语言学概念第四版笔记

Chapter 4 SyntaxTeaching AimsTo enable students to master the categories of word and phraseTo make students understand the rules of phrase structure and sentence structureTo enable students to recognize transformations in transformational generative grammar4.1 What is syntax?Syntax is the study of the internal structures of sentence and the rules for the combination of words. The term syntax came originally from Greek word meant arrangement. What that means is that sentences are structured according to particular arrangement of words. Well-arranged sentences are considered to grammatical sentences. Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.Types of sentences:: consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.: contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunctions, such as “and”, “by”, “or”…: contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the otherEmbedded clause子句←→ matrix clause主句Transformational Generative Grammar (TG)⏹Norm. Chomsky, the most influential linguist in 20th century, some important works:⏹(1957) Syntactic Structure;⏹(1965) Aspects of the Theory of Syntax;⏹(1981) Lectures on Government and Binding;⏹(1986) Barriers⏹(1993) A Minimalist Program for Linguistic Theory;⏹(1995) The Minimalist Program;⏹(1998) The Minimalist Inquiry……Criteria on good grammar⏹Observational adequacy⏹Descriptive adequacy⏹Explanatory adequacy(The ultimate goal for any theory is to explain.)TG differs from traditional grammar in that it not only aims at language description, but also its explanation. Chomsky is much more interested in the similarities (language universals) between languages rather than their differences:⏹Linguists should attempt to find a grammatical framework which will be suitable for all languages;⏹Linguists should concentrate on the elements and constructions that are available to all languages rather thanon elements that actually occur in all languages.⏹There are likely to be universal constraints on the ways linguistic elements are combined⏹Chomsky proposed that the grammars of all human languages share a common framework (UniversalGrammar).4.2 Categories4.2.1 Word-level categoriesCategory refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. The most central categories to the syntactic study are the word-level categories (traditionally, parts of speech)the predicate句法范畴词汇范畴Major lexical categories (open categories): N. V. Adj. Adv.Minor lexical categories (closed categories): Det. Aux. Prep. Pron. Conj. Int.The criteria on which categories are determined:⏹Meaning⏹Inflection⏹DistributionNote:The most reliable criterion of determining a word‟s category is its distribution.短语范畴4.2.2 Phrase categories and their structuresPhrase categories----the syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase categories, such as NP(N), VP(V), AP(A), PP(P).The structure: specifier + head + complement⏹Head---- the word around which a phrase is formed⏹Specifier---- the words on the left side of the heads⏹Complement---- the words on the right side of the heads4.3 Phrase structure ruleThe grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule, such as:⏹NP→ (Det) + N +(PP)……e.g. those people, the fish on the plate, pretty girls.⏹VP→ (Qual) + V + (NP)……e.g. always play games, finish assignments.⏹AP→ (Deg) + A + (PP)……very handsome, very pessimistic, familiar with, very close to⏹PP→ (Deg) + P + (NP)……on the shelf, in the boat, quite near the station.S→ NP VP (A sentence consists of, or is rewritten as, a noun phrase and a verb phrase)NP→ (det.限定词) (Adj.) N (PP) (S)… “→”：包括/分为VP→ (qual.修饰词)V (NP) (POP) (S)… “( )”：内部的成分可以省略AP→ (deg.程度词)A (PP) (S)… “…”：可以选择附加其他补语PP→(deg.)P NP…Significantly, the above rules can generate an infinite number of sentences, and sentences with infinite length, due to their recursive properties.4.3.1 XP ruleXPSpecifier X ComplementNote: The phrase structure rules can be summed up as XP rule shown in the diagram, in which X stands for N, V, A or P.X‟ Theory⏹XP → (Specifier)X‟⏹X‟ → X(complement)XP(Phrase level)Specifier X’X(head) complement4.3.2 Coordination ruleCoordination structures-----the structures that are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, or, etc.----Coordination has four important properties:⏹no limit on the number of coordinated categories before the conjunction;⏹ a category at any level can be coordinated;⏹the categories must be of the same type;⏹the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.4.4 Phrase element4.4.1 Specifiers---- Semantically, specifiers make more precise the meaning of the head; syntactically, they typically mark a phrase boundary. Specifiers can be determiners as in NP, qulifiers as in VP and degree words as in AP.4.4.2 Complements---- Complements themselves can be a phrase, they provide information abut entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head, e.g. a story about a sentimental girl;There can be no complement, one complement, or more than one complement in a phrase, e.g. appear, break, put…; a sentence-like construction may also function as a complement such as in “I believed that she was innocent.I doubt if she will come. They are keen for you to show up.” That/if /for are complementizers, the clauses introduced by complementizers are complement clause.4.4.3 Modifiers---- Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of heads.4.5 Sentences (The S rule)S→NP VPSNP VPDet N VDet NA boy found the evidenceS→NP infl VPInflP(=S)NP Infl VPMany linguists believe that sentences, like other phrases, also have their own heads. Infl is an abstract category inflection (dubbed …Infl‟) as their heads, which indicates the sentence‟s tense and agreement.Infl realized by a tense labelInflP(=S)NP VPDet N V NPInfl Det NA boy Pst found the evidenceInfl realized by an auxiliaryInflP(=S)NP VPDet N V NPInfl Det NA boy will find the evidence4.6 Transformations4.6.1 Auxiliary movement (inversion)Inversio n→Move Infl to the left of the subject NP.Inversion (revised)→Move Infl to C.CPC SNP VDet N InflThe train will arriveCPC SNP VInfl Det N InflWill The train e arrive4.6.2 Do insertionDo insertion---- Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position.CPC SNP Infl VPBirds fly Figure-1CPC SNP Infl VPBirds do fly Figure-2CPC SInfl NP Infl VPDo Birds e fly Figure-34.6.3 Deep structure and surface structureConsider the following pair of sentences:John is easy to please.John is eager to please.Structurally similar sentences might be very different in their meanings, for they have quite different deep structures. Consider one more sentence:Flying planes can be dangerous.It can mean either that if you fly planes you are engaged in a dangerous activity or Planes that are flying are dangerous. Deep structure----formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head‟s sub-categorization properties; it contains all the units and relationships that are necessary for interpreting the meaning of the sentence.(Deep structure---the structure that corresponds most closely to the meaningful grouping of words. It is abstract, which gives the meaning of a sentence and which itself is not pronounceable.)Surface structure----corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations; it is that of the sentence as it is pronounced or written.(Surface structure--- linear arrangement of words as they are pronounced. A surface structure is relatively concrete, and gives the form of a sentence as it is used in communication.)D-structure: phrase structure rules + lexiconThe organization of the syntactic component：The XP rule↓Deep structure←Subcategorization restricts choice of complements↓transformations↓Surface structure4.6.4 Wh movementConsider the derivation of the following sentences:What languages can you speak?What can you talk about?These sentences may originate as:You can speak what languages.You can talk about what.Wh-movement---- Move a wh phrase to the beginning of the sentence.What language can you speak ?Wh-movement---- Move a wh phrase to the specifier position under CP. (Revised)CPNP C SWho NP Infl VPe Pst V NPwon the game4.6.5 Move α and constraints on transformationsInversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the nearest C position, but not to a more distant C position. No element may be removed from a coordinate structure.。

语言学概论自考重点笔记
以下是语言学概论自考重点笔记，包括语言和语言学、语言的性质和类型、语言的建筑材料——语汇、语言的表达内容——语义、语言的运用特点——语用等方面的内容。

一、语言和语言学
语言是一种符号系统，由语音和语义构成。

语言是人类进行社会交际和思维认知的工具。

只有人类才有语言，语言能力是人跟其他动物区别的最重要的标志。

二、语言的性质和类型
语言的性质：人类语言具有创造性、结构性、双向性、社会性和个体性等特征。

语言的类型：语言可以分为口语和书面语两种类型。

口语是人们在口头交际中使用的语言，书面语是人们在书面交际中使用的语言。

三、语言的建筑材料——语汇
语汇是语言中所有的词和词组，是语言的建筑材料。

语汇的特点是具有系统性、稳固性和能产性。

语汇的变化和发展是语言发展的重要方
面。

四、语言的表达内容——语义
语义是语言所表达的意义，包括词汇意义、语法意义和语境意义等。

语义具有客观性、主观性和文化性等特点。

五、语言的运用特点——语用
语用是指人们在具体语境中运用语言的能力和特点。

语用具有变异性、合适性和得体性等特点。

语用学是研究语言运用的学科，是语言学的一个重要分支。

以上是语言学概论自考重点笔记的主要内容，希望对您的学习有所帮助。

导言1、语言学的三大发源地P1中国、印度、希腊—罗马是语言学的三大发源地。

2、传统语文学的构成部分P1文字、音韵。

训诂是我国传统语文学的构成部分，统称“小学”。

3、语言的构造P2语音、词汇和语义、语法三个部分4、语言交际的五个阶段P3编码——发送——传递——接收——编码5、语言学的概念以语言为研究对象的科学，研究探索语言的本质、结构和发展规律。

第一章语言的社会功能1、语言与言语的关系？言语是利用语言进行交际的行为和结果。

言语是个人的，语言是社会的；言语是具体的，语言是抽象的；言语是有阶级性的，语言是全民性的。

语言制约着言语，指导人们进行言语实践；语言存在于言语之中，存在于人们的交际过程之中，存在于言语行为和言语作品之中。

语言不能够脱离言语，言语也不能脱离语言，它们是不可分离的。

语言（language）和言语（parole）的区别是现代语言学奠基人索绪尔在《普通语言学教程》中提出的重要概念。

其区别表现在：第一，从运用角度来说，语言是社会共有的交际工具，相对稳定，语言是不自由的，有规则的，处于相对静止状态，语言是一个封闭的系统；言语是对语言的具体运用和由此产生的言语作品，是自由结合的，处于运用状态，言语始终是开放的。

第二，从表现形式看，语言是个音义结合的符号系统，人们要遵照这个系统的规则来使用它，是社会的，有共同性，也就是说语言属于全体社会成员；言语是人们运用语言的过程和结果，除了具有社会的因素外，还具有个人的因素，而且还要受某种特定语境的影响，从某种程度上来说，言语属于讲话者个人。

第三，语言的各个部分是有限的，抽象的；但言语是无限的，具体的。

联系表现在：第一，从历史上看，言语事实在先，规则在后，因此言语是第一性的，语言是第二性的。

哪里有言语，哪里就有语言；哪里没有言语，哪里就没有语言。

语言是存在于言语之中的，语言是从言语中抽象概括出来的模式，抽象的语言是不存在的，语言都是以言语的形式存在着的。

第二，语言来源于言语，又反作用于言语。

语言学教程第四版重点笔记Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1.1 Why study language?1. Language is very essential to human beings.2. In language there are many things we should know.3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically.1.2 What is language?Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.3 Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.1.3.1Arbitrariness 任意性Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings.1.arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning2.arbitrariness at the syntactic level3.arbitrariness and convention 任意性与规约性1.3.2Duality 二元性Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.1.3.3 CreativityCreativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences.1.3.4 DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation.1.5 Functions of languageAs is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions:1. Referential: to convey message and information;2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake;3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions;4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties;5. Phatic: to establish communion with others;6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings.Halliday (1994) proposes a theory of metafunctions of language. It means that language has three metafunctions:1. Ideational function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that is unknown to the hearer;2. Interpersonal function: embodying all use of language to express social and personal relationships;3. Textual function: referring to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch of spoken and writtendiscourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living passage different from a random list of sentences.According to Hu Zhuanglin, language has at least seven functions:1.5.1 Informative 信息功能The informative function means language is the instrument of thought and people often use it to communicate new information.1.5.2 Interpersonal function 人际功能The interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.1.5.3 Performative 施为功能The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.1.5.4 Emotive function 感情功能（被打fuck 吃惊god）The emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.1.5.5Phatic communion 寒暄交谈（无实质，“早上好”）The phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day,etc., to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content.1.5.6 Recreational function 娱乐功能The recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby’s ba bbling or a chanter’s chanting.1.5.7 Metalingual function 元语言功能The metalingual function means people can use language to talk about itself. E.g. I can use the word “book” to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “the word book” to talk about the sign “b-o-o-k” itself.1.6 What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the language of all human beings.1.7 Main branches of linguistics1.7.1 Phonetics 发音学Phonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.1.7.2 Phonology 音系学Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.1.7.3 Morphology 形态学Morphology studies the minimal units of meaning – morphemes and word-formation processes.1.7.4 Syntax 句法学Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.1.7.5 Semantics 语义学Semantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.1.8 Macrolinguistics 宏观语言学Macrolinguistics is the study of language in all aspects, distinct from microlinguistics, which dealt solely with the formal aspect of language system.1.8.1 Psycholinguistics 心理语言学Psycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition for example.1.8.2 Sociolinguistics 社会语言学Sociolinguistics is a term which covers a variety of different interests in language and society, including the language and the social characteristics of its users.1.8.3 Anthropological linguistics 人类语言学Anthropological linguistics studies the relationship between language and culture in a community.1.8.4 Computational linguistics 计算机语言学Computational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language.1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics 重要区别1.9.1 Descriptive vs. prescriptive 描写式vs 规定式To say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, ornorms, of correctness.Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all.For example, “Don’t say X.” is a prescriptive command; “People don’t say X.” is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. In the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively. However, modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because the nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.1.9.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic 共时（历史上一点）vs 历时（历史长河）A synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at prese nt) as its point of observation. Saussure’s diachronicdescription is the study of a language through the course of its history. E.g. a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. The reason is that unless the various state of a language are successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.1.9.3 Langue & parole 语言（抽象）vs 言语（日常）Saussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is relative stable and systematic, parole is subject to personal and situational constraints;langue is not spoken by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event. What a linguist should do, according to Saussure, is to draw rules from a mass of confused facts, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of linguistics.1.9.4 Competence and performance 语言能力VS 语言运用According to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rule s is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of a community, while competence is deemed as a property of mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 Speech production and perceptionPhonetics语音学studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived. . It includes three main areas:1. Articulatory phonetics发音语言学–the study ofthe production of speech sounds2. Acoustic phonetics声学语言学–the study ofthe physical properties ofthe sounds produced in speech3. Auditory phonetics 听觉语言学–the study of perception of speech soundsPhonology音系学is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to “discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.”发音变化规律2.2 Speech organsSpeech organs are those parts ofthe human body involved in the production of speech. The speech organs can be considered as consisting of three parts: the initiator ofthe air stream, the producer of voice andthe resonating cavities.2.3 The IPAInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of the International Phonetic Association. The symbols consists of letters and diacritics. Some letters are taken from the Roman alphabet, some are special symbols.2.4 Consonants2.4.1 Consonants and vowels辅音、元音定义Consonants are produced by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction.V owels are produced withoutobstruction so the air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or nose.2.4.2 ConsonantsManners of articulation发音方式the place of articulation发音部位发音方式refers to the actual relationship betweenthe articulators and thus the way in whichthe air passes through certain parts ofthe vocal tract (the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period; they may narrow the space considerably; they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.);发音部位refers to the point where a consonant is made. Practically consonants may be produced at any place between the lips and the vocal folds.2.4.5 The consonants ofEnglish1. Received Pronunciation (RP):The type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety andwhich shows no regional variation. It has often been popularly referred to as “BBC E nglish” or “Oxford English”because it is widely used in the private sector ofthe education system and spoken by most newsreaders ofthe BBC network.2. the consonants ofEnglish can be described in the following way:[p] voiceless bilabial stop[b] voiced bilabial stop[s] voiceless alveolar fricative[z] voiced alveolar fricative[m] bilabial nasal[n] alveolar nasal[l] alveolar lateral[j] palatal approximant[h] glottal fricative[r] alveolar approximant2.5 VowelsThe criteria of vowel description 描述元音1.the height of tongue raising(high, mid, low)2.the position of the highest part of the tongue(front, central, back)3.the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short)4.lip-rounding(rounded vs. unrounded)We can now describe the English vowels in this way:【i:】high front tense unrounded vowel【u】high back lax rounded vowel【ə】mid central lax unrounded vowel2.6 Coarticulation and phonetic transcription 协同发音2.6.1 Coarticulation协同发音Coarticulation: The simultaneous or overlapping articulation of two successive phonological units.发音变化倾向于后面（following sound）叫anticipatory Coarticulation; 倾向前面perseverative ~2.6.2Broad and narrow transcriptions 宽式、严式转写The use of a simple set of symbols in our transcription is called a broad transcription. The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription. The former was meant to indicate only these sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language while the latter was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the minutest shades of pronunciation.2.8 Phonemes and allophones音位和音位变体2.8.1 Minimal pairs 最小对比对Minimal pairs are two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound andwhich also differ in meaning. E.g. theEnglish words tie and die are minimal pairs as they differ in meaning and in their initial phonemes /t/ and /d/. By identifying the minimal pairs of a language, a phonologist can find out which sound substitutions cause differences of meaning.2.8.2 The phoneme theoryPhoneme （音位）：A sound which is capable of distinguishing one word or one shape of a word from another in a given language is a phoneme. A phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning. (refers to a unit of explicit sound contrast)Phonemic transcription 音位转写放在abstract, not physical ，放在/ /.Allophones (音位变体)Any ofthe different forms of a phoneme is called its allophones. Phonic variants of a phoneme are called allophone of the same phoneme.e.g.: pot, spot, cup: [ph] vs. [p] vs. [ p¬ ] (unreleased)i) complementary distribution互补分布ii) free variationiii)phonemic contrast.2.9 Phonological processes2.9.1 AssimilationAssimilation: A process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.Regressive assimilation: If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation.Progressive assimilation: If a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, we call it progressive assimilation.Devoicing: A process by which voiced sounds become voiceless. Devoicing of voiced consonants often occurs in Englishwhen they are at the end of a word.2.9.2 Phonological processes and phonological rulesThe changes in assimilation, nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all phonological processes in which a target or affected segment undergoes a structural change in certain environments or contexts.2.10 Distinctive featuresDistinctive feature: A particular characteristic which distinguishes one distinctive sound unit of a language from another or one group of sounds from another group.Binary feature: A property of a phoneme or a word which can be used to describe the phoneme or word. A binary feature is either present or absent. Binary features are also used to describe the semantic properties of words.2.11 SyllablesSuprasegmental features超音段特征: Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmental features are syllables, stress, tone, and intonation.Syllable音节: A unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word.Open syllable: A syllable which ends in a vowel.Closed syllable: A syllable which ends in a consonant.2.12 Stress 重音Stress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. In transcription, a raised vertical line [] is used just before the syllable it relates to.Intonation and Tone 声调语调Intonation involves the occurrence of recurring fall-rise patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on groups of words of varying length.Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the different rates of vibration of the vocal cords.Chapter 3 From Morpheme to Phrase3.1 What is morpheme?3.1.1 Morpheme 语素A morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit thatcannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical orgrammatical.E.g. the word “boxes” has two morphemes: “box” and “es,” neither of which permits further division or analysisshapes if we don’t want to sacrifice its meaning.Morphology（形态学）：The study of internal structures and rules of morphemes by which words are formed.3.1.2 Types of MorphemesFree morpheme and bound morpheme 自由语素（能独立出现）黏着语素（disclose中dis-）Free morpheme refers to those which may occur alone or which may constitute words by themselves.Bound morpheme refers to those which cannot occur alone and must appear with at least one other morpheme Root, affix and stem 词根词缀词干Root is the base form of a word that can’t be further analyzed without destroying its meaning. For example, internationalism, after removing the “inter-“”-al””-ism”, the part retained is the root nation.affix词缀----is the collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme.it can classified into three subtypes, prefix, suffix and infix.stem词干----is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.(friends中friend-,friendships中friendship-)词干可以包括词根和一个及以上词缀Inflectional affix and derivational affix 屈折词缀和派生词缀Inflectional affix----A morpheme that serves to adjust words by grammatical modification to indicate such grammatical relations as number, tense, degree and case. e.g. tables, talks, opened, strongest, John’sDerivational affix---A morpheme that serves to derive a word of one class or meaning from a word of another class or meaning. e.g. cite-citation-cital#3.2 What is a word?A word is the smallest of the linguistic units that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance in speech or writing. Three senses of word:1.a physical unit2. a lexical item3. a grammatical unit3.2.1 Identification of words 词的特点1.Stability 稳定性（词内部结构不能重新排序chaieman≠manchair）Words are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure, i.e. the constituent parts of a complex word have little potential for rearrangement, compared with the relative positional mobility ofthe constituents of sentences in the hierarchy. Take the word chairman for example. If the morphemes are rearranged as * manchair, it is an unacceptable word in English.2. Relative uninterruptibility 相对连续性（此中不可插入其他成分）By uninterruptibility, we men new elements are not to be inserted into a word even whenthere are several parts in a word. Nothing is to be inserted in betweenthe three parts ofthe word disappointment: dis +appoint + ment. Nor is one allowed to use pauses betweenthe parts of a word: * dis appoint ment.3.A minimum free form 最小的自由形式（任意一个词都能成为句子）This was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. He advocated treating sentence as “the maximum free form”and word “the minimum free form,”the latter being the smallest unit that can constitute, by itself, acomplete utterance.3.2.2 Classification of words 词的分类1. Variable and invariable words 可变化词（follow）和非变化词（since, but）In variable words, one can find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word form; on the other hand, part ofthe word remains relatively constant. E.g. follow – follows – following – followed. Invariablewords refer to those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello, etc. They have no inflective endings.2. Grammatical words and lexical words 语法词和词汇词Grammatical words, also calledfunction words, express grammatical meanings, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns, are grammatical words.Lexical words, a.k.a. content words, have lexical meanings, i.e. those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, are lexical words.3. Closed-class words and open-class words 封闭词类和开放词类Closed-class word: A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited.New members are not regularly added. Therefore, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are allclosed items.Open-class word: A word that belongs to the open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items.4. Word classThis is close to the notion of parts of speech in traditional grammar. Today, word class displays a wider range of more precisely defined categories. Here are some ofthe categories newly introduced into linguisticanalysis.(1)Particles助词: Particles include at least the infinitive marker “to,”the negative marker “not,”andthesubordinate units in phrasal verbs, such as “get by,”“do up,”“look back,” etc.(2)Auxiliaries助动词: Auxiliaries used to be regarded as verbs. Becauseof their unique properties, whichone could hardly expect of a verb, linguists today tend to define them as a separate word class.(3)Pro-forms代词: Pro-forms are the forms which can serve as replacements for different elements in asentence. For example, in the following conversation, so replaces thatI can come.A: I hope you can come.B: I hope so.(4)Determiners限定词: Determiners refer to words which are used before the noun acting as head of anoun phrase, and determine the kind of reference the noun phrase has. Determiners can be divided into threesubclasses: predetermines, central determiners andpost determiners.3.3Word formation: Inflection and word formation 词的构成：从语素到词1.Inflection 屈折变化（不改变词性）Inflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.2. Word formation 词的形成Word formation refers to the process of word variations signaling lexical relationships. It can be further subclassified into the compositional type (compound) and derivational type (derivation).(1)Compound 复合Compound refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form, such as ice-cream, sunrise, paper bag, railway, rest-room, simple-minded, wedding-ring, etc. Compounds can be further divided into two kinds: the endocentric compound and exocentric compound.The head of a nominal or an adjectival endocentric compound is de-verbal, that is, it is derived from a verb. Consequently, it is also called a verbal compound or a synthetic compound. Usually, the first member is a participant of the process verb. E.g. Nouns: self-control, pain-killer, etc. Adjectives: virus-sensitive, machine washable, etc. The exocentric compounds are formed by V + N, V + A, and V + P, whereas the exocentric come from V + N and V + A. E.g. Nouns: playboy, cutthroat, etc. Adjectives: breakneck, walk-in, etc. 复合这个术语指那些由两个或两个以上的词素构成的词，或是指由两个单独的词连接起来构成一个新的形式的构词方法(2)Derivation 派生Derivation shows the relation between roots and suffixes. In contrast with inflections, derivations can make the word class of the original word either changed or unchanged.3.3 Lexical change 词汇变化1. Invention 发明法（coke）Since economic activities are the most important and dynamic in human life, many new lexical items come directly from the consumer items, their producers or their brand names.2. Blending混成法(smok+fog=smog)Blending is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.3. Abbreviation / clipping缩写词（bicyle-bick）A new word is created by cutting the final part, cutting the initial part or cutting both the initial parts of the original words.4. Acronym 缩略词（WB-world bank ，WTO）Acronym is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword.5.Back-formation 逆构词法（editor-edit）Back-formation refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imaged affix from a longer form already in the language.已存在较长单词删去词缀，变成较短另外含义单词6.Analogical creation 类推构词（过去式之类）The principle of analogical creation can account for the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation of some English verbs.7. class shift 词性变换（已有单词开发另一词性意义）By shifting the word class one can change the meaning of a word from a concrete entity or notion to a process or attribution. This process of word formation is also known as zero-derivation, or conversion.8. Borrowing 借用English in its development has managed to widen her vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages. Greek, Latin, French, Spanish, Arabic and other languages have all played an active role in this process.Chapter 4 From Word to Text1. Syntactic relations（句法关系）Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.1.1Relations of Position 位置关系（主谓宾）Positional relation, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential arrangement ofwords in a language.If the words in a sentence fail to occur in a fixed order required by the convention of a language, one tends to produce an utterance either ungrammatical or nonsensical at all.Positional relations are a manifestation of one aspect of Syntagmatic Relations（横组合关系）observed by F. de Saussure. They are also called Horizontal Relations or simply Chain Relations.1.2. Relation of Substitutability 替换关系The Relation of Substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure.It also refers to groups of more than one word which may be jointly substitutable grammatically for a single word of a particular set.This is also called Associative Relations by Saussure, and Paradigmatic Relations（纵聚合关系）by Hjemslev（叶尔姆斯列夫）To make it more understandable, they are called Vertical Relations or Choice Relations.1.3 Relation of Co-occurrence （同现关系/纵横关系）It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.Relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations, partly to paradigmatic relations.2. Grammatical construction and its constituents 语法结构和成分2.1 Grammatical Construction 语法结构定义：GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION（语法结构体）or CONSTRUCT can be used to refer to any syntactic construct which is assigned one or more conventional functions in a language, together with whatever is linguistically conventionalized about its contribution to the meaning or use the construct contains.On the level of syntax, we distinguish for any construction in a language its external and its internal properties.The external syntax of a construction refers to the properties of the construction as a whole, that is to say, anything speakers know about the construction that is relevant to the larger syntactic contexts in which it is welcome.结构外部句法特征The internal syntax of a construction is really a description of the construction’s “make-up”, with the terms such as “subject, predicate, object, determiner, noun”.结构内部句法特征2.2 Immediate Constituents(直接成分) IC analysis？Constituent（成分）is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Several constituents together form a construction:To dismantle a grammatical construction in this way is called IMMEDIATE CONSTITUENT ANAL YSIS or IC analysis (直接成分分析法)，the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups (phrases), which are in turn。

第一章．语言学的对象和任务1. 什么是语言功能角度的定义语言是人类最重要的交际和交流思想的工具。

信息论角度的定义语言是信息的载体和传播信息的媒介。

认知科学角度的定义语言是认知的工具汉语名词性偏正结构的表达顺序：用偏正结构表达两个物体的空间关系，采用“参照物——目的物”的认知顺序是汉语的一种优势语序。

这是汉语名词性偏正结构的表达原则，反映了汉语“由大到小”的表达习惯。

2. 什么是语言学定义语言学是研究语言规律的科学，使人们懂得关于语言的理性知识语言的起源A. .“神授说”基督教<圣经>关于人类语言起源的传说: <圣经>解释: 上帝谴责人类罪过和妄行的结果.B.“摹声说”。

古希腊哲学家柏拉图Plato早在公元前5世纪就提出了这种理论。

他认为，名称不过是它所表示的事物的声音的模拟。

这是一种朴素的唯物主义观点，它把语言的起源归结为客观世界的产物。

十八世纪德国的赫德尔发展了这一观点。

他认为，在原始社会，人们为了表达想要表达的各种动物对象，模仿那种动物的发声，比如拟声词。

C.“感叹说”。

古希腊哲学家伊壁鸠鲁(Epicurus, 公元前341~前270年)是其代表人物这种理论认为，原始人的感情冲动、受到惊恐后发出的喊叫等，也就是出于内心和外来的感受而发出的声音逐渐发展为感叹词，最终形成了语言。

D.“号子说”。

19世纪的法国哲学家努阿尔认为，原始人在集体劳动时会发出“咳哟”、“啊哈”等声音，以协调劳动的一致性，大致相当于今天的劳动号子，这就形成语言最初的成分——动词。

E.“劳动说”。

恩格斯首先提出来的。

恩格斯认为：一方面“劳动的发展必然促使社会成员更紧密地互相结合起来因为它使互相帮助和共同协作的场合增多了，并且使每个人都清楚地意识到这种共同协作的好处。

另一方面，劳动还使人的发音器官和大脑发达起来。

这些都是语言诞生的必要条件。

3语文学A 定义:为注解古代经典（如政治、哲学、历史、文学等经典作品），而对其中的文字\词汇\语法所作的研究.语文学是经学的附庸,没有把语言作为独立的学科研究. 又叫“前语言学”.印度宗教经典梵语：语音、语法研究西欧（希腊-罗马）古典拉丁文：语法、修辞、逻辑中国先秦典籍：汉字形音义研究三个重要的传统古印度巴尼尼<梵语语法>古希腊-罗马底奥尼修<希腊语法> 瓦罗《论拉丁语》中国“小学”中国第一部语法专著马建忠《马氏文通》(1898)采用的也是拉丁语的体系。

语言学概论•绪论•一、语言学的概念•1、语言：是一种特殊的社会现象，是人类最重要的交际工具，是人类的思维工具。

•2、语言学：以语言为研究对象的科学，研究探索语言的本质、结构和发展规律。

•二、关于语言学课程•本课程是中文专业必修的基础理论课之一，主要内容：语言在社会中的地位和作用；语言的结成体系（语音、语汇和语义、语法、文字、修辞）；语言的发展变化；语言的应用。

•学生通过本课程的学习，能比较系统地掌握语言学的基本概念、基本理论和基础知识，为提高语言理论水平、进一步学习和深入研究其他语言课程奠定必要的语言理论基础。

•三、语言学的三大发源地•中国、印度、希腊-罗马•1、中国古代的语言学•语文学：主要是为古代经典书面著作作注释，目的是使人们可以读懂古书的一门尚未独立的学科。

也是偏重从文献角度研究语言文字的学科总称，一般包括文字学、训诂学、音韵学、校勘学等。

中国由于古代文献丰富，文字比较特殊，语文学比较发达，广义的语文学也应该包括语言学，也就是语言学和文字学的总称，但现在由于国际学术分科中语言学是一大类，所以目前反而是语文学从属于语言学，成为语言学的一个分支。

•小学•2、印度的语言学成就•特点：不是重于理论，而是基于观察。

所讨论的理论基本上与文学研究与哲学争论有关。

词的性质和句子意义被经常讨论，句子与其所包含的词之间的语义关系，也是经常讨论的问题之一。

•贡献：A、区分了外显即时表达和内含永久主体。

认为语言有两种，一是具体场合说的话，一是抽象的语言原则。

B、语音学和音位学方面有突出成就。

认为语音是连接语言和话语之间的桥梁，语音描写分三部分：发音过程、语音的组成成分（元音，辅音）、语音在音位结构中的结合。

C、语法描写和分析方面有突出成就。

潘尼尼在著作中详细的描述了各种屈折变化、派生现象、组织结构和各种句法的用法。

•印度学者在词法研究方面取得了很大的成就：他们在分析词的构成时发现了¡°词根¡±、¡°后缀¡±与¡°词尾¡±三种主要造词单位。

2）分类： ①体词属性范畴：指由名词的词形变化形式表⽰的意义。

A.“性”范畴：在某些语⾔中表⽰⼈或事物有关性属的⼀组特征。

B.“数”范畴：表⽰事物数量的⼀组特征。

（汉语中没有严格的数范畴） C.“格”范畴：表⽰名词与其他词的语法结构关系的⼀组特征，在很多综合性语⾔中这都是重要的名词属性范畴。

D.“有定和⽆定”范畴：表⽰名词指称性质的⼀组特征。

②谓词属性范畴：指由动词的词形变化形式表⽰的意义。

A.“时”范畴：表⽰动词所反映的动作发⽣的时间和说话的时间的关系的⼀组 特征。

B.“体”范畴：表⽰动词所反映的动作⾏为进⾏的状况的⼀组特征。

C.“态”范畴：表⽰动词与主语名词之间的施受关系的⼀组特征。

（主动态、被动态） D.“⼈称”范畴：表⽰动词与主语名词之间⼀致关系的⼀组特征。

9.句法范畴 1）定义凡是主要由结构的变化形式表⽰的语法意义。

2）分类： ①类别范畴：由语类和语类选择形式表⽰的语法意义。

A从词的类别看，各种语⾔都需要词的语法类别意义 B从词与词的类别选择看，各种语⾔也都要求某类词与某类词组合的意义 ②关系范畴：指通过虚词和语序表⽰语法结构关系的语法意义。

A.通过虚词和语序来表⽰特定的语法关系意义 B.通过语序变化来确定结构的语法关系意义 第四节语法单位的聚合和组合 1、词和句⼦是语法结构中最重要的两个单位 因为词和句⼦既是基本单位，⼜是最终单位，他们可以把各种语法单位联系起来 2、聚合规则和组合规则主要是指应⽤于词和句⼦的规则。

3.语素的语法地位： 语素是最⼩的语法单位，在语法地位上并不特别重要。

①形式上它是构词的基本单位，本⾝很难建⽴聚合类和组合类。

②义⾓度上，语法分析不太需要语素这个单位。

4、词类：指可以替换出现在语法结构某些共同组合位置上的词的类，即具有聚合关系的词的类。

词类是词的语法分类。

5、划分词类的标准： ①形态标准，即根据词形变化来确定词类 ②意义标准，即根据词的意义来确定词类 ③分布标准，即根据词的聚合位置来确定词类 备注：分布是反映词类的本质属性，⽽在具体区别词类时，形态和意义可以作为参考。