it can be compared with all the other competing projects. This effort is conducted in the ConceptPhase of the project and is done as a part of the organization's management of the entire projectportfolio.• The cost of the work of preparing the Business Case is usually covered by corporatemanagement overhead, but it may be carried forward as an accounting cost to the eventualproject. No doubt because this will provide a tax benefit to the organization. The problem is, howdo you then account for all the projects that are not so carried forward?• If the Business case has sufficient merit, approval will be given to proceed to a Development andDefinition phase.In the project's Development or Definition Phase• The objective of the Development Phase is to establish a good understanding of the workinvolved to produce the required product, estimate the cost and seek capital funding for theactual execution of the project.• In a formalized setting, especially where big projects are involved, this application for funding isoften referred to as a Request for (a capital) Appropriation (RFA) or Capital AppropriationRequest (CAR).• This requires the collection of more detailed requirements and d ata to establish what work needs to be done to produce the required product or "deliverable". From this information, a plan isprepared in sufficient detail to give adequate confidence in a dollar figure to be included in therequest.• In a less formalized setting, everyone just tries to muddle through.Work Packages and the WBSThe Project Management Plan, Project Brief or Project Charter• If the deliverable consists of a number of different elements, these are identified and assembledinto Work Packages (WPs) and presented in the form of a Work Breakdown Structure (WBS).• Each WP involves a set of activities, the "work" that is planned and scheduled as a part of theProject Management Plan. Note, however, that the planning will still be at a relatively high level,and more detailed planning will be necessary during execution if the project is given the goahead. • This Project Management Plan, by the way, should become the "bible" for the execution phase ofthe project and is sometimes referred to as the "Project Brief" or the "Project Charter".• The cost of doing the various activities is then estimated and these estimated costs are aggregatedto determine the estimated cost of the WP. This approach is known as "detailed estimating" or"bottom up estimating". There are other approaches to estimating that we'll come to in a minute.Either way, the result is an estimated cost of the total work of the project.Note: that project risk management planning is an important part of this exercise. This should examinethe project's assumptions and environmental conditions to identify any weaknesses in the plan thus far,and identify those potential risk events that warrant attention for mitigation. This might take the form ofspecific contingency planning, and/or the setting aside of prudent funding reserves.Request for capitalConverting the estimate• However, an estimate of the work alone is not sufficient for a capital request. To arrive at acapital request some conversion is necessary, for example, by adding prudent allowances such asoverheads, a contingency allowance to cover normal project risks and management reserves tocover unknowns and possible scope changes.• In addition, it may be necessary to convert the estimating data into a financial accounting format that satisfies the corporate or sponsor's format for purposes of comparison with other projectsand consequent funding approval.• In practice all the data for the type of "bottom up" approach just described may not be available.In this case alternative estimating approaches are adopted that provide various degrees ofreliability in a "top down" fashion. For example:Order of Magnitude estimate – a "ball park" estimate, usually reserved for the conceptphase onlyAnalogous estimate – an estimate based on previous similar projectsParametric estimate – an estimate based on statistical relationships in historical data• Whichever approach is adopted, hopefully the sum thus arrived at will be approved in full andproves to be satisfactory! This is the trigger to start the Execution Phase of the project Note: Some managements will approve some lesser sum in the mistaken belief that this will helpeveryone to "sharpen their pencils" and "work smarter" for the benefit of the organization. This is amistaken belief because management has failed to understand the nature of uncertainty and risk inproject work. Consequently, the effect is more likely to result in "corner cutting" with an adverse effecton product quality, or reduced product scope or functionality.This often leads to a "game" in which estimates are inflated so that management can adjust themdownwards. But to be fair, management is also well aware that if money is over allocated, it will getspent anyway. The smart thing for managements to do is to set aside contingent reserve funds, varyingwith the riskiness of the project, and keep that money under careful control.Ownership of approved capital• If senior management approves the RFA as presented, the sum in question becomes theresponsibility of the designated project sponsor. However, if the approved capital requestincludes allowances such as a "Management Reserve", this may or may not be passed on to theproject's sponsor, depending on the policies of the organization.• For the approved RFA, the project sponsor will, in turn, further delegate expenditure authority tothe project's project manager and will likely not include any of the allowances. An exceptionmight be the contingency allowances to cover the normal variations in work performance.• The net sum thus arri ved at constitutes the project manager's Approved Project Budget. Note: If management does not approve the RFA, you should not consider this a project failure. Eitherthe goals, objectives, justification and planning need rethinking to increase the value of the project'sdeliverables, or senior management simply has higher priorities elsewhere for theavailable resourcesand funding.The Project's Execution PhaseThe project manager's Project Budget responsibility• Once this Approved Project Budget is release d to the project manager, a reverse process musttake place to convert it into a working control document. That is, the money available must bedivided amongst the various WBS WPs that, by the way, have probably by now been upgraded!This results in a project execution Control Budget or Project Baseline Budget, or simply, theProject Budget. In some areas of project management application it is referred to as a ProjectCost Plan.• On a large project where different corporate production divisions are involved, t here may be afurther intermediate step of creating "Control Accounts" for the separate divisions, so that eachdivision subdivides their allocated money into their own WBS WPs.• Observe that, since the total Project Budget received formal approval from ExecutiveManagement, you, as project manager, must likewise seek and obtain from ExecutiveManagement, via the project's sponsor, formal approval for any changes to the total projectbudget. Often this is only justified and accepted on the basis of a requested Product ScopeChange.• In such a case the project's sponsor will either draw down on the management reserve in his orher possession, or submit a supplementary RFA to upper management.• Now that we have the Project Budget money allocated to Work Packages w e can furtherdistribute it amongst the various activities of each WP so that we know how much money wehave as a "Baseline" cost for each activity.• This provides us with the base of reference for the cost control function. Of course, depending onthe circumstances the same thing may be done at the WP level but the ability to control is then ata higher and coarser level.Use of the Earned Value technique• If we have the necessary details another control tool that we can adopt for monitoring ongoingwork is the "Earned Value" (EV) technique. This is a considerable art and science that you mustlearn about from texts dedicated to the subject.• But essentially, you take the costs of the schedule activities and plot them as a cumulativetotalon the appropriate time base. Again you can do this at the activity level, WP level or the wholeproject level. The lower the level the more control information you have available but the morework you get involved in.The Cost Baseline• This planned reference S-curve is sometimes referred to as the "Cost Baseline", typically in EV parlance. That is, it is the "Budgeted Cost of Work Scheduled" (BCWS), or more simply the"Planned Value" (PV).• Observe that you need to modify this Cost Baseline every time there is an approved scopechange that has cost and/or schedule implications and consequently changes the project'sApproved Project Budget.• Now, as the work progresses, you can plot the "Actual Cost of Work Performed" (ACWP orsimply "Actual Cost" - AC).• You can plot other thing s as well, see diagram referred to above, and if you don't like what yousee then you need to take "Corrective Action".CommentaryThis whole process is a cyclic, situational operation and is probably the source of the term "cycle" in thepopularly misnamed "project life cycle".As an aside, the Earned Value pundits offer various other techniques within the EV process designed toaid in forecasting the final result, that is, the "Estimate At Completion" (EAC). EAC is what you shouldreally be interested in because it is the only constant in a moving project. Therefore, these extended EV techniques must be considered in thesame realm of accuracy as top-down estimating. They are useful, but only if you recognize thelimitations and know what you are doing!But, as we said at the beginning, it is a lot more difficult to do in practice – and involves a significantamount of work. But, let's face it, that's what project managers are hired for, right?中文译文：项目成本控制：它的工作方式R.马克斯怀德曼我们在最近的咨询任务中意识到，对于整个项目成本控制体系是如何设置和应用的这个问题，我们仍有一些缺乏了解。

工程造价毕业设计外文文献及译文外文文献：Construction Standards and CostsUC Irvine new construction pursues performance goals and applies quality standards that affect the costs of capital projects. Periodic re-examination of these goals and standards is warranted.Co nstruction costs are not “high〞or “low〞in the abstract, but rather in relation to specific quality standards and the design solutions, means, and methods used to attain these standards. Thus, evaluating whether construction costs are appropriate involves: • first, determining whether quality standards are excessive, insufficient, or appropriate;• second, determining whether resultant project costs are reasonable pared to projects with essentially the same quality parameters.“Quality〞enpasses the durability of building systems and finishes; the robustness and life-cycle performance of building systems; the aesthetics of materials, their position, and their detailing; and the resource-sustainability and efficiency of the building as an overall system.Overall Goals and Quality StandardsUC Irvine, in order to support distinguished research and academic programs, builds facilities of high quality. As such, UC Irvine’s facilities aim to convey the “look and feel,〞as well as embody the inherent construction quality, of the best facilities of other UC campuses, leading public universities, and other research institutions with whom we pete for faculty, students, sponsored research, and general reputation.Since 1992, new buildings have been designed to achieve these five broad goals:1. New bu ildings must “create a place,〞rather than constitute stand-alone structures, forming social, aesthetic, contextually-sensitive relationships with neighboring buildings and the larger campus.2. New buildings reinforce a consistent design framework of classical contextual architecture, applied in ways that convey a feeling of permanence and quality and interpreted in ways that meet the contemporary and changing needs of a modern research university.3. New buildings employ materials, systems, and design features that will avoid the expense of major maintenance (defined as >1 percent of value)for twenty years.4. New buildings apply “sustainability〞principles -- notably, outperforming Title 24 (California’s energy code) by at least 20 percent.5. Capital construction projects are designed and delivered within theapproved project budget, scope, and schedule.UC Irvine’s goals for sustainable materials and energy performance were adopted partly for environmental reasons, and partly to reverse substantial operating budget deficits. The latter problems included a multi-million dollar utilities deficit that was growingrapidly in the early ‘90s, and millions of dollars of unfunded major maintenance that was emerging prematurely in buildings only 10-20 years old. Without the quality and performance standards adopted in 1992, utilities deficits and unfunded major maintenance costs would have exceeded $20 million during the past decade, and these costs would still be rising out-of-control.UC Irvine’s materials standards, building systems standards, sustainability and energy efficiency criteria, and site improvements all add cost increments that can only be afforded through aggressive cost management. Institutions that cannot manage capital costs tend to build projects that consume excessive energy, that cost a lot to maintain, that suffer premature major maintenance costs, and that require high costs to modify. Such problems tend to pound and spiral downward into increasingly costly consequences.Every administrator with facilities experience understands this dynamic. Without effective construction cost management, quality would suffer and UC Irvine would experience all of these problems.The balance of this document outlines in greater detail the building performance criteria and quality standards generally stated above, organized according to building systems ponent classes. Each section discusses key cost-drivers, cost-control strategies, and important cost trade-offs. Design practices cited are consistently applied (although some fall short of hard and fast “rules〞).Building Organization and MassingConstruction cost management starts with the fundamentals of building organization andmassing. UC Irvine’s new structures’ floor plates tend to have length-to-width ratios<1.5, to avoid triggering disproportionate costs of external cladding, circulation, and horizontal mechanical distribution. Our new buildings tend to be at least three floors high -- taller if floor plate areas do not dip below a cost-effective threshold, and generally taller in the case of non-laboratory buildings (but not so tall that a high-rise cost penalty is incurred). Other design ratios are observed, such as exterior cladding area/floor area <0.5, and roof+foundation area/floor area <0.4.Architectural articulation is generally achieved through textured or enriched materials,integral material detailing (such as concrete reveal patterning), and applied detailing (e.g.,2window frames and sills), particularly at the building base. Large-scale articulation is concentrated at the roofline (e.g., shaped roof forms) and at the pedestrian level (e.g.,arcades), where it will “create the biggest bang for the buck,〞rather than through modulating the building form, itself. This is more than a subtle design philosophy, as the cost impact is substantial.Lab buildings pleted in the past decade separate laboratory and non-laboratory functions into distinct, adjoined structures (although such a building may look like one structure). Consolidated non-laboratory functions include faculty, departmental, staff,post-doc, and graduate student offices; restrooms; circulation (elevators, lobbies, primary stairways); classrooms, seminar rooms, conference rooms, and social areas designed tofoster interaction and to provide a safe area for eating and drinking; dry labs and dry lab support functions; and general administrative support.Consolidating these functions into a separate structure provides considerable cost savings:lower-cost HVAC (heating/ventilation/air-conditioning) system, wider column spacing, lower floor stiffness (less stringent vibration criterion), lower floor-loading,fewer fire-control features and other code requirements, steel-framed or steel/concrete hybrid structural system with concrete flat-slab flooring system, smaller footings, and(typically) curtain wall fenestration. This approach usually enables offices to have operable windows.This two-building approach can be seen clearly at Gillespie Neurosciences Building, the Sprague Building, Hewitt Hall, and the UCI Medical Center Health Sciences Laboratory,where consolidating and separating non-laboratory functions saved 7-10 percent in overall construction costs and 15 percent/year in energy expense. (The non-laboratory building incurs a small fraction of the energy expense of the laboratory block.)A set of design strategies, applied in bination, has proven effective in controlling the cost of laboratories:• Utilizing a consistent lab module• Utilizing a reasonable vibration criterion and locating ultra-sensitive conditions at-grade or employing benchtop vibration isolation• Using 22 ft. X 22 ft. column-spacing• Concentrating fume hoods and utility risers into a central “wet zone,〞thus limiting horizontal mechanical distribution• Concentrating laboratory support areas into the central core of a laboratory structure, where utilities are available but daylight is not needed, thus enablinglab structures to be 110-132 feet wide• Utilizing dual-usage circulation/equipment cross-corridors through this central lab support zone, with sufficient width (typically 11 feet) to line the corridors with shared equipment while providing cross-circulation through the lab support zone• Utilizing open laboratory layout with one or more “ghost〞corridors for intra lab circulation• And, most importantly, concentrating non-laboratory functions into an adjoining, lower-cost structure (as discussed in detail above).To further control laboratory construction costs, non-standard fume hood sizes are minimized, “generic〞lab casework is specified, laboratory-grade movable tables substitute for fixed casework in some lab bays, building DI systems provide intermediate water quality (with localized water purity polishing in the lab, rather than building-wide),facility-wide piped services do not include gases that can be cost-effectively provided locally via canisters, and glass-wash facilities are consolidated -- typically, one glass wash facility for an entire laboratory building.Finally, our design philosophy leans toward generic, modular laboratories supported by a robust building infrastructure, rather than highly customized spaces with limited capacity to make later changes. This is an important trade off. Although some post-occupancy expenses may be necessary to “fine-tune〞a laboratory to a PI’s requirements, building infrastructure elements – typically over sized twenty percent, including HVAC supply ducts, exhaust system capacity, emergency generator capacity, and electric risers and service capacity – seldom limit the ability to modify labs to meet researcher needs.Structural and Foundation SystemsFor both cost-benefit reasons and past seismic performance, UC Irvine favors concrete shear wall or steel braced-frame structural systems. The correlating foundation systems depend on site-specific soil conditions. Past problems with undiscovered substrates and uncharacterized soil conditions are minimized through extensive, pre-design soil-testing. This minimizes risk to both the University and the design/build contractor.When feasible, design/build contractors are allowed flexibility to propose alternate structural or seismic-force systems. All structural system designs must pass a peer review, according to Regents’ policy. This process results in conservative structural design, and an associated cost premium. However, the seismic performance of University of California buildings constructed since this policy went into effect in 1975 appears to substantiate the value of the Regents’ Seismic Revi ew Policy.Structural vibration is carefully specified in research buildings where vibration-sensitive protocols and conditions must be maintained on above-grade floors. The most cost effective tools to control vibration are generally employed: first, to program vibration sensitive procedures at on-grade locations or to isolate them at the bench; second, to space columns at a distance that does not entail excessive structural costs. In laboratory 4buildings we typically utilize 22 ft. X 22 ft. column-spacing. Conversely, where vibration is not problematic a beam/column system can be cost-optimized and lighter floor loading can be tolerated. Design/build contractors are, accordingly, allowed more flexibility under such conditions.To control costs, UC Irvine avoids use of moment-resisting structures; unconventionalseismic systems; non-standard structural dimensions; inconsistent, unconventional, or non-stacking structural modules; and non-standard means and methods.Roofs and FlashingsUC Irvine specifies 20 year roofing systems and stainless steel or copper flashings whenever possible. At minimum, we specify hot-dip galvanized flashings.Why this emphasis on flashings? Our roof replacement projects typically double in cost when the old roofing is torn off and it is determined that the flashings have deteriorated. Moreover, many roof leaks of recent years have been due to faulty flashings, rather than roofing membranes or coatings, per se. Saving money on flashings is false economy. Another special roofing expe nse we may have to incur in order to attain the Regents’ Green Building Policy is that of reflective roofing. It is too early to understand the potential cost impact.中文翻译：建立标准和本钱加州大学欧文分校新建筑追求性能目标和适用的质量标准,影响资本本钱的工程。

本科毕业论文外文文献及译文文献、资料题目China’s Pathway to Low-carbon Development 文献、资料来源：Journal of Knowledge-basedInnovation in China文献、资料发表（出版）日期：\院（部）：\院专业：\外文文献China’s Pathway to Low-carbon DevelopmentAbstractPurpose–The purpose of this paper is to explore China’s current policy and policy options regarding the shift to a low-carbon (LC) development.Design/methodology/approach – The paper uses both a literature review and empirical systems analysis of the trends of socio-economic conditions, carbon emissions and development of innovation capacities in China.Findings –The analysis shows that a holistic solution and co-benefit approach are needed for China’s transition to a green and LC economy, and that, especially for developing countries, it is not enough to have only goals regarding mitigation and adaptation. Instead, a concrete roadmap towards a LC future is needed that addresses key issues of technology transfer, institutional arrangements and sharing the costs in the context of a global climate regime. In this light, it is argued that China should adopt an approach for low-carbon development centred on carbon intensity reduction over the next ten years.Originality/value –The paper thus provides a unique summary, in English, of the arguments supporting China’s current low-carbon innovation policies from one of the authors of this policy. Keywords：Carbon, Sustainable development, Environmental management, Government policy, ChinaPaper type – Research paperClimate change has become the most significant environment and development challenge to human society in the twenty-first century. Responding to climate change is the core task to achieving global sustainable development, both for today and for a rather long period of time from today. International negotiations on prevention of global warming and related actions not only concern the human living environment, but also directly impact the modernization process of developing countries. Although the process of global climate protection depends on the consensus of our scientific awareness, political wills, economic intere sts, society’s level ofacceptance, as well as measures adopted, a low-carbon (LC) development path is, undoubtedly, the critical choice of future human development.The science basis of climate change and its extended political and economic implicationsGlobal warming of the climate system has become an unequivocal fact. According to a large amount of monitoring data, global average land surface temperature has risen 0.748C over the last century (IPCC, 2007a, b, c, d). And the rate of rising has been sped up. In the meantime, global average sea level has been constantly rising too. Global warming has posed a serious challenge to China’s climate, environment and development. In the global context of climate change, China’s climate and environment are changing too. For instance, in the last century, the land surface average temperature has witnessed an obvious increase; though the precipitation has not changed too much, its interdecadal variations and regional disparity have been big. In the last 50 years, there have also been major changes in the frequency and intensity of extreme weather and climate events (Editorial Board of China’s National Assessment Report on Climate Change, 2007).The IPCC (2007a, b, c, d) integrated assessment shows that since 1750, human activities have been a major cause of global warming, while in the last 50 years, most of the global warming is the consequence of human activities, with a probability of more than 90 per cent, in particular from the greenhouse gases (GHGs) emissions due to the human use of fossil fuels. It is forecast that before the end of the twenty-first century, global warming will continue, and how much the temperature will rise depends on what actions humans will take. According the Third Working Group Report of the IPCC fourth Assessment (IPCC, 2007a, b, c, d), human actions to mitigate climate change are feasible, both economically and technologically. Actions to deploy key mitigation technologies in various sectors, adopting policy and administrative interference and shifting the development pathway could all contribute greatly to mitigation of climate change.With China becoming the world’s largest CO2emitter, China faces increasing pressure to reduce its emissions. Being a responsible country, China will take actions to tackle climate change. When developing its mitigation target, China will consider such factors as level ofdevelopment, technology know-how, social impact, international image and a new international climate regime underpinned by fairness and effectiveness. China will move into a win-win development path to achieve climate protection, quality economic development and other related policy targets.To develop LC economy – background, opportunities and challengesAs illustrated above, systematic solutions are required to tackle climate change, due to the complexity of the global climate system as well as its coverage of broad social and economic issues. After nearly two decades’ exploration, human society has realized that in order to effectively mitigate and adapt to climate change, we have to fundamentally reduce our reliance on fossil fuels, which means that we have to achieve the shift to a LC future from the way we produce and consume to how global assets are allocated (including industries, technology, capitals and resources) and how they are transferred. From the perspective of the limited storage capacity of GHGs in the climate system as a global public good, both a high level of human wisdom and a new international climate regime to deal with market failure are required, which also demands the participation of all stakeholders and together they shall charter a new development pathway. Human society has to pay the economic prices to solve climate warming. Thus, the three flexible “mechanisms” in the Kyoto Protocol ( joint implementation, emissions trading and clean development mechanism) demonstrate a meaningful experiment for the Annex I countries to decrease their emissions reduction costs. What is needed is to move forward from where we are now to explore a more universally applicable mechanism that would effectively allocate the resources among the key responsible stakeholders. The LC development path embodies an integrated solution strategy. It aims to build up a LC society through LC economic development, tries to achieve the restructuring of all the key elements discussed above and offers new opportunities for human society in response to climate change through collaborations.As a fundamental venue to coordinate social and economic development, guarantee energy security and respond to climate change, development of LC economy is gradually gaining the needed consensus from more and more countries. Though without a fixed academic definition, the core of developing a LC economy is to establish a development pathway that has high-energyefficiency, low-energy consumption and low emissions. Under a fair and effective international climate regime, the efficiency of energy exploration, generation, transmission, transformation and use is expected to be increased greatly and energy consumption greatly reduced, so that the carbon intensity in energy supply for economic growth is dramatically reduced, along with the carbon emissions from energy consumption. Through increasing carbon sink and using carbon capture and storage (CCS) technology, the GHG emissions from fossil fuels that are hard to reduce can be offset. In the meanwhile, through the establishment of reasonable and fair technology transfer and financial support mechanisms, developing countries can undertake the costs of shifting towards LC patterns while being at the lowest end of the value chain in the international trade structure. The perspectives of development value need to be changed in order to promote the transition of consumption towards a sustainable and LC future.What needs to be clarified is that, due to the differences of various countries’ social and economic contexts, the starting points towards a LC future might vary, as might the pursued goals. For developed countries that are taking the lead to commit to reduction targets, their first objective to develop a LC economy is to reduce emissions. For developing countries whose economies are still at a fast growing stage, their first priority is development and their per capita energy consumption is expected to continue to grow. The objectives shall be multiple. At the current stage, it is hard to mainstream the climate change policies domestically. What is possible is to reduce energy intensity and increase carbon productivity in order to gradually decouple economic growth and carbon emissions. What is equally important is that there exist many uncertainties in development of LC economy, particularly for developing countries. Tremendous difficulties and barriers need to be overcome in the process. At the international level, the uncertainties of developing LC economy include:Costs and markets – at this moment we could hardly be able to estimate the whole costs that are required to develop a LC economy. It is far from being as simple as calculating the direct costs of adopting LC technologies. It also takes time to establish LC technology and product markets, especially now, when the global financial crisis has hit everyone hard and when no one can give a good estimate about when the world economy could turn around and recover; though many experts and scholars hold that the response to the long-term climate change could bring new opportunities to economic recovery (Stiglitz, 2009; Wang, 2008b). What makes the situationmore complicated now is how the USA, China, India and other key countries would participate in the establishment of a LC market.Establishment of a fair international climate regime and mid- to long-term targets to tackle climate change – the development of a LC economy also depends on the international climate negotiation process and its result, of which the most critical element is whether it will result in legally binding global emissions reduction targets and the corresponding mechanisms of technology transfer and financial support, even if this was not established at Copenhagen.To date, even though some EU countries have achieved the decoupling of economic growth and carbon emissions, LC economy has not generated universally applicable, successful experiences; and what those experiences mean to developing countries still needs to be figured out and tested overtime.For developing countries, the difficulties and barriers to devel oping a LC economy are obvious, including current stage of development, international trade structure, economic costs, inadequate market, technology diffusion system, institutional arrangement, incentive policy and management system. From the historic evolution of the relationship between economic growth and carbon emissions in industrialized countries, most countries experienced successively the inverted U-shape curves of carbon intensity, per capita carbon emissions, and then total carbon emissions. But different countries or regions vary greatly in economic development level or per capita gross domestic product (GDP) relative to the carbon emissions peak. This shows that there does not exist a single, exact turning point between economic growth and carbon emissions. If you examine those countries or regions that have passed the carbon emissions pe ak, roughly 24-91 years, on average 55 years, are required between the peak of carbon emissions intensity and that of per capita carbon emissions. Some driving forces to reach different peaks have been shown in Figure 1 in terms of experience in the past and scenario analysis in the future. The point is, without strong mandatory emissions reduction measures and external support, developing countries will need relatively longer time to reach the peak of carbon emissions growth and then stabilize and decreaseStrategic measuresOn the basis of the above-mentioned analysis, the LC path with Chinese characteristics shall also focus on gradually setting up “resource-e fficient, environment-friendly and LC-oriented” society. Guided by LC development strategy and its targets, efforts shall be made to develop relevant institutional arrangements, improve management systems, stipulate development plans, accumulate experience from demonstrations and pilots, and push forward LC economic development in an orderly manner, so that a sustainable and LC future can be shaped for China. Four major aspects are the key starting points to structure a LC social and economy system:(1) Establish a legal and regulatory framework addressing climate change and improving the macro-management system. The legislative feasibility and legal model of “Law to Address Climate Change” shall be debated and articulated. Also, in the legislation process of other laws and regulations, articles related to response to climate change shall be included. For instance, a technical guideline of strategic environmental assessment shall include articles related to climate change impact assessment. A legal and regulatory framework of responding to climate change will gradually emerge. Owing to the fact that China’s administrative authority in charge of climate change remains weak and lacks capability, first, the Leading Group of the State’s Response to Climate Change and Energy Saving and Pollution Reduction Work shall play its full roles when a more flexible and diverse departmental coordination mechanism is established; and the group shall put forward strategic measure recommendations in response to climate change. Second, capacity building shall be strengthened and more administrative resources shall be allocated, so that better preparation is made for the next round of government restructuring to further improve the administrative level of the government department in charge of climate change.(2) Establish long-acting mechanism framework of LC development and stipulate related LC development policies in an orderly manner. Institutional innovation is the key to embarking on a LC development path. China shall become more pragmatic in developing a long-term incentive mechanism and policy measures that are in favour of energy saving, environmental protection and climate protection, guided by the balanced development framework and achieve the LC transition at government and business levels. At this moment, many regions and citieshave expressed their interest and enthusiasm toward LC development. As well as the complexity of LC economy and the diversity of models, related guidelines shall be rolled out to guide the macro policy and regulate the content, model, direction of development and assessment indicator system of a LC economy. Experiences and lessons from other countries can be examined and learned in order to move forward LC development in an orderly and healthy manner. Special planning and programs shall be developed at national level, and then some representative regions and cities, as well as some key sectors, can be selected for LC piloting purpose. When the market matures, LC markets shall be set up through regulating the pricing mechanism and stipulating fiscal and incentive policies.(3) Strengthen collaboration and establish a healthy LC technology system. Technological innovation is the core element in LC development. Government shall adopt integrated measures to offer a relaxed and favourable policy environment for business development and create and provide better institutional guarantees for technological innovation. As a result, the R&D and diffusion of high-energy efficiency and LC emissions technologies can be strengthened in both production and consumption. A diverse LC technology system will be gradually built for energy saving and energy efficiency, clean coal and clean energy, renewable energy and new energy, as well as carbon sinks. The level of commercialization will be improved. Thus, a strong technological foundation will be provided for LC transition and shift in the ways of economic growth. China shall also further strengthen international collaboration, not only through the climate-related international cooperation mechanism to import, absorb and adopt advanced technologies from other countries, but more importantly, through participating in the stipulation of related internation al sectoral energy efficiency standards and standard of carbon intensity, as well as benchmarking. China could consider voluntary or mandatory benchmarking management to elevate some key LC technologies, equipment and products to international leadership level.(4) Establish collaboration mechanism with all stakeholders’ participation.Low-carbon development is not just for government or business; instead, it requires all related stakeholders’ as well as the whole society’s participation. Owing to the fact that there exist some inadequacies in the general public’s awareness of climate change, publicity, education and training are required in combination with policy incentives to transform the public’s perception and thinking, increase the public’s awareness on response to climate change and gradually reach consensus on focusing onLC consumption behaviours and models. Joint actions with all the stakeholders are needed to resist the potential risks from climate change.References：EIA (2008), International Energy Outlook, EIA, USDOE, Washington, DC.He, J. (2008), “Addressing climate change through developing low carbon economy”, Keynote Speech in Sino-Danish Forum on Climate Change, Beijing October 23. IEA (2008), World Energy Outlook 2008, IEA, Paris.IPCC (2007a), Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, available at: www.ipcc.chIPCC (2007b), Climate Change 2007: Mitigation of Climate Change, available at: www.ipcc.ch IPCC (2007c), Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report, available at:www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/syr/ar4_syr.pdfIPCC (2007d), Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basic, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Jiang, K. (2007), “A scenario research on China’s greenhouse gas emissions”,International Climate Change Regime: A Study on Key Issues in China, China Environmental Sciences Press, Beijing, pp. 8-24.Stiglitz, J.E. (2009), “Three ways to global economic recovery”, available at:/pl/2009-01-13/082317033320.shtmlWang, Y. (2008a), “A low carbon path with Chinese characteristics”,Greenleaf, No. 8, pp.46-52.Wang, Y. (2008b), Summary of Sino-Danish Forum on Climate Change: Not to Delay Climate Change Progress by Financial Crisis, available at: /news/gjcj/200810/t1981142.htm中文翻译：中国低碳发展的途径摘要：目的：这篇论文的是探索中国现存的政策和针对低碳发展政策的其他可选方向。

工程造价论文中英文资料对照外文翻译This paper focuses on the risk analysis of nal n XXX the unique risks associated with nal n projects。

including political。

economic。

and cultural risks。

It then outlines the XXX a risk analysis。

including risk n。

risk assessment。

and XXX.nXXX。

XXX by a range of unique risks that must be XXX for risk management in nal n projects.Unique Risks Associated with nal n ProjectsXXX are subject to a range of unique risks that are not present in XXX。

economic uncertainty。

cultural differences。

and legal XXX can impact the project。

Economic uncertainty XXX。

n。

or XXX project stakeholders。

while legal issues XXX.Risk Analysis ProcessThe risk analysis process involves several steps。

including risk n。

risk assessment。

and XXX all potential risks that couldimpact the project。

This can be done through brainstorming ns。

工程造价专业外文文献翻译(中英文对照外文文献：Project Cost Control: The Way it WorksBy R. Max WidemanIn a recent consulting assignment we realized that there was some lack of understanding of the whole system of project cost control, how it is setup and applied. So we decided to write up a description of how it works. Project cost control is not that difficult to follow in theory.First you establish a set of reference baselines. Then, as work progresses, you monitor the work, analyze the findings, forecast the end results and compare those with the reference baselines. If the end results are not satisfactory then you make adjustments as necessary to the work in progress, and repeat the cycle at suitable intervals. If the end results get really out of line with the baseline plan, you may have to change the plan. More likely, there will be (or have been) scope changes that change the reference baselines which means that every time that happens you have to change the baseline plan anyway.But project cost control is a lot more difficult to do in practice, as is evidenced by the number of projects that fail to contain costs. It also involves a significant amount of work, as we shall see, and we might as well start at the beginning. So let us follow the thread of project cost control through the entire project life span.And, while we are at it, we will take the opportunity to point out the proper places for several significant documents. These include the Business Case, the Request for (a capital) Appropriation (for execution), Work Packages and the Work Breakdown Structure, the Project Charter (or Brief), the Project Budget or Cost Plan, Earned Value and the Cost Baseline. All of these contribute to the organization's ability to effectively control project costs.FootnoteI am indebted to my friend Quentin Fleming, the guru of Earned Value, for checking and correcting my work on this topic.The Business Case and Application for (execution) FundingIt is important to note that project cost control is most effective when the executive management responsible has a good understanding of how projects should unfold through the project life span. This means that they exercise their responsibilities at the key decision pointsbetween the major phases. They must also recognize the importance of project risk management for identifying and planning to head off at least the most obvious potential risk events.In the project's Concept Phase• Every project starts with someone identifying an opportunity or need. That is usually someone of importance or influence, if the project is to proceed, and that person often becomes theproject's sponsor.• To determine the suitability of the potential project, most organizations call for the preparation of a "Business Case" and its "Order of Magnitude" cost to justify the value of the project so that it can be compared with all the other competing projects. This effort is conducted in the Concept Phase of the project and is done as a part of the organization's management of the entire project portfolio.• The cost of the work of preparing the Business Case is usually covered by corporate management overhead, but it may be carried forward as an accounting cost to the eventual project. No doubt because this will provide a tax benefit to the organization. The problem is, how do you then account for all the projects that are not so carried forward?• If the Business case has sufficient merit, approval will be given to proceed to a Development and Definition phase.In the project's Development or Definition Phase• The objective of the Development Phase is to establish a good understanding of the work involved to produce the required product, estimate the cost and seek capital funding for the actual execution of the project.• In a formalized set ting, especially where big projects are involved, this application for funding is often referred to as a Request for (a capital) Appropriation (RFA) or Capital Appropriation Request (CAR).• This requires the collection of more detailed requirements and da ta to establish what work needs to be done to produce the required product or "deliverable". From this information, a plan is prepared in sufficient detail to give adequate confidence in a dollar figure to be included in the request.• In a less formalized setting, everyone just tries to muddle through.Work Packages and the WBSThe Project Management Plan, Project Brief or Project Charter• If the deliverable consists of a number of different elements, these are identified and assembled into Work Packages (WPs) and presented in the form of a Work Breakdown Structure (WBS). • Each WP involves a set of activities, the "work" that is planned and scheduled as a part of the Project Management Plan. Note, however, that the planning will still be at a relatively high level, and more detailed planning will be necessary during execution if the project is given the go ahead. • This Project Management Plan, by the way, should become the "bible" for the execution phase of the project and is sometimes referred to as the "Project Brief" or the "Project Charter".• The cost of doing the various activities is then estimated and these estimated costs are aggregated to determine the estimated cost of the WP. This approach is known as "detailed estimating" or "bottom up estimating". There are other approaches to estimating that we'll cometo in a minute. Either way, the result is an estimated cost of the total work of the project.Note: that project risk management planning is an important part of this exercise. This should examine the project's assumptions and environmental conditions to identify any weaknesses in the plan thus far, and identify those potential risk events that warrant attention for mitigation. This might take the form of specific contingency planning, and/or the setting aside of prudent funding reserves.Request for capitalConverting the estimate• However, an estimate of the work alone is not sufficient for a capital request. To arrive at a capital request some conversion is necessary, for example, by adding prudent allowances such as overheads, a contingency allowance to cover normal project risks and management reserves to cover unknowns and possible scope changes.• In addition, it may be necessary to convert the estimating data into a financial accou nting format that satisfies the corporate or sponsor's format for purposes of comparison with other projects and consequent funding approval.• In practice all the data for the type of "bottom up" approach just described may not be available. In this case alternative estimating approaches are adopted that provide various degrees of reliability in a "top down" fashion. For example:Order of Magnitude estimate – a "ball park" estimate, usually reserved for the concept phase onlyAnalogous estimate – an estimate based on previous similar projectsParametric estimate – an estimate based on statistical relationships in historical data• Whichever approach is adopted, hopefully the sum thus arrived at will be approved in full and proves to be satisfactory! This is the trigger to start the Execution Phase of the projectNote: Some managements will approve some lesser sum in the mistaken belief that this will help everyone to "sharpen their pencils" and "work smarter" for the benefit of the organization. This is a mistaken belief because management has failed to understand the nature of uncertainty and risk in project work. Consequently, the effect is more likely to result in "corner cutting" with an adverse effect on product quality, or reduced product scope or functionality. This often leads to a "game" in which estimates are inflated so that management can adjust them downwards. But to be fair, management is also well aware that if money is over allocated, it will get spent anyway. The smart thing for managements to do is to set aside contingent reserve funds, varying with the riskiness of the project, and keep that money under careful control.Ownership of approved capital• If senior management approves the RFA as presented, the sum in question becomes the responsibility of the designated project sponsor. However, if the approved capital request includes allowances such as a "Management Reserve", this may or may not be passed on to the project's sponsor, depending on the policies of the organization.• For the approved RFA, the project sponsor will, in turn, further delegate expenditure authority to the project's project manager and will likely not include any of the allowances. An exception might be the contingency allowances to cover the normal variations in work performance.• The net sum thus arrived at constitutes the project manager's Approved Project Budget.Note: If management does not approve the RFA, you should not consider this a project failure. Either the goals, objectives, justification and planning need rethinking to increase the value of the project's deliverables, or senior management simply has higher priorities elsewhere for the available resources and funding.The Project's Execution PhaseThe project manager's Project Budget responsibility• Once this Approved Project Budget is released to the project manager, a reverse process must take place to convert it into a working control document. That is, the money available must be divided amongst the various WBS WPs that, by the way, have probably by now been upgraded! This results in a project execution Control Budget or Project Baseline Budget, or simply, the Project Budget. In some areas of project management application it is referred to as a Project Cost Plan.• On a large project where differe nt corporate production divisions are involved, there may be a further intermediate step of creating "Control Accounts" for the separate divisions, so that each division subdivides their allocated money into their own WBS WPs.• Observe that, since the tot al Project Budget received formal approval from Executive Management, you, as project manager, must likewise seek and obtain from Executive Management, via the project's sponsor, formal approval for any changes to the total project budget. Often this is only justified and accepted on the basis of a requested Product Scope Change.• In such a case the project's sponsor will either draw down on the management reserve in his or her possession, or submit a supplementary RFA to upper management.• Now that we ha ve the Project Budget money allocated to Work Packages we can further distribute it amongst the various activities of each WP so that we know how much money we have as a "Baseline" cost for each activity.• This provides us with the base of reference for t he cost control function. Of course, depending on the circumstances the same thing may be done at the WP level but the ability to control is then at a higher and coarser level.Use of the Earned Value technique• If we have the necessary details another control tool that we can adopt for monitoring ongoing work is the "Earned Value" (EV) technique. This is a considerable art and science that you must learn about from texts dedicated to the subject.• But essentially, you take the costs of the schedule act ivities and plot them as a cumulative total on the appropriate time base. Again you can do this at the activity level, WP level or the whole project level. The lower the level the more control information you have available but the more work you get involved in.The Cost Baseline• This planned reference S-curve is sometimes referred to as the "Cost Baseline", typically in EV parlance. That is, it is the "Budgeted Cost of Work Scheduled" (BCWS), or more simply the "Planned Value" (PV).• Observe that you need to modify this Cost Baseline every time there is an approved scope change that has cost and/or schedule implications and consequently changes the project's Approved Project Budget.• Now, as the work progresses, you can plot the "Actual Cost of Work Per formed" (ACWP or simply "Actual Cost" - AC).• You can plot other things as well, see diagram referred to above, and if you don't like what you see then you need to take "Corrective Action".CommentaryThis whole process is a cyclic, situational operation and is probably the source of the term "cycle" in the popularly misnamed "project life cycle".As an aside, the Earned Value pundits offer various other techniques within the EV process designed to aid in forecasting the final result, that is, the "Estimate At Completion" (EAC). EAC is what you should really be interested in because it is the only constant in a moving project. Therefore, these extended EV techniques must be considered in the same realm of accuracy as top-down estimating. They are useful, but only if you recognize the limitations and know what you are doing!But, as we said at the beginning, it is a lot more difficult to do in practice – and involves a significant amount of work. But, let's face it, that's what project managers are hired for, right?中文译文：项目成本控制：它的工作方式R.马克斯怀德曼我们在最近的咨询任务中意识到，对于整个项目成本控制体系是如何设置和应用的这个问题，我们仍有一些缺乏了解。

外文文献：Project Cost Control: The Way it WorksBy R. Max WidemanIn a recent consulting assignment we realized that there was some lack of understanding of the whole system of project cost control, how it is setup and applied. So we decided to write up a description of how it works. Project cost control is not that difficult to follow in theory.First you establish a set of reference baselines. Then, as work progresses, you monitor the work, analyze the findings, forecast the end results and compare those with the reference baselines. If the end results are not satisfactory then you make adjustments as necessary to the work in progress, and repeat the cycle at suitable intervals. If the end results get really out of line with the baseline plan, you may have to change the plan. More likely, there will be (or have been) scope changes that change the reference baselines which means that every time that happens you have to change the baseline plan anyway.But project cost control is a lot more difficult to do in practice, as is evidenced by the number of projects that fail to contain costs. It also involves a significant amount of work, as we shall see, and we might as well start at the beginning. So let us follow the thread of project cost control through the entire project life span.And, while we are at it, we will take the opportunity to point out the proper places for several significant documents. These include theBusiness Case, the Request for (a capital) Appropriation (for execution), Work Packages and the Work Breakdown Structure, the Project Charter (or Brief), the Project Budget or Cost Plan, Earned Value and the Cost Baseline. All of these contribute to the organization's ability to effectively control project costs.FootnoteI am indebted to my friend Quentin Fleming, the guru of Earned Value, for checking and correcting my work on this topic.The Business Case and Application for (execution) FundingIt is important to note that project cost control is most effective when the executive management responsible has a good understanding of how projects should unfold through the project life span. This means that they exercise their responsibilities at the key decision points between the major phases. They must also recognize the importance of project risk management for identifying and planning to head off at least the most obvious potential risk events.In the project's Concept Phase• EvEry projEct starts with somEonE idEntifying an opportunity or need. That is usually someone of importance or influence, if the project is to proceed, and that person often becomes the project's sponsor.• to dEtErminE thE suitability of thE potEntial projEct, most organizations call for the preparation of a "Business Case" and its"Order of Magnitude" cost to justify the value of the project so that it can be compared with all the other competing projects. This effort is conducted in the Concept Phase of the project and is done as a part of the organization's management of the entire project portfolio.• thE cost of thE work of preparing the Business Case is usually covered by corporate management overhead, but it may be carried forward as an accounting cost to the eventual project. No doubt because this will provide a tax benefit to the organization. The problem is, how do you then account for all the projects that are not so carried forward?• if thE businEss casE has sufficiEnt mErit, approval will bE givEn to proceed to a Development and Definition phase.In the project's Development or Definition Phase• thE objEctivE of t he Development Phase is to establish a good understanding of the work involved to produce the required product, estimate the cost and seek capital funding for the actual execution of the project.• in a formalizEd sEtting, EspEcially whErE big projEcts arE involved, this application for funding is often referred to as a Request for (a capital) Appropriation (RFA) or Capital Appropriation Request (CAR).• this rEquirEs thE collEction of morE dEtailEd rEquirEmEnts and data to establish what work needsto be done to produce the required product or "deliverable". From this information, a plan is prepared in sufficient detail to give adequate confidence in a dollar figure to be included in the request.• in a lEss formalizEd sEtting, EvEryonE just triEs to muddlE through.Work Packages and the WBSThe Project Management Plan, Project Brief or Project Charter• if thE dElivErablE consists of a numbEr of diffErEnt ElEmEnts, thEsE are identified and assembled into Work Packages (WPs) and presented in the form of a Work Breakdown Structure (WBS).• Each wp involvEs a sEt of activitiEs, thE "work" that is plannEd and scheduled as a part of the Project Management Plan. Note, however, that the planning will still be at a relatively high level,and more detailed planning will be necessary during execution if the project is given the go ahead.• this projEct managEmEnt plan, by thE way, should bEcomE thE "bible" for the execution phase of the project and is sometimes referred to as the "Project Brief" or the "Project Charter".• thE cost of doing thE various activitiEs is thEn EstimatEd and thEsE estimated costs are aggregated to determine the estimated cost of the WP. This approach is known as "detailed estimating" or "bottom up estimating". There are other approaches to estimating that we'll come to in a minute. Either way, the result is an estimated cost of the totalwork of the project.Note: that project risk management planning is an important part of this exercise. This should examine the project's assumptions and environmental conditions to identify any weaknesses in the plan thus far, and identify those potential risk events that warrant attention for mitigation. This might take the form of specific contingency planning, and/or the setting aside of prudent funding reserves.Request for capitalConverting the estimate• howEvEr, an EstimatE of thE work alonE is not sufficiEnt for a capital request. To arrive at a capital request some conversion is necessary, for example, by adding prudent allowances such as overheads, a contingency allowance to cover normal project risks and management reserves to cover unknowns and possible scope changes.• in addition, it may bE nEcEssary to convErt thE Estimating data into a financial accounting formatthat satisfies the corporate or sponsor's format for purposes of comparison with other projects and consequent funding approval.• in practicE all thE data for thE typE of "bottom up" approach just described may not be available.In this case alternative estimating approaches are adopted that provide various degrees of reliability in a "top down" fashion. Forexample:Order of Magnitude estimate – a "ball park" estimate, usually reserved for the concept phase onlyAnalogous estimate – an estimate based on previous similar projects Parametric estimate –an estimate based on statistical relationships in historical data• whichEvEr approach is adoptEd, hopEfully thE sum thus arrivEd at will be approved in full and proves to be satisfactory! This is the trigger to start the Execution Phase of the projectNote: Some managements will approve some lesser sum in the mistaken belief that this will help everyone to "sharpen their pencils" and "work smarter" for the benefit of the organization. This is a mistaken belief because management has failed to understand the nature of uncertainty and risk in project work. Consequently, the effect is more likely to result in "corner cutting" with an adverse effect on product quality, or reduced product scope or functionality. This often leads to a "game" in which estimates are inflated so that management can adjust them downwards. But to be fair, management is also well aware that if money is over allocated, it will get spent anyway. The smart thing for managements to do is to set aside contingent reserve funds, varying with the riskiness of the project, and keep that money under careful control.Ownership of approved capital• if sEnior managEmEnt approvEs thE rfa as prEsEntEd, thE sum in question becomes the responsibility of the designated project sponsor. However, if the approved capital request includes allowances such as a "Management Reserve", this may or may not be passed on to the project's sponsor, depending on the policies of the organization.• for thE approvEd rfa, thE projEct sponsor will, in turn, further delegate expenditure authority to the project's project manager and will likely not include any of the allowances. An exception might be the contingency allowances to cover the normal variations in work performance.• thE nEt sum thus arrivEd at constitutes the project manager's Approved Project Budget.Note: If management does not approve the RFA, you should not consider this a project failure. Either the goals, objectives, justification and planning need rethinking to increase the value of the project's deliverables, or senior management simply has higher priorities elsewhere for the available resources and funding.The Project's Execution PhaseThe project manager's Project Budget responsibility• oncE this approvEd projEct budgEt is rElEas ed to the project manager, a reverse process must take place to convert it into a working control document. That is, the money available must be divided amongstthe various WBS WPs that, by the way, have probably by now been upgraded! This results in a project execution Control Budget or Project Baseline Budget, or simply, the Project Budget. In some areas of project management application it is referred to as a Project Cost Plan.• on a largE projEct whErE diffErEnt corporatE production divisions are involved, there may be a further intermediate step of creating "Control Accounts" for the separate divisions, so that each division subdivides their allocated money into their own WBS WPs.• obsErvE that, sincE thE total projEct budgEt rEcEivEd formal approval from Executive Management, you, as project manager, must likewise seek and obtain from Executive Management, via the project's sponsor, formal approval for any changes to the total project budget. Often this is only justified and accepted on the basis of a requested Product Scope Change.• in such a casE thE projEct's sponsor will EithEr draw down on thE management reserve in his or her possession, or submit a supplementary RFA to upper management.• now that wE havE thE projEct budgEt monEy allocatEd to Work Packages we can further distribute it amongst the various activities of each WP so that we know how much money we have as a "Baseline" cost for each activity.• this providEs us with thE basE of rEfErEncE for thE cost controlfunction. Of course, depending on the circumstances the same thing may be done at the WP level but the ability to control is then at a higher and coarser level.Use of the Earned Value technique• if wE havE thE nEcEssary dEtails anothEr control tool that wE can adopt for monitoring ongoing work is the "Earned Value" (EV) technique. This is a considerable art and science that you must learn about from texts dedicated to the subject.• but EssEntially, you takE thE costs of thE schEdulE activitiEs and plot them as a cumulative total on the appropriate time base. Again you can do this at the activity level, WP level or the whole project level. The lower the level the more control information you have available but the more work you get involved in.The Cost Baseline• this plannEd reference S-curve is sometimes referred to as the "Cost Baseline", typically in EVparlance. That is, it is the "Budgeted Cost of Work Scheduled" (BCWS), or more simply the "Planned Value" (PV).• Observe that you need to modify this Cost Baseline every time there is an approved scope change that has cost and/or schedule implications and consequently changes the project's Approved Project Budget.• now, as thE work progrEssEs, you can plot thE "actual cost of workPerformed" (ACWP or simply "Actual Cost" - AC).• you can plot othEr things as wEll, sEE diagram rEfErrEd to abovE, and if you don't like what you see then you need to take "Corrective Action".CommentaryThis whole process is a cyclic, situational operation and is probably the source of the term "cycle" in the popularly misnamed "project life cycle".As an aside, the Earned Value pundits offer various other techniques within the EV process designed to aid in forecasting the final result, that is, the "Estimate At Completion" (EAC). EAC is what you should really be interested in because it is the only constant in a moving project. Therefore, these extended EV techniques must be considered in the same realm of accuracy as top-down estimating. They are useful, but only if you recognize the limitations and know what you are doing!But, as we said at the beginning, it is a lot more difficult to do in practice –and involves a significant amount of work. But, let's face it, that's what project managers are hired for, right?中文译文：项目成本控制：它的工作方式R.马克斯怀德曼我们在最近的咨询任务中意识到，对于整个项目成本控制体系是如何设置和应用的这个问题，我们仍有一些缺乏了解。

英文文献Engineering cost managementProject cost control emphasis should be transferred to the project construction early days, is transferred to the project decision and design stage. Project cost control in construction projects throughout the entire process, the key lies in the pre construction investment decision-making with design phase, whereas in the investment decision is made, the key lies in designing. According to expert analysis: architectural design, in the preliminary design stage, design stage, construction design stage to the engineering effect were 75% ~ 95%, 35% ~ 75%, 5% ~ 35%; while in the construction phase, through the optimization of construction organization design, construction cost saving the possibility of only 5% to 10%. We should put the focus shifted to the design stage, in order to get twice the result with half the effort.Pay attention to the technical and economic optimization combination. The combination of technology with economy is most effective way to control engineering cost. China engineering fields for a long time did not do this. The lack of technical personnel economy idea, design thought is conservative, the design of the outcome of the economy are not fully reflect. Therefore, we should solve the problem is to improve economic efficiency as the goal, in the construction process, organization, technology and economy organic ground union rises. Through the economic analysis, comparative study and effect evaluation, correct processing of advanced technology and reasonable in economy between the relation of unity of opposites, strive to advanced technology under the conditions of economic rational, reasonable in economy based on advanced technology.Carry out "limitation is designed" method. To be consciously put the application of value engineering to the specific design, actively promote quota design in engineering design contract, by way of bidding. This has been proven in practice is an effective way, it is not only an economic problem, more precisely a technical and economic problems. This "limitation is designed" to effectively control the project cost. In order to make the "limitation is designed" to achieve the desired objectives, should be involved in the design personnel must be experienced skilled economic designer. Their design results must be practical, advanced and reasonable cost. Control of engineering cost on the other hand is the need for comparison, because the outcome is a process of gradual improvement, and not to decide, so the comparison is a measure of its practical, advanced and economical means.Do good project cost control in the process. ( 1) compilation of economic and feasible construction scheme. Before construction, construction enterprises should be combined with the construction drawings and the actual situation at the scene, their mechanical equipment, construction experience, the management level and technical specification acceptance criteria, a set of practical and feasible construction scheme. The construction scheme is engineering implementation of the programme of action. ( 2) to technical personnel, materials, machinery and personnel staff communicationand coordination. In the process of construction, construction technology, materials and mechanical personnel should cooperate closely, understand each other, to management as the core, to reduce costs for the purpose of. ( 3) to the project completion settlement. Strict supervision system. Control project cost effectively, in the early phase of the project shall be subject to supervision (including cost management ) system. Through analyzing the design process of supervision, make the design more reasonable, cost control to limit the scope of, accomplish truly with the smallest investment maximize output.Strict supervision system. Control project cost effectively, in the early phase of the project shall be subject to supervision (including cost management ) system. Through analyzing the design process of supervision, make the design more reasonable, cost control to limit the scope of, accomplish truly with the smallest investment maximize output.To establish and perfect the independent project cost advisory body, cultivate a Zhi De have both engineering team. To establish a real sense of independent engineering cost consulting agencies. Through improving the laws and regulations, normative behavior, separate government functions from enterprise management, the establishment of independent business partnership, share-holding system, the limited responsibility system and other forms of organization, an industry-based, diversified services integrated project consulting company, build and development and reform the engineering cost intermediary service institutions, make construction project management of a gradual transition by an independent specialized agency in charge of project cost whole process tracking management, truly between owner and contractor plays an intermediary role. To strengthen engineering cost consulting industry association construction, establish project cost consulting industry self-discipline mechanism, and constantly improve the Engineering Cost Association in engineering cost consulting industry status, to be truly representative of the interests of the majority of the industry practitioners, government and enterprises to become connection link and the bridge. At the same time to strengthen the project cost specialty in higher education and in service education. As a result of project cost management in construction projects and various economic interests are closely related, and the whole social economic activities play a very important role, it requires the cost engineering technical personnel should have different levels of knowledge, in addition to their professional knowledge and have a deep understanding, also deal with the design content, design process, construction technology, project management, economic laws and regulations have a comprehensive understanding of. Therefore, the project cost management, project cost per unit of society groups, has already obtained a cost engineer qualification personnel, in order to carry out plan, has the goal, multiple levels of continuing education and training, to understand and master Chinese bilateral agreements with countries project cost technology, regulations, management system and its development trend, to expand domestic and foreign exchanges, and actively participate in international or regional engineering activities, improve their professional quality, so that the current practitioners in intelligentstructure, theory and working experience three aspects can meet the needs of engineering cost management. Cost engineering professionals need to strengthen their own learning, in addition to the professional knowledge to upgrade, should also work in combination with a broad understanding and master the relevant engineering and technical expertise, educational organizations and industry regulatory bodies constitute a complete education system, so as to the field of engineering senior talent development to create good conditions.中文译文：工程造价与管理工程造价控制重点应转移到项目建设的前期，即转移到项目决策和设计阶段。

工程造价论文中英文资料对照外文翻译Risk Analysis of the International Construction ProjectABSTRACTThis analysis used a case study methodology to analyse the issues surrounding the partial collapse of the roof of a building housing the headquarters of the Standards Association of Zimbabwe (SAZ). In particular, it examined the prior roles played by the team of construction professionals. The analysis revealed that the SAZ’s traditional construction project was generally characterized by high risk. There was a clear indication of the failure of a contractor and architects in preventing and/or mitigating potential construction problems as alleged by the plaintiff. It was reasonable to conclude that between them the defects should have been detected earlier and rectified in good time before the partial roof failure. It appeared justified for the plaintiff to have brought a negligence claim against both the contractor and the architects. The risk analysis facilitated, through its multi-dimensional approach to a critical examination of a construction problem, the identification of an effective risk management strategy for future construction projects. It further served to emphasize the point that clients are becoming more demanding, more discerning, and less willing to accept risk without recompense. Clients do not want surprise, and are more likely to engage in litigation when things go wrong.KEY WORDS:Arbitration, claims, construction, contracts, litigation, project and risk The structural design of the reinforced concrete elements was done by consulting engineers Knight Piesold (KP). Quantity surveying services were provided by Hawkins, Leshnick & Bath (HLB). The contract was awarded to Central African Building Corporation (CABCO) who was also responsible for the provision of a specialist roof structure using patented “gang nail” roof trusses. The building construction proceeded to completion and was handed over to the owners on Sept. 12, 1991. The SAZ took effective occupation of the headquarters building without a certificate of occupation. Also, the defects liability period was only three months .The roof structure was in place 10 years before partial failure in December 1999. The building insurance coverage did not cover enough, the City of Harare, a government municipality, issued the certificate of occupation 10 years after occupation, and after partial collapse of the roof .At first the SAZ decided to go to arbitration, but this failed to yield an immediate solution. The SAZ then decided to proceed to litigate in court and to bring a negligence claim against CABCO. The preparation for arbitration was reused for litigation. The SAZ’s quantified losses stood at approximately $ 6 million in Zimbabwe dollars (US $1.2m) .After all parties had examined the facts and evidence before them, it became clear that there was a great probability that the courts might rule that both the architects and the contractor were liable. It was at this stage that the defendants’ lawyers requested that the matter be settled out of court. The plaintiff agreed to this suggestion, with the terms of the settlement kept confidential .The aim of this critical analysis was to analyse the issues surrounding the partial collapse of the roof of the building housing the HQ of Standard Association of Zimbabwe. It examined the prior roles played by the project management function and construction professionals in preventing/mitigating potential construction problems. It further assessed the extent to which the employer/client and parties to a construction contract are able to recover damages under that contract. The main objective of this critical analysis was to identify an effective risk management strategy for future construction projects. The importance of this study is its multidimensional examination approach.Experience suggests that participants in a project are well able to identify risks based on their own experience. The adoption of a risk management approach, based solely in past experience and dependant on judgement, may work reasonably well in a stable low risk environment. It is unlikely to be effective where there is a change. This is because change requires the extrapolation of past experience, which could be misleading. All construction projects are prototypes to some extent and imply change. Change in the construction industry itself suggests that past experience is unlikely tobe sufficient on its own. A structured approach is required. Such a structure can not and must not replace the experience and expertise of the participant. Rather, it brings additional benefits that assist to clarify objectives, identify the nature of the uncertainties, introduces effective communication systems, improves decision-making, introduces effective risk control measures, protects the project objectives and provides knowledge of the risk history .Construction professionals need to know how to balance the contingencies of risk with their specific contractual, financial, operational and organizational requirements. Many construction professionals look at risks in dividually with a myopic lens and do not realize the potential impact that other associated risks may have on their business operations. Using a holistic risk management approach will enable a firm to identify all of the organization’s business risks. This wi ll increase the probability of risk mitigation, with the ultimate goal of total risk elimination .Recommended key construction and risk management strategies for future construction projects have been considered and their explanation follows. J.W. Hinchey stated that there is and can be no ‘best practice’ standard for risk allocation on a high-profile project or for that matter, any project. He said, instead, successful risk management is a mind-set and a process. According to Hinchey, the ideal mind-set is for the parties and their representatives to, first, be intentional about identifying project risks and then to proceed to develop a systematic and comprehensive process for avoiding, mitigating, managing and finally allocating, by contract, those risks in optimum ways for the particular project. This process is said to necessarily begin as a science and ends as an art .According to D. Atkinson, whether contractor, consultant or promoter, the right team needs to be assembled with the relevant multi-disciplinary experience of that particular type of project and its location. This is said to be necessary not only to allow alternative responses to be explored. But also to ensure that the right questions are asked and the major risks identified. Heads of sources of risk are said to be a convenient way of providing a structure for identifying risks to completion of a participant’s part of the project. Effective risk management is said to require amulti-disciplinary approach. Inevitably risk management requires examination of engineering, legal and insurance related solutions .It is stated that the use of analytical techniques based on a statistical approach could be of enormous use in decision making . Many of these techniques are said to be relevant to estimation of the consequences of risk events, and not how allocation of risk is to be achieved. In addition, at the present stage of the development of risk management, Atkinson states that it must be recognized that major decisions will be made that can not be based solely on mathematical analysis. The complexity of construction projects means that the project definition in terms of both physical form and organizational structure will be based on consideration of only a relatively small number of risks . This is said to then allow a general structured approach that can be applied to any construction project to increase the awareness of participants .The new, simplified Construction Design and Management Regulations (CDM Regulations) which came in to force in the UK in April 2007, revised and brought together the existing CDM 1994 and the Construction Health Safety and Welfare (CHSW) Regulations 1996, into a single regulatory package.The new CDM regulations offer an opportunity for a step change in health and safety performance and are used to reemphasize the health, safety and broader business benefits of a well-managed and co-ordinated approach to the management of health and safety in construction. I believe that the development of these skills is imperative to provide the client with the most effective services available, delivering the best value project possible.Construction Management at Risk (CM at Risk), similar to established private sector methods of construction contracting, is gaining popularity in the public sector. It is a process that allows a client to select a construction manager (CM) based on qualifications; make the CM a member of a collaborative project team; centralize responsibility for construction under a single contract; obtain a bonded guaranteed maximum price; produce a more manageable, predictable project; save time and money; and reduce risk for the client, the architect and the CM.CM at Risk, a more professional approach to construction, is taking its place along with design-build, bridging and the more traditional process of design-bid-build as an established method of project delivery.The AE can review the CM’s approach to the work, making helpful recommendations. The CM is allowed to take bids or proposals from subcontractors during completion of contract documents, prior to the guaranteed maximum price (GMP), which reduces the CM’s risk and provides useful input to design. The procedure is more methodical, manageable, predictable and less risky for all.The procurement of construction is also more business-like. Each trade contractor has a fair shot at being the low bidder without fear of bid shopping. Each must deliver the best to get the projec. Competition in the community is more equitable: all subcontractors have a fair shot at the work .A contingency within the GMP covers unexpected but justifiable costs, and a contingency above the GMP allows for client changes. As long as the subcontractors are within the GMP they are reimbursed to the CM, so the CM represents the client in negotiating inevitable changes with subcontractors.There can be similar problems where each party in a project is separately insured. For this reason a move towards project insurance is recommended. The traditional approach reinforces adversarial attitudes, and even provides incentives for people to overlook or conceal risks in an attempt to avoid or transfer responsibility.A contingency within the GMP covers unexpected but justifiable costs, and a contingency above the GMP allows for client changes. As long as the subcontractors are within the GMP they are reimbursed to the CM, so the CM represents the client in negotiating inevitable changes with subcontractors.There can be similar problems where each party in a project is separately insured. For this reason a move towards project insurance is recommended. The traditional approach reinforces adversarial attitudes, and even provides incentives for people to overlook or conceal risks in an attempt to avoid or transfer responsibility.It was reasonable to assume that between them the defects should have been detected earlier and rectified in good time before the partial roof failure. It did appearjustified for the plaintiff to have brought a negligence claim against both the contractor and the architects.In many projects clients do not understand the importance of their role in facilitating cooperation and coordination; the design is prepared without discussion between designers, manufacturers, suppliers and contractors. This means that the designer can not take advantage of suppliers’ or contractors’ knowledge of build ability or maintenance requirements and the impact these have on sustainability, the total cost of ownership or health and safety .This risk analysis was able to facilitate, through its multi-dimensional approach to a critical examination of a construction problem, the identification of an effective risk management strategy for future construction projects. This work also served to emphasize the point that clients are becoming more demanding, more discerning, and less willing to accept risk without recompense. They do not want surprises, and are more likely to engage in litigation when things go wrong.国际建设工程风险分析摘要此次分析用实例研究方法分析津巴布韦标准协会总部（SAZ）的屋顶部分坍塌的问题。

工程造价外国文献及译文以下为工程造价相关的外国文献及译文：1. "Engineering Cost Estimation and Control" by Philip E. Kesler and John M. Meredith。

《工程造价估算与控制》（Philip E. Kesler和John M. Meredith 著）。

2. "Cost Engineering for Construction Projects" by Ronald Klemencic。

《建筑工程造价工程》（Ronald Klemencic著）。

3. "Cost Estimating and Analysis for Engineering and Management" by Phillip F. Ostwald。

《工程和管理的成本估算和分析》（Phillip F. Ostwald著）。

4. "Construction Cost Engineering" by Stephen R. Devlen。

《建筑工程造价工程》（Stephen R. Devlen著）。

5. "Project Cost Control in Action" by Kim Heldman and William R. Duncan。

《项目成本控制实践》（Kim Heldman和William R. Duncan著）。

6. "Cost Estimating and Contract Pricing" by Michael D. Dell'Isola。

《成本估算和合同定价》（Michael D. Dell'Isola著）。

7. "Engineering Economics and Economic Design for Process Engineers" by Thane Brown。

工程造价专业毕业外文文献、中英对照中文翻译：工程造价专业毕业外文文献工程造价专业是一种重要的工程技术专业，主要负责工程投资的评估、选择和控制工程项目成本，以及项目质量、进度和安全。

因此，工程造价专业需要具备丰富的知识和技能，包括工程建设、经济学、管理学、数学、统计学等方面。

为了提高工程造价专业学生的综合能力，学习外文文献是不可或缺的步骤。

本文将介绍几篇与工程造价专业相关的外文文献，并提供中英文对照。

1）《The Role of Quantity Surveyors in Sustainable Construction》该文研究了数量调查师在可持续建筑中的作用，并深入探讨了数量调查师在项目的可持续性评估、营建阶段和运营阶段的角色和责任。

该文指出，数量调查师可以通过成本控制、资源利用、和材料选择等方面促进可持续建筑的发展，为未来可持续发展提供支持。

中文翻译：数量调查师在可持续建筑中的作用2）《Cost engineering》该文研究了造价工程的理论和实践，并提供了一系列工具和方法用于项目成本的控制和评估。

该文还深入探讨了工程造价和项目管理之间的关系，并提供了一些实用的案例研究来说明造价工程的实际应用。

中文翻译：造价工程3）《Construction cost management: learning from case studies》该文通过案例分析的方式来探讨建筑项目成本管理的实践。

该文提供了多个案例研究，旨在向读者展示如何运用不同的方法来控制和评估项目成本，并阐述了思考成本问题时需要考虑的多个因素。

中文翻译：建筑项目成本管理：案例学习4）《Project Cost Estimation and Control: A Practical Guide to Construction Management》该书是一本实用指南，详细介绍了在工程起始阶段进行项目成本估算的方法和技巧，以及如何在项目执行阶段进行成本控制。

中英文对照外文翻译(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)The significance of control construction costs manages on entireprocessFirst, The necessary of control construction costs manages on entire process Talk about the management and the control on construction costs, that the field we are just accustomed to is thought of is a project advance in final account. Indeed , right away at present system and reality,what the job of that the management and the control on construction costs is advance in final account. Be that in advance, the people who work on final account according that already be ascertaied of the working drawing to calculate project amounts，apply a quota mechanically, the meter mechanically fetching cost, or designing that according to the drawing sheet and construction organization after construction is over as well as the scene construction visa takes notes weaves the final account being completed. This is necessary , useful no doubt. But we must see that when pre-final accounts personnel weave working drawing budget or the final account being completed, the construction plan and thedesign paper already determined. But construction being to take according to picture as principle, so then in advance, job done by final account personnel is only the change secretly scheming against cost produced by design alteration and prevents upvaluation from calculating boldly. But suppose the project is unreasonable on economy, there is a fault in decision-making; suppose designing a scheme feasible or be not optimum on the technology; the final account personnel can do nothing for sb then in advance. Job of final account personnel does accounts in advance only under just saying system currently in effect, after the event , can only reflect already complete project amounts inactively , can only reflect design and be under construction passively. This evidently is single-faceted , insufficient , we must carry out the entire proceeding supervisory control on the construction costs of building a project.Concrete conditions of union our country, cost of construction manages have problems as follows:1、Be not enough to take investment decision into the stage of construction costs seriously charge indeed.Investment decision is to produce the construction costs headstream, This one stage blow the expense at take up the total investment forehead about 0.5%～3%,but that can have an effect to raise the project benefit of investment. That the project carries out rational choice on construction is that resource carries out direct , the most important optimization deploy means on economy , project benefit of investment affects efficiency and beneficial result to entire national economy. The developed country charges attach importance to control on investment decision stage construction costs,and costs not stinting big capital of money making the studies on the stage of carrying out investment decision energetically, make relatively comparatively accurate construction costs , go along the controlFor a long time, there is the grave phenomenon investing in swelling in engineering construction of our country,bring the limit for a project feeling longer and longer, construction costs is higher and higher. The cause of that is short of the effective basis of the building of earlier stage ascertaining construction costs, only basis the already completed according to the expert , decision-makers draw lessons to estimate the project construction costs. Because a lot of factor effects, the“three surpass " phenomenon very common, there are main cause as follows:(1) personal factor brings about rough estimate lessening(2) equipment composes in reply material price's not working out according to market quotations.(3) construction units bring forward the too high for exceeding a design criterion 2、The design stage of construction costs is not under the control of strictThe design stage is the faucet in that project construction costs controls. After the investment decision is be made rationally , that is the process of plan the technology and organic together economly . Effective control the cost of construction requires strictly and all-round in the enginee designing . Engineering design of current our country also puts move bidding system , fair competition into practice , cost of construction looks on control engineering effective to design stage as one of thestandard choosing main part being hit by the bid unit , cost of construction carries out the administration controlling on the entire proceeding .Our country major part design that the unit carries out thorough analysis lack on construction project technology and economy , big multiple technologies make light of economy in design but at present , design that the personnel is responsible seemingly only to design project mass , are concerned with the construction costs height not very. Optimize a design plan to such an extent as having no way to pass, the first step designs , the rough estimate gets to the effect controlling general cost of construction's establishment. Mass and depth that engineering design pursues etc. is also insufficient , amounts project mistakes in amounts project detailed lists calculates , misses and not calculating, can't arouse increasing by estimating a project momentary, the mass making a tender work is difficult to ensure that , have no way to have an effect to control construction costs asa result also.3、Has not adopt the amounts project detailed list quoted price way being applied or used universally on the international all roundAdopt the amounts project detailed list quoted price way being put into use commonly on the international , is that our country construction costs system reforms and cause the inevitable trend reforming to bid system in invitation to bid tender.One of important act carrying out project public bidding system being to build socialist market economy and to perfect construction market operating mechanism in construction field. After the construction project tender is carried out all round in our country, the effect is obvious in the respect of shortening the mass building a time limit for a project , ensuring a project , reducing construction costs , boycotting an unhealthy tendency. Have ensured the invitation to bid people and bidder's lawful rights and interests also effectively. With the socialist market economy uninterrupted growth,the original tender stage puts the budget quota valuation pattern into practice already doing not adapting , adopt the amounts project detailed list quoted price way being put into use commonly on the international to carry out a tender is an inevitable trend. Ministry of Construction has issued amounts project detailed list valuation method , amounts project detailed list valuation has been in construction project tender job , person has provided project quantity from invitation to bid according to national unification project amounts calculation regulation , quoted price, and classics have judged the reason bidder autonomously trying the at a low price middle bid construction costs valuation pattern.That carrying out amounts project detailed list valuation method is one important measure of item of construction costs deepen the reform, is standard tender behavior effective measure. This method is beneficial to changing over taking that "amounts" ", "price" are "quota-consuming" as dominant static state managing a pattern , make project amounts in detailed list not enter competition, competition being confined to price only; Beneficial to rightness appraises enterprise strength; Project mass beneficial to ensuring that, reduces construction costs; May cut down the physical labour complicated and overloaded repeating the amounts calculating a project; Facilitate the tender quoted price job; Argue with the dispute back and forth in cutting down project settlement; Receive a track step by step with the convention "controllingamounts , guiding price , competing for a fee's on" the international, deepen the reformation that project valuation manages mainly according to the marketplace changes development, taking one's place on the international market for our country contracts business creates condition.4、The stage being under construction controls lack to construction costsWant to have strict control design alteration too in the stage being under construction. Guard the pass though that working drawing appears in joint trial or are able to have all sorts of problems, but call for to design a branch in the process of construction hard to avoid is strict out of the construction works complexity, the situation changing after avoiding doing first, is also that the weight avoiding break a rough estimate , effective control engineering of construction costs cost of construction plays with a link. At the same time, the sharpening contract manages , ensures equality and mutual benefit issuing contract of method and contracting method.5、The construction costs being completed settling a stage's controls a project inefficientlyThat the final account being completed is that entire construction costs is under the control of the most important one is encircled by construction works. How the final account being completed can reflect actual entire project cost of construction honestly , have also reflected the ability issuing contract of method and contracting method to construction costs administration , have finished handling a project in time the final account being completed must collect , arrange settling a data , pursuing , designing the certificate material changing notice , various warning including that the project is completed and so on being completed. These data collecting must pay attention to whose validity with obtaining evidence, specimen seal impression having designing personnel's signature and being related to if the design alteration advice note must be made known to lower levels by plain design organ. Scene inspection and control visa must label seal and the ratification going on a punitive expedition to such that designing a personnel etc. having construction site person in charge of first party. Great majority our country construction projects are completed in the project being under construction when the final account, during the period of the final account being completed contracting method , are are under construction contracting method calculating commonly much in the book being completed winding up an account , are issue contract of haggie just inexhaustible in devices and schemes , are dispute over trifles phenomenon is grave , project settlement drags repeatedly , some confirmation having drug once and , greatly, affecting engineering construction project sigmatism and building construction costs.A construction project includes the following procedure from brewing , planning , designing that to establishing completion and commissioning: Be that the project letter of advice stage , feasibility appraise the stage , design stage , the stage being under construction , acceptance check stage and the queen being completed estimate that.Correspondingly, the construction costs ascertaining that and the project construction phase job look at and appraise the stage adapting to , several being allotted in general for the following: The investment studying stage establishment inthe project letter of advice and feasibility is estimated, design stage establishment designs a rough estimate in the first step, budget designing that the stage weaves working drawing in working drawing, budget builds ampere of construction costs face to face with working drawing for basis tender project engineering contract, price is also that the form ascertains that with the business contract; Project amounts putting stage into practice being going to be completed according to contracting reality in project, takes contract price as basis , considers cost of construction rise aroused by inflation of prices at the same time , considers the project and cost being difficult to estimate that to designing middle but happening in putting stage reality into practice , the example is ascertained estimating price; All-in cost costing in the reality being completed checking and accepting a stage , assembling into engineering construction process middle all round, weaves the final account being completed , embodies the actual cost of construction that a construction project according to the facts."Four guess that two-valence "is interrelated , the former restricts the latter , the latter supplements the former.What is called, build the construction costs administration and control, it is the occurrence contracting the stage and construction in the investment decision stage , design stage , construction project putting stage into practice with construction construction costs to control within the cost of construction quota O. K. , correcting the deviation happening at any time, to ensure that the project manages the target realization , get fairly good benefit of investment and social benefits in an attempt being able to use manpower and material resources, financial resources rationally in building a project one by one.Second, the importance of the investment decision-making stage of project cost controlConstruction projects in the investment decision-making stage, the project of the techno-economic decision-making, as well as the cost of construction projects completed and put into production after the project cost-effective, have a decisive impact on the construction project cost control is an important stage. Project cost management as a decision-making stage in the feasibility study report shall be prepared, and economic evaluation of the proposed project, select the technically feasible and economically the construction of example programs and to optimize the construction program on the basis of the preparation of high-quality items investment is estimated that the project construction so that the real control of the project has played the role of total investment.The impact of the decision-making phase of the project cost are the main factors: a, the determine level of construction standards; b, the choice of built-up areas; c, building location (site) selection; d, project the economic scale; e, technology selection f, equipment selection .Such as the choice of built-up areas, there is a basic principle, that is close to raw materials, fuel and consumer principles. This project completed and put into production, you can avoid the raw materials, fuels, and finished the long-haul transport, reduce costs, lower costs; transportation distance may be shortened to reduce the flow of time, speed up cash flow and is conducive to business. If theproject's economic size, economies of scale, product standard is a reasonable means of production volume, a number of products under certain conditions, was "increasing returns" of economic phenomena, that is, with the expansion of production volume, unit cost reduction, revenue increase.Therefore, in order to phase in the investment decision-making control over project cost effective, we must do a good job in the following areas:(1) the implementation of construction project legal person responsibility system, the construction project from planning to implementation of the whole process of the use of funds and repayment responsibilities to people and projects at the same time establish a system of matching corporate oversight mechanisms, by the competent authorities and supervision of the industry sector establishment of a monitoring group to oversee the use of project funds.(2) to conduct market analysis and seeking truth from facts, to avoid the blindness of the project decision-making, reduce risk and lower investment, give full consideration to construction projects in the future competitiveness of the market so that more scientific book design and reliability(3) Capital financial capital must be committed to a formal document, investment funds must be put in place the parties, there must be a funding document to ensure that projects are implemented on schedule after approval. Conditions of the loans should be carefully analyzed and compared to minimize the interest burden and repayment pressure.(4) Strengthening of engineering geology, hydrogeology, as well as land, water, electricity, transport, environmental protection projects such as the work of the depth of the external conditions, so that there is sufficient basis to estimate the investment. At the same time, extensive research should be to compare similar projects, a serious functional analysis, comparison and choice of multi-program, a full-scale technical feasibility studies and economic evaluation, the finalization of technologically advanced, reliable, economical and rational project construction program in order to estimate more accurate and realistic estimate of the amount of investment in order to make the project cost from the start position in a more reasonable level.Third, the design phase of the importance of project cost controlMake investment decisions in the project, the project cost control is the key to the design. Design is in the technical and economic implementation of the proposed project to conduct a comprehensive arrangement, is also planning the construction process. Technologically advanced, economical and rational design can reduce the project construction period, savings investment, to improve efficiency. According to expert analysis, design fee generally equal to the construction of the project life-cycle cost of less than 1%, which costs less than 1% of project cost accounts for the impact of degrees above 75%. Because of the general construction projects, selection of materials and equipment accounted for more than 50% of the cost of the project, and in the design phase of architectural forms, structural type, the selection of equipment and materials have been identified in the construction of post-implementation phase, the impact of the project cost a small (10 % or less). This shows that the design quality is crucial to the entire projectThe same construction project, the same single unit of work can have different programs, which have different costs, it is therefore necessary to meet the function under the premise of doing a number of options, through technical comparison, economic analysis and efficiency evaluation, selection of technology selection into the application of economic and rational design, that is, the process of design optimization. Often used to optimize the design of the program, also known as the value of value engineering analysis, that is, as far as possible in meeting the functionality or improve the function of the premise, as far as possible to reduce costs.Occurred in the cost of all parts of the application of value engineering, construction investment will require a lot of people, financial, and material, and thus the value of engineering construction works great. For a rather mature and effective management methods, value engineering in a number of works have been widely used in construction.In the engineering design phase correctly handle the technical and economic relationship between the unity of opposites, we can control the key to investment, design and cost management must work closely with staff to make a lot of the technical and economic comparison, in the reduction and control of project efforts, engineering Cost management in the design process should be timely investment analysis on the comparison, the cost of information feedback and dynamic impact on the design, in order to ensure effective control over investment.At the design stage to project cost control should focus on the following aspects.(1) to promote the design and the design of the bidding campaign optimization design approachThe assessment team of experts using scientific methods, in accordance with applicable, economic, aesthetic principles, as well as technologically advanced, well-structured to meet the building energy saving and environmental requirements, a comprehensive assessment of the merits of design, selection of the best in determining the successful program. Estimates of selected investment program in general to be close to the scope of construction projects. The design of these two methods both contract design choice and competition, to ensure selection of the design of technologically advanced, innovative and unique, adaptable, and help control project cost. Design units should strive to improve their own quality, clever engineering design ideas, great care, in order to reduce the project cost more than their brains in order to improve design quality, and strive to put at the design stage in the approval of project cost control within the investment limits.(2) actively pursuing the design limitThe so-called cap design, is in accordance with the approved design of the book and investment is estimated that in the guarantee under the premise of the functional requirements. Preliminary design and budget control, in accordance with the approved budget for the preliminary design and total control of the construction design. Through the ceiling design, every professional, every designer has a target investment limit. During the design process, designers should be more into the program to compare and optimize the design, Not only to ensure that technically advanced and reasonable design, innovative aesthetics, but also the investment limit is not exceededthe target in order to put an end to the design of the project to raise the factor of safety and design standards, or only consider the feasibility of technical solutions, rather than the phenomenon of economic rationality to ensure effective cost control.(3) the implementation of the design of reward and punishment systemIn order to limit the design of the implementation into practice, the limit should be set up and sound system designed to reward and punishment. To limit the design is done well, cost savings and control of investment there is the effectiveness of the project legal person should be given appropriate incentives and design units. Design to limit the development of the internal design of assessment and incentive methods to limit attention to the design, made to save investment and effective cost control offices and the significant achievements of individuals, should be rewarding. Do not attach importance to limit the design, do not take measures to save the investment, resulting in more than a design limit investment offices and individuals should be given to economic penalties. Do reward and encourage designers to design deep potential economic importance to design the control of a reasonable project cost will be a major breakthrough.Fourth、the cost control of the implementation phase of construction project1, the bidding process stageThe implementation of construction project bidding is effective means of construction projects to control the implementation phase of the project cost. If we want To do a good job for bidding, the first we should make sure that qualification is clearance, and resolutely put an end to bribery, such as all the Phenomenon about destruction of all bidding discipline; Secondly, we should strengthen the bid management, to ensure the accuracy and confidentiality of bid preparation; Third, make sure the method of Evaluation and Calibration are Scientific .when select the successful projects as a standard we should concern about the reasonable, short period, reputable companies, construction considerations such as experience. when we evaluation, the first is technical standard assessment, the follow is business assessment,this can ensure open, fair and just.2, the construction phaseIn the construction phase construction ,the goles based on project budget or contract price of Civil works and installation works and project cost control of Civil works and installation works. At this stage the scope for savings has been small, but it is likely to lead to waste,this make us give them adequate attention for the control of project cost.(1) strengthen the technical and economic comparison of construction programConstruction is an important work of the design of constructing orgnization. Reasonable constructing program can shorten the period of constructing, ensure the quality of the project and enhance economic efficiency. Comparing and analysing the constructing program from technical and economic view and comparing the three techno-economic index of the quality, duration and cost through qualitative analysis and quantitative analysis can take good use of manpower, material and financial resources, achieving better economic benefits. Consequently, good construction management is an important way of all-round cost management.(2) a sound system design change Examination and approval systemIf design subject need to be change, we should take action as far as possible in advance, because the sooner the change, the smaller loss; Second, before each design ofchanges we must analysis the quality of project and cost, and this should receive the consent of the original design. If it breakthrough the total project cost estimates after the change, this must be approved by the review of the relevant departments, we should prevent these things happened such as increasing design elements ,improving the design standards, increasing the project cost.(3) check strictly with visa procedures of the project site we should Construct project management system , establish the specialized departments,and through the use of specialized management of professionals for the project, to avoid the phenomenon that project management staff just care visa only, take no concern about the economic accounts, resulting the serious consequences such as investment is out of control.For Seriously changes of visa procedures we should make the building side, supervision side, the construction site together representatives signed a manner to ensure that the authenticity of the visa, the rationality of the economy of changes and to avoid the disputes caused by the phenomenon of fraud.(4) do a good job in the completion of the audit settlement priceClearing refers to the completion of construction enterprises in accordance with the terms of the contract completed by the contractor within the engineering, land quality experience, and in accordance with the contract, the construction units to carry out the final project settlement price. Completion of the project audited settlement is approved in accordance with the construction of the project cost. Therefore, the completion of settlement of the audit is a very important work, should focus on the following:① check the accuracy of the project quantity.the check of project Quantity is the most important and most complicated, the most detailed work in process of the settle of completed project, this must be based on completion of the project plan, changed design and construction of the scene .it strictly in accordance with the provisions of the rules one by one in terms of project review to prevent the units of construction to increase the volume of inflated project cost in the settlement on completion of the project.② examine whether the additional apply is right . check the sub-projects listed in the price in line with the fixed unit price, check whether the name, specification, measurement units and the content consistent with the units of the valuation table; for the unit price of conversion, the first step is to check if the conversion price was fixed allowed, followed check if the conversion price is correct.③ check if the standards for the admission fee In line with the cost of the fixed and the cost of policies and regulations of the project during the construction.Fifth, the thinking and outlook of project cost management system From a long time, we generally ignore the the project cost control of preparatory work for the construction phase, and control projects often focus on the cost of the construction phase - the budget review working drawings and reasonable settlement。

工程造价论文中英文资料对照外文翻译Risk Analysis of the International Construction ProjectABSTRACTThis analysis used a case study methodology to analyse the issues surrounding the partial collapse of the roof of a building housing the headquarters of the Standards Association of Zimbabwe (SAZ). In particular, it examined the prior roles played by the team of construction professionals. The analysis revealed that the SAZ’s traditional construction project was generally characterized by high risk. There was a clear indication of the failure of a contractor and architects in preventing and/or mitigating potential construction problems as alleged by the plaintiff. It was reasonable to conclude that between them the defects should have been detected earlier and rectified in good time before the partial roof failure. It appeared justified for the plaintiff to have brought a negligence claim against both the contractor and the architects. The risk analysis facilitated, through its multi-dimensional approach to a critical examination of a construction problem, the identification of an effective risk management strategy for future construction projects. It further served to emphasize the point that clients are becoming more demanding, more discerning, and less willing to accept risk without recompense. Clients do not want surprise, and are more likely to engage in litigation when things go wrong.KEY WORDS:Arbitration, claims, construction, contracts, litigation, project and risk The structural design of the reinforced concrete elements was done by consulting engineers Knight Piesold (KP). Quantity surveying services were provided by Hawkins, Leshnick & Bath (HLB). The contract was awarded to Central African Building Corporation (CABCO) who was also responsible for the provision of a specialist roof structure using patented “gang nail” roof trusses. The building construction proceeded to completion and was handed over to the owners on Sept. 12, 1991. The SAZ took effective occupation of the headquarters building without a certificate of occupation. Also, the defects liability period was only three months .The roof structure was in place 10 years before partial failure in December 1999. The building insurance coverage did not cover enough, the City of Harare, a government municipality, issued the certificate of occupation 10 years after occupation, and after partial collapse of the roof .At first the SAZ decided to go to arbitration, but this failed to yield an immediate solution. The SAZ then decided to proceed to litigate in court and to bring a negligence claim against CABCO. The preparation for arbitration was reused for litigation. The SAZ’s quantified losses stood at approximately $ 6 million in Zimbabwe dollars (US $1.2m) .After all parties had examined the facts and evidence before them, it became clear that there was a great probability that the courts might rule that both the architects and the contractor were liable. It was at this stage that the defendants’ lawyers requested that the matter be settled out of court. The plaintiff agreed to this suggestion, with the terms of the settlement kept confidential .The aim of this critical analysis was to analyse the issues surrounding the partial collapse of the roof of the building housing the HQ of Standard Association of Zimbabwe. It examined the prior roles played by the project management function and construction professionals in preventing/mitigating potential construction problems. It further assessed the extent to which the employer/client and parties to a construction contract are able to recover damages under that contract. The main objective of this critical analysis was to identify an effective risk management strategy for future construction projects. The importance of this study is its multidimensional examination approach.Experience suggests that participants in a project are well able to identify risks based on their own experience. The adoption of a risk management approach, based solely in past experience and dependant on judgement, may work reasonably well in a stable low risk environment. It is unlikely to be effective where there is a change. This is because change requires the extrapolation of past experience, which could be misleading. All construction projects are prototypes to some extent and imply change. Change in the construction industry itself suggests that past experience is unlikely tobe sufficient on its own. A structured approach is required. Such a structure can not and must not replace the experience and expertise of the participant. Rather, it brings additional benefits that assist to clarify objectives, identify the nature of the uncertainties, introduces effective communication systems, improves decision-making, introduces effective risk control measures, protects the project objectives and provides knowledge of the risk history .Construction professionals need to know how to balance the contingencies of risk with their specific contractual, financial, operational and organizational requirements. Many construction professionals look at risks in dividually with a myopic lens and do not realize the potential impact that other associated risks may have on their business operations. Using a holistic risk management approach will enable a firm to identify all of the organization’s business risks. This wi ll increase the probability of risk mitigation, with the ultimate goal of total risk elimination .Recommended key construction and risk management strategies for future construction projects have been considered and their explanation follows. J.W. Hinchey stated that there is and can be no ‘best practice’ standard for risk allocation on a high-profile project or for that matter, any project. He said, instead, successful risk management is a mind-set and a process. According to Hinchey, the ideal mind-set is for the parties and their representatives to, first, be intentional about identifying project risks and then to proceed to develop a systematic and comprehensive process for avoiding, mitigating, managing and finally allocating, by contract, those risks in optimum ways for the particular project. This process is said to necessarily begin as a science and ends as an art .According to D. Atkinson, whether contractor, consultant or promoter, the right team needs to be assembled with the relevant multi-disciplinary experience of that particular type of project and its location. This is said to be necessary not only to allow alternative responses to be explored. But also to ensure that the right questions are asked and the major risks identified. Heads of sources of risk are said to be a convenient way of providing a structure for identifying risks to completion of a participant’s part of the project. Effective risk management is said to require amulti-disciplinary approach. Inevitably risk management requires examination of engineering, legal and insurance related solutions .It is stated that the use of analytical techniques based on a statistical approach could be of enormous use in decision making . Many of these techniques are said to be relevant to estimation of the consequences of risk events, and not how allocation of risk is to be achieved. In addition, at the present stage of the development of risk management, Atkinson states that it must be recognized that major decisions will be made that can not be based solely on mathematical analysis. The complexity of construction projects means that the project definition in terms of both physical form and organizational structure will be based on consideration of only a relatively small number of risks . This is said to then allow a general structured approach that can be applied to any construction project to increase the awareness of participants .The new, simplified Construction Design and Management Regulations (CDM Regulations) which came in to force in the UK in April 2007, revised and brought together the existing CDM 1994 and the Construction Health Safety and Welfare (CHSW) Regulations 1996, into a single regulatory package.The new CDM regulations offer an opportunity for a step change in health and safety performance and are used to reemphasize the health, safety and broader business benefits of a well-managed and co-ordinated approach to the management of health and safety in construction. I believe that the development of these skills is imperative to provide the client with the most effective services available, delivering the best value project possible.Construction Management at Risk (CM at Risk), similar to established private sector methods of construction contracting, is gaining popularity in the public sector. It is a process that allows a client to select a construction manager (CM) based on qualifications; make the CM a member of a collaborative project team; centralize responsibility for construction under a single contract; obtain a bonded guaranteed maximum price; produce a more manageable, predictable project; save time and money; and reduce risk for the client, the architect and the CM.CM at Risk, a more professional approach to construction, is taking its place along with design-build, bridging and the more traditional process of design-bid-build as an established method of project delivery.The AE can review the CM’s approach to the work, making helpful recommendations. The CM is allowed to take bids or proposals from subcontractors during completion of contract documents, prior to the guaranteed maximum price (GMP), which reduces the CM’s risk and provides useful input to design. The procedure is more methodical, manageable, predictable and less risky for all.The procurement of construction is also more business-like. Each trade contractor has a fair shot at being the low bidder without fear of bid shopping. Each must deliver the best to get the projec. Competition in the community is more equitable: all subcontractors have a fair shot at the work .A contingency within the GMP covers unexpected but justifiable costs, and a contingency above the GMP allows for client changes. As long as the subcontractors are within the GMP they are reimbursed to the CM, so the CM represents the client in negotiating inevitable changes with subcontractors.There can be similar problems where each party in a project is separately insured. For this reason a move towards project insurance is recommended. The traditional approach reinforces adversarial attitudes, and even provides incentives for people to overlook or conceal risks in an attempt to avoid or transfer responsibility.A contingency within the GMP covers unexpected but justifiable costs, and a contingency above the GMP allows for client changes. As long as the subcontractors are within the GMP they are reimbursed to the CM, so the CM represents the client in negotiating inevitable changes with subcontractors.There can be similar problems where each party in a project is separately insured. For this reason a move towards project insurance is recommended. The traditional approach reinforces adversarial attitudes, and even provides incentives for people to overlook or conceal risks in an attempt to avoid or transfer responsibility.It was reasonable to assume that between them the defects should have been detected earlier and rectified in good time before the partial roof failure. It did appearjustified for the plaintiff to have brought a negligence claim against both the contractor and the architects.In many projects clients do not understand the importance of their role in facilitating cooperation and coordination; the design is prepared without discussion between designers, manufacturers, suppliers and contractors. This means that the designer can not take advantage of suppliers’ or contractors’ knowledge of build ability or maintenance requirements and the impact these have on sustainability, the total cost of ownership or health and safety .This risk analysis was able to facilitate, through its multi-dimensional approach to a critical examination of a construction problem, the identification of an effective risk management strategy for future construction projects. This work also served to emphasize the point that clients are becoming more demanding, more discerning, and less willing to accept risk without recompense. They do not want surprises, and are more likely to engage in litigation when things go wrong.国际建设工程风险分析摘要此次分析用实例研究方法分析津巴布韦标准协会总部（SAZ）的屋顶部分坍塌的问题。

外文文献：Project Cost Control: The Way it WorksBy R. Max WidemanIn a recent consulting assignment we realized that there was some lack of understanding of the whole system of project cost control, how it is setup and applied. So we decided to write up a description of how it works. Project cost control is not that difficult to follow in theory.First you establish a set of reference baselines. Then, as work progresses, you monitor the work, analyze the findings, forecast the end results and compare those with the reference baselines. If the end results are not satisfactory then you make adjustments as necessary to the work in progress, and repeat the cycle at suitable intervals. If the end results get really out of line with the baseline plan, you may have to change the plan. More likely, there will be (or have been) scope changes that change the reference baselines which means that every time that happens you have to change the baseline plan anyway.But project cost control is a lot more difficult to do in practice, as is evidenced by the number of projects that fail to contain costs. It also involves a significant amount of work, as we shall see, and we might as well start at the beginning. So let us follow the thread of project cost control through the entire project life span.And, while we are at it, we will take the opportunity to point out the proper places for several significant documents. These include the Business Case, the Request for (a capital) Appropriation (for execution), Work Packages and the Work Breakdown Structure, the Project Charter (or Brief), the Project Budget or Cost Plan, Earned Value and the Cost Baseline. All of these contribute to the organization's ability to effectively control project costs.FootnoteI am indebted to my friend Quentin Fleming, the guru of Earned Value, for checking and correcting my work on this topic.The Business Case and Application for (execution) FundingIt is important to note that project cost control is most effective when the executive management responsible has a good understanding of how projects should unfold through the project life span. This means that they exercise their responsibilities at the key decision points between the major phases. They must also recognize the importance of project risk management for identifying and planning to head off at least the most obvious potential risk events.In the project's Concept Phase• Every project starts with someone identifying an opportunity or need. That is usually someone of importance or influence, if the project is to proceed, and that person often becomes the project's sponsor.• To determine the suitability of the potential project, most organizations call for the preparation of a "Business Case" and its "Order of Magnitude" cost to justify the value of the project so that itcan be compared with all the other competing projects. This effort is conducted in the Concept Phase of the project and is done as a part of the organization's management of the entire project portfolio.• The cost of the work of preparing the Business Case is usually covered by corporate management overhead, but it may be carried forward as an accounting cost to the eventual project. No doubt because this will provide a tax benefit to the organization. The problem is, how do you then account for all the projects that are not so carried forward?• If the Business case has sufficient merit, approval will be given to proceed to a Development and Definition phase.In the project's Development or Definition Phase• The objective of the Development Phase is to establish a good understanding of the work involved to produce the required product, estimate the cost and seek capital funding for the actual execution of the project.• In a formalized setting, especially where big projects are involved, this application for funding is often referred to as a Request for (a capital)Appropriation (RFA) or Capital Appropriation Request (CAR).•This requires the collection of more detailed requirements and data to establish what work needsto be done to produce the required product or "deliverable". From this information, a plan is prepared in sufficient detail to give adequate confidence in a dollar figure to be included in the request.• In a less formalized setting, everyone just tries to muddle through.Work Packages and the WBSThe Project Management Plan, Project Brief or Project Charter•If the deliverable consists of a number of different elements, these are identified and assembled into Work Packages (WPs) and presented in the form of a Work Breakdown Structure (WBS).• Each WP involves a set of activities, the "work" that is planned and scheduled as a part of the Project Management Plan. Note, however, that the planning will still be at a relatively high level,and more detailed planning will be necessary during execution if the project is given the go ahead.• This Project Management Plan, by the way, should become the "bible" for the execution phase of the project and is sometimes referred to as the "Project Brief" or the "Project Charter".• The cost of doing the various activities is then estimated and these estimated costs are aggregated to determine the estimated cost of the WP. This approach is known as "detailed estimating" or "bottom up estimating". There are other approaches to estimating that we'll come to in a minute. Either way, the result is an estimated cost of the total work of the project.Note: that project risk management planning is an important part of this exercise. This should examine the project's assumptions and environmental conditions to identify any weaknesses in the plan thus far, and identify those potential risk events that warrant attention for mitigation. This might take the form of specific contingency planning, and/or the setting aside of prudent funding reserves.Request for capitalConverting the estimate•However, an estimate of the work alone is not sufficient for a capital request. To arrive at a capital request some conversion is necessary, for example, by adding prudent allowances such asoverheads, a contingency allowance to cover normal project risks and management reserves to cover unknowns and possible scope changes.•In addition, it may be necessary to convert the estimating data into a financial accounting formatthat satisfies the corporate or sponsor's format for purposes of comparison with other projects and consequent funding approval.• In practice all the data for the type of "bottom up" approach just described may not be available.In this case alternative estimating approaches are adopted that provide various degrees of reliability in a "top down" fashion. For example:Order of Magnitude estimate – a "ball park" estimate, usually reserved for the concept phase onlyAnalogous estimate – an estimate based on previous similar projectsParametric estimate –an estimate based on statistical relationships in historical data•Whichever approach is adopted, hopefully the sum thus arrived at will be approved in full and proves to be satisfactory! This is the trigger to start the Execution Phase of the projectNote: Some managements will approve some lesser sum in the mistaken belief that this will help everyone to "sharpen their pencils" and "work smarter" for the benefit of the organization. This is a mistaken belief because management has failed to understand the nature of uncertainty and risk in project work. Consequently, the effect is more likely to result in "corner cutting" with an adverse effect on product quality, or reduced product scope or functionality. This often leads to a "game" in which estimates are inflated so that management can adjust themdownwards. But to be fair, management is also well aware that if money is over allocated, it will get spent anyway. The smart thing for managements to do is to set aside contingent reserve funds, varying with the riskiness of the project, and keep that money under careful control.Ownership of approved capital•If senior management approves the RFA as presented, the sum in question becomes the responsibility of the designated project sponsor. However, if the approved capital request includes allowances such as a "Management Reserve", this may or may not be passed on to the project's sponsor, depending on the policies of the organization.• For the approved RFA, the project sponsor will, in turn, further delegate expenditure authority to the project's project manager and will likely not include any of the allowances. An exception might be the contingency allowances to cover the normal variations in work performance.• The net sum thus arrived at constitutes the project manager's Approved Project Budget.Note: If management does not approve the RFA, you should not consider this a project failure. Either the goals, objectives, justification and planning need rethinking to increase the value of the project's deliverables, or senior management simply has higher priorities elsewhere for the available resources and funding.The Project's Execution PhaseThe project manager's Project Budget responsibility•Once this Approved Project Budget is released to the project manager, a reverse process must take place to convert it into a working control document. That is, the money available must be divided amongst the various WBS WPs that, by the way, have probably by now been upgraded! This results in a project execution Control Budget or Project Baseline Budget, or simply, the Project Budget. In some areas of project management application it is referred to as a Project Cost Plan. •On a large project where different corporate production divisions are involved, there may be a further intermediate step of creating "Control Accounts" for theseparate divisions, so that each division subdivides their allocated money into their own WBS WPs.• Observe that, since the total Project Budget received formal approval from Executive Management, you, as project manager, must likewise seek and obtain from Executive Management, via the project's sponsor, formal approval for any changes to the total project budget. Often this is only justified and accepted on the basis of a requested Product Scope Change.• In such a case the project's sponsor will either draw down on the management reserve in his or her possession, or submit a supplementary RFA to upper management. • Now that we have the Project Budget money allocated to Work Packages we can further distribute it amongst the various activities of each WP so that we know how much money we have as a "Baseline" cost for each activity.• This provides us with the base of reference for the cost control function. Of course, depending on the circumstances the same thing may be done at the WP level but the ability to control is then at a higher and coarser level.Use of the Earned Value technique• If we have the necessary details another control tool that we can adopt for monitoring ongoing work is the "Earned Value" (EV) technique. This is a considerable art and science that you must learn about from texts dedicated to the subject. • But essentially, you take the costs of the schedule activities and plot them as a cumulative total on the appropriate time base. Again you can do this at the activity level, WP level or the whole project level. The lower the level the more control information you have available but the more work you get involved in. The Cost Baseline•This planned reference S-curve is sometimes referred to as the "Cost Baseline", typically in EVparlance. That is, it is the "Budgeted Cost of Work Scheduled" (BCWS), or more simply the "Planned Value" (PV).•Observe that you need to modify this Cost Baseline every time there is an approved scope change that has cost and/or schedule implications and consequently changesthe project's Approved Project Budget.• Now, as the work progresses, you can plot the "Actual Cost of Work Performed" (ACWP or simply "Actual Cost" - AC).• You can plot other things as well, see diagram referred to above, and if you don't like what you see then you need to take "Corrective Action". CommentaryThis whole process is a cyclic, situational operation and is probably the source of the term "cycle" in the popularly misnamed "project life cycle".As an aside, the Earned Value pundits offer various other techniques within the EV process designed to aid in forecasting the final result, that is, the "Estimate At Completion" (EAC). EAC is what you should really be interested in because it is the only constant in a moving project. Therefore, these extended EV techniques must be considered in the same realm of accuracy as top-down estimating. They are useful, but only if you recognize the limitations and know what you are doing!But, as we said at the beginning, it is a lot more difficult to do in practice –and involves a significant amount of work. But, let's face it, that's what project managers are hired for, right?中文译文：项目成本控制：它的工作方式R.马克斯怀德曼我们在最近的咨询任务中意识到，对于整个项目成本控制体系是如何设置和应用的这个问题，我们仍有一些缺乏了解。

外文文献：Project Cost Control: The Way it WorksBy R. Max WidemanIn a recent consulting assignment we realized that there was some lack of understanding of the whole system of project cost control, how it is setup and applied. So we decided to write up a description of how it works. Project cost control is not that difficult to follow in theory.First you establish a set of reference baselines. Then, as work progresses, youmonitor the work, analyze the findings, forecast the end results and compare those with the reference baselines. If the end results are not satisfactory then youmake adjustments as necessary to the work in progress, and repeat the cycle atsuitable intervals. If the end results get really out of line with the baseline plan, youmay have to change the plan. More likely, there will be (or have been) scope changes that change the reference baselines which means that every time that happens you have to change the baseline plan anyway.But project cost control is a lot more difficult to do in practice, as is evidencedby the number of projects that fail to contain costs. It also involves a significantamount of work, as we shall see, and we might as well start at the beginning. So letus follow the thread of project cost control through the entire project life span.And, while we are at it, we will take the opportunity to point out the properplaces for several significant documents. These include the Business Case, the Request for (a capital) Appropriation (for execution), Work Packages and the WorkBreakdown Structure, the Project Charter (or Brief), the Project Budget or Cost Plan,Earned Value and the Cost Baseline. All of these contribute to the organization'sability to effectively control project costs.FootnoteI am indebted to my friend Quentin Fleming, the guru of Earned Value, for checking and correcting my work on this topic.The Business Case and Application for (execution) FundingIt is important to note that project cost control is most effective when the executive management responsible has a good understanding of how projects should unfold through the project life span. This means that they exercise their responsibilities at the key decision points between the major phases. They mustalso recognize the importance of project risk management for identifying and planning to head off at least the most obvious potential risk events.In the project's Concept Phase?Every project starts with someone identifying an opportunity or need. That is usually someone of importance or influence, if the project is to proceed, and thatperson often becomes the project's sponsor.? To determine the suitability of the potential pr oject, most organizations call for the preparation of a "Business Case" and its "Order of Magnitude" cost to justify thevalue of the project so that itcan be compared with all the other competing projects. This effort is conducted inthe Concept Phase of the project and is done as a part of the organization'smanagement of the entire project portfolio.? The cost of the work of preparing the Business Case is usually covered by corporate management overhead, but it may be carried forward as an accounting cost to the eventual project. No doubt because this will provide a tax benefit to the organization. The problem is, how do you then account for all the projects that arenot so carried forward??If the Business case has sufficient merit, approval will be given to proceed to a Development and Definition phase.In the project's Development or Definition Phase? The objective of the Development Phase is to establish a good understanding of thework involved to produce the required product, estimate the cost and seek capitalfunding for the actual execution of the project.? In a formalized setting, especially where big projects are involved, this application forfunding is often referred to as a Request for (a capital) Appropriation (RFA) or Capital Appropriati on Request (CAR).? This requires the collection of more detailed requirements and data to establish whatwork needsto be done to produce the required product or "deliverable". From this information, a plan is prepared in sufficient detail to give adequate confidence in adollar figure to be included in the request.? In a less formalized setting, everyone just tries to muddle through.Work Packages and the WBSThe Project Management Plan, Project Brief or Project Charter? If the deliverable consists of a number of different elements, these are identified。

本科毕业论文外文文献及译文文献、资料题目China’s Pathway to Low—carbon Development文献、资料来源: Journal of Knowledge-basedInnovation in China文献、资料发表（出版）日期:V ol。

2 No。

3, 2010院（部)：管理工程学院专业：工程造价外文文献China’s Pathway to Low—carbon DevelopmentAbstractPurpose–The purpose of this paper is to explore China's current policy and policy options regarding the shift to a low-carbon （LC）development.Design/methodology/approach – The paper uses both a literature review and empirical systems analysis of the trends of socio-economic conditions, carbon emissions and development of innovation capacities in China.Findings – The analysis shows that a holistic solution and co—benefit approach are needed for China's transition to a green and LC economy，and that, especially for developing countries，it is not enough to have only goals regarding mitigation and adaptation。