The Use of Lexical Semantics in Information Extraction

对温斯顿·丘吉尔《关于希特勒入侵苏联的演讲》的文体分析6200字本文从分析文体的角度出发对温斯顿·丘吉尔的著名演讲《关于希特勒入侵苏联的演讲》中所使用的文体手段进行了详尽的分析,引导读者赏析中大量使用的平行、重复、押韵、比喻等修辞手法是如何使演讲稿达到音、形、义的完美结合,进而对演讲文体的风格进行了简要的论述。

文体学;音位学;词汇和语法;语义学The style of writing to Winston Churchill“Speech on Hitler’sInvasion of the U.S.S.R.” is analysedLi TingThe detailed analysis the main body of a book has been carried out from angle style of writing means used by the middle starting off giving a lecture “give a lecture about that Hitler invades Soviet” to Churchillian Winston ? q famousness analysing style of writing, guides reader to award Xi paralleling in the original Da Liang Shi Yong, repeats, is in rhyme, allegory waits rhetoric gimmick has been that draft reaches the tone, the shape, righteous consummation combines how to make to give a lecture, the style of writing style has carried out brief discussion on to giving a lecture then.Stylistics; Phonemics; Vocabulary and grammar; SemanticsG89C1673-8209(2009)02-0236-02Written by Winston Churchill, Speech on Hitler’s Invasion of the U.S.S.R. is full of powerful thoughts, magnificent expressions and well-structured. At that time, the U.S.S.R. was in danger and the disaster would quickly turn to the British. The goal of this speech was to arouse British people and win the cooperation of the USA, so, this speech is persuasive as its functional tenor is concerned; so far as the personal tenor is concerned, it is formal. General features of this speech can be summarized as: this persuasive speech is the speaking of what is written to be spoken to an audience on a formal occasion, so it presents features of formal written language while exhibiting characteristics of the written mode with its highly logical organization of thoughts, closely-knit structure and formal language. Just as language is multifunctional, so style is multileveled: Stylistic features can be formed at the three distinct levels: ① The level of Phonology; ② The level of Lexis and Grammar; ③ The level of Semantics. In order to find out the items of stylistic significance in this famous speech, this paper aims at analyzing it from one level of its language to another.1 Stylistic features at the first level―phonological features.Repetition of the previous initial sound may arouse the addressees’ sensitivity to the sound quality of a text, which includes Alliteration, as in “dull, drilled, docile”, “for his hearth and home”,Assonance, as in “clanking, heel-clicking”, “cowing and tying”. Besides, when the phoneticsymbolism is concerned, explosive sounds like[b],[p],[t],[d],[g],[k]usually gives a feeling of suddenness and strength while liquids and nasals a sense of peace and harmony. Winston used a series of explosives like “dandified, dull, docile, drilled, brutish, plodding, etc.” to impress his audience with the violent aggression of the Nazi army.2 Stylistic features at the second level―grammatical and lexical features.As public speeches are intended to inform, to persuade, and to appeal, most sentences are statements, as is shown in Churchill’s speech with only one question and two commands used in the whole speech. We know that casual speech tends to use short sentences. But a glance at Churchill’s speech reveals that its sentences are mostly long and complex ones. Though there can be several clauses in a longer sentence, they mainly come after the main clause, which presents no difficulty for the audience to comprehend. There are no sentences that are incomplete or elliptical. These characteristics show the double traits of public speaking: it is formal as is required of written language, and it is yet not difficult to understand at the time of the delivery as is required of the spoken mode. Stressing the idea by using synonyms or repeating the same word impinges on the audience’s ears, adding force, clearness or balance to a sentence. Examples for this can be found in Winston’s speech, e.g. “We have but one aim and one single, irrevocable purpose.” “…for we must speak out now at once, without a day’s delay.”3 Stylistic features at the third level―semantic features.The level of semantics concentrates on how the cohesive devices, paragraphing, discourse patterning, rhetorical devices and role structures contribute to the meaning of the text as a whole. Here, we will mainly focus on the rhetorical devices used in the speech. Clear organization is vital to speech making. Persuasive speeches, especially policy speeches often fall into problem-solution order. In Churchill’s speech, he showed how serious the problem was and the real intension of the Nazi regime. After having convinced the audience, Churchill called them to act with united strength. Besides, rhetorical devices are also employed by Churchill to make his speech vivid and forceful. Parallel structures are not only even in structure, but also coherent in meaning. They function not only as a kind of rhetoric device, but as a means of coherence as well. With its repetition of the sentence structure, the theme of the speech is closely connected and clearly illustrated. With so many parallel structures, the whole speech goes on smoothly and logically. The use of many parallel structures in this speech has filled the speech with strength and clear logic, e.g. “We will never parley, we will never negotiate…” “Behind all this glare, behind all this storm…” Repetition of the same word at the beginning or end of successive clauses or sentences helps create a strong emotional effect. For example: “ Any man or state who… Any man or state who…”In conclusion, Churchill’s Speech on Hitler’s Invasion of the U.S.S.R. is very typical of public persuasive speeches, with its stylistic characteristics on semantic, grammatical, lexical and phonological levels. As an excellent combination of sound, form and meaning, this speech has no doubt made significant contributions in the history and the present.参考文献[1] 张汉熙.《高级英语》上册[M],北京:外语教学与研究出版社,1995[2]徐有志.《英语文体学教程》[M].高等教育出版社,2005[3]徐有志.《现代英语文体学》[M].开封:河南大学出版社,1992[4]秦秋白.《英语文体和文体要略》[M]. 上海:上海外语教育出版社出,2006[5]霍晓军.《从文体学角度看FROST的诗》[J]. 太原:太原教育学院学报,2004。

1、The earliest known native language of England is ________.1. Celtic2. Scottish3. Saxon4. Anglian2、In the 19th century, gold was first ________ in California.1. incovered2. recovered3. uncovered4. discovered3、Which of the following word is NOT a compound?（）1. darkroom2. wet day3. small talk4. hot dog4、“ex-” in ex-husband reads ________ and means ________.1./Iks/, “former”2./eks/, “former”3./Iks/, “out”4./eks/, “out”5、My sister lives 1000 miles away from us, so I only got to see her ________.1. once in a blue moon2. one time in a blue moon3. one time in a moon4. once in a moon6、In the Early Modern English Period, ________ exerted the greatest influence(s) on English.1. Chinese2. Latin and Greek3. German4. French7、— Does Tom smoke?— No. He is a _______.1. unsmoker2. nonsmoker3. dissmoker4. insmoker8、Words such as priest, bishop, monk, nun, candle, etc. are of ________ origin.1. Russian2. Indian3. Latin4. Greek9、Which of the following words has gone through the semantic change of pejoration?（）1. queen2. nice3. vulgar4. picture10、Which one of the following abbreviations means “and so on”?（）1. e.g.2. i.e.3. viz.4. etc.11、I’ll never buy a car, for it will only be a _________ to me.1. hatched egg2. fly in the ointment3. white elephant4. sleeping dog12、We’ve all experienced unpleasant moments at which we have to _______.1. chew the bullet2. bite the bullet3. bite bullets4. munch the bullet13、My husband is extremely ________, while I am extremely ________.1. long-sighted, short-sighted2. long-sight, short-sight3. long-sights, shot-sights4. long-sighting, short-sighting14、I will take this $260 for now. ________.1. D. A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush2. A bird in the hand is worth two in the wood3. A bird in the hand is worth two in the jungles4. A bird in hand is worth two birds in forest15、If they _______ our offer, we will ________ their goods.1. refuse, reject2. reject, refuse3. reject, reject4. refuse, refuse16、In “Tom’s family keep a good table”, the word table means ________.1. food and drinks served at meals2. none of the above3. people assembled around a table, as at meals4. the piece of furniture with a flat horizontal surface supported by one or more vertical legs 17、It is in the ________ that English became regularized and standardized.1. Late Modern English Period2. Middle English Period3. borrowing processes of Greek element4. Early Modern English Period18、The antonym of “fresh” in “fresh bread” is ________.1. faded2. stale3. tired4. stuffy19、American women were ________ the right to vote until 1920 after many years of hard struggle.1. refused2. ignored3. neglected4. denied20、Contrary ________ public opinion, this area has long been a heaven for all forms of insect life.1. for2. with3. to4. at21、John turns his nose ________ Ann, which hurt her a lot.1. up at2. at3. on4. upon22、It is its ________ that makes Old English fundamentally different from Modern English.1. pronunciation2. spelling3. meaning4. grammar23、Mrs. Smith is afraid that she and her husband don’t see ________ on New Year Resolutions.1. eye to eye2. heart to heart3. face to face4. back to back24、John complained that there were several pages ________.1. missing2. leaking3. losing4. dropping25、We saw a(n) ________ of how to revive a person who has been almost drowned.1. F. demonstration2. spectacle3. exhibition4. show判断题26、Old English is a non-inflectional language.1. A.√2. B.×27、There is no possibility for the word over to be used as a noun.1. A.√2. B.×28、Conceptual meaning of a word is generally context sensitive.1. A.√2. B.×29、The word nice has gone through a semantic change called “generalization”.1. A.√2. B.×30、Connotative meaning of a word is relatively stable and insensitive to the change of context.1. A.√2. B.×31、AmE and BrE shares all grammatical rules.1. A.√2. B.×32、Comparatively speaking, ask is more formal than interrogate.1. A.√2. B.×33、“Pragmatic meaning”can also be referred to as “contextual meaning”.1. A.√2. B.×34、In the sentence, “More hands are needed on the farm”, metonymy is employed.1. A.√2. B.×35、The word safe means the same in The child is safe and The beach is safe.1. A.√2. B.×36、Lexical semantics is not only a subset of lexicology, but also a subset of semantics.1. A.√2. B.×37、Answering the question “Will you marry me?”with “Yes, I will”, the speaker is using substitution.1. A.√2. B.×38、In the English vocabulary, foreign elements made up a much bigger part in number than the native elemen1. A.√2. B.×39、-ed in short-sighted is an inflectional morpheme.1. A.√2. B.×40、Among the four words accepting, accepted, acceptance and acceptable, the first two are derived from deriva1. A.√2. B.×41、The vocabulary of any language never remains stable; it is constantly changing.1. A.√2. B.×42、Hyperbole has the effect of weakening the meaning of words.1. A.√2. B.×43、According to cognitive semantics, our mind can be explored via the study of linguistic meanings.1. A.√2. B.×44、de-urbanization is a word composed of 5 morphemes, all of which are bound ones.1. A.√2. B.×45、For an English word, the shift of stress may indicate a change of part of speech; export is a perfect exampl1. A.√2. B.×主观题46、type参考答案：Type is the general kind of a word as listed in a dictionary. For example, “A boy saw a cat fight with a dog yesterday”may b based on type, according to the definition of which, “a”is used three times as the definite article and thus should be counted to which, each appearance of “a”should be recognized as a word.47、blending参考答案：Blending refers to process of making a new word by combining parts of two or more words. For example, the word “brunc48、meronymy参考答案：Meronymy refers to the part-whole sense relationship. For example, the word “body”and “head”, “arm”, “leg”, etc. have a “meronymy”.49、context of situation参考答案：Context of situation refers to the immediate environment of the text.50、specialization参考答案：Specialization refers to process where by a word of wide meaning acquires a narrow or specialized sense. For example, “bre means “the type of food made from flour, water and yeast mixed together and baked.”51、generalization参考答案：Generalization refers to the extension of the word range, or the widening of the semantic scope. For example, “manuscript semantic scope has been widened to be “a copy of a book, a piece of music,etc. before it has been printed”.52、polysemy参考答案：Polysemy refers to semantic phenomenon where a single word or phrase has several meanings. For example, “show” means noun and it means quite differently when it is used as a verb.53、dictionary meaning参考答案：dictionary meaning: Dictionary meaning is also called “inherent meaning”. It refers to the meaning of words out of context, its dictionary meaning of “adult”, “unmarried”and “male”. In contrast, other related meanings related to unmarried man, su not dictionary meaning of bachelor, thus, are not listed as its meanings in dictionaries.54、What is the structural invariability of idioms? Are there any variants for this characteristics?参考答案：An English idiom has the established form, one that has been accepted by traditional usage. The words in idiomatic expressi synonymous words, or put in a different order, without affecting or destroying the figurative meaning. The following examp idioms. The structural invariability can be observed by the following two examples:See the structural invariability with a comparison between the following two sentences:*I expected him to kick the bucket and kick it he did.I asked him to write a letter to my aunt, but not to write it in English.To sum up, the structural invariability of an English idiom is at least two-fold in sense. In the first place, it implies that Engl are reproduced in speech as ready-made units; secondly, unlike free phrases which may vary according to the needs of comm reproduced as a single unchangeable collocation.But, idioms do have seven types of variants:1) Variants differing in inflection: Inflectional information for English idioms is identical to that of non-idiomatic or lexical Verbal idioms can occur in a variety of tenses, e.g. Royal housekeeper spills the beans.Nouns involved in idioms may be either singular or plural, e.g. There is an inherent fear that inflation is going to rear its h2) Open slots: Some idioms have open slots into which any noun phrase (NP) can be inserted to meet the requirements of the.g. see NP through: to understand, realize the true nature of …We saw through his superficial charm: he was obviously a liar.3) Modification: parts of some English idioms are syntactically modifiable,e.g. call the shots: to decide on the course of action, to be in chargeWhy do you have to call all the shots? Do what you’re told. It is up to the boss to call the final shots.4) Passive: many idioms can appear separated from each other in passive constructionse.g. to turn the table on sb.: to suddenly take a position of strength or advantage that was formerly held by someone else5) Topicalization: The topic is the part of the proposition that is being talked about or predicated. Topicalization refers to thee.g. to pull strings: to use one’s influen ce over important people in order to get something or to help someoneThose strings, he wouldn’t pull for you.6) Distribution over several clauses: parts of some English idioms can be spread over a main clause and a subordinate clausee.g. a mold that badly need breakingthe United States is trying to regain face that was lost when President Clinton backed down last year.7) Incomplete idioms: Some English idioms can be recognized even when only parts of them are present.e.g. Count one’s chi ckens before they are hatched.55、What is a word?参考答案：A word can be simple defined as the minimal meaningful free unit of language. This definition is to be understood in the fro1) A word is the sound unit of language.(1) A word is a sound unit (or unit of speech) for the purpose of communication. In this sense, a word sound in nature and Even the first word uttered by a baby is for communication.(2) A word is a sound cluster conventionally sequenced. In this sense, the order of sound elements in a word is fixed and a word /ɡəu/, the sequence /ɡ/must precede /əu /, otherwise, it is not the word “go” at all.(3) A word is a combination of sound and meaning according to the conventions of specific languages. For example, the so Chinese.2) A word is the smallest free form of language.(1) Words are free forms of a language, i.e., forms that can be moved without destroying the grammaticality of the sentenc “Bill” can all move freely and each sentence is grammatically correct.(2) In contrast, the letters that form a word are fixed with rigid sequential order. A word is the smallest free form of langua or even its status as a word. For example, only “John”is a boy’s name, but not “Jonh”, “Jhon”, “Jhno”or “Joan”.3) A word is the building block for phrase and sentence.When separated from the phrase, sentence or passage, a word will be difficult to understand since it is no more than a “dead passages are contexts for the interpretation of words. In sum, words are the building blocks out of which phrases and senten56、Brave it out, no matter how difficult it is.参考答案：无论那有多困难，你都应勇敢面对。

English Lexicology(英语词汇学)Lexicology（词汇学）: is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words.The Nature and Scope of English lexicology：English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.The subjects that English Lexicology correlated with and extent to：English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学), semantics(语义学), etymology(词源学),stylistics（文体论）and lexicography(词典学) The reason for a student to study English lexicology：According to the textbook, English Lexicology will definitely be beneficial for students of English.A good knowledge of morphological structures of English words and rules of word-formation will help learners develop their personal vocabulary and consciously increase their word power. The information of the historical development and the principles of classification will give them a deeper understanding of word-meaning and enable them to organize, classify and store words more effectively. The understanding and their sense relations will gradually raise their awareness of meaning and usage, and enable them use words more accurately and appropriately. A working knowledge of dictionaries will improve their skills of using reference books and raise their problem-solving ability and efficiency of individual study.Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabularyWord（词的定义）: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentenceSound and meaning（声音与意义）: almost arbitrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”Sound and form（读音和形式）:不统一的四个原因（1）the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other （2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years （3）some of the difference were creates by the early scribes（4）the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabularyVocabulary（词汇）: all the words in a language make up its vocabularyClassification of English Words：By use frequency:basic word stock&nonbasic vocabularyBy notion:content words&functional wordsBy origin:native words&borrowed wordsThe basic word stock（基本词汇）: is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. Though it constitute a small percentage of the EV, it is the most important part of vocabulary.The Fundamental Features of the Basic Word Stock(基本词汇的特征):1)All-National character（全民通用性most important）2)Stability（相对稳定性）3)Productivity（多产性）4)Polysemy（多义性）5)Collocability（可搭配性）没有上述特征的words:(1)Terminology(术语) (2)Jargon（行话）(3)slang（俚语）(4)Argot（暗语）（5）Dialectal words(方言) (6) Archaisms（古语）(7) Neologisms（新词语）:Neologisms means newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.(email)Content words/notional words实词(cloud, run walk, never, five, frequently) and functional words/empty words虚词(on, of, and, be, but)Native Words and Borrowed WordsNative words（本族语词）: known as Anglo-Saxon words (50,000-60,000), are words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes. (mainstream of the basic word-stocks).Two other features:(1)neutral in style (2)frequent in useBorrowed words/Loan words（外来语词）: words taken over from foreign languages.(80% of modern EV)4 Types of loan words:1) denizens(同化词): (shirt from skyrta(ON))2) aliens（非同化词/外来词）:are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling (kowtow (CH)磕头)3) translation loans(译借词):按其他语言方式组成英语long time no see (from China)4) semantic loans（借义词）：they are not borrowed with reference to the form,but their meanings are borrowedChapter 2 the development of the English VocabularyThe Indo-European Language Family(印欧语系)The Eight Groups in Indo-European Family of Languages（8大印欧语群）The Eastern set:（1）The Balto-slavic Group（波罗的-斯拉夫语族）：Russian,Bulgarian,Polish,Czech etc.（2）The Indo-Iranian Group（印度-伊朗语族）：Hindi,Bengali,Persian etc.(3)The Armenian Group（亚美尼亚语族）：Armenian.(4)The Albanian Group（阿尔巴尼亚语族）：Albanian.The Western set:(5)The Hellenic Group（古希腊语族）：Greek.(6)The Italian Group（意大利语族）：Latin ,Romance languages(French,Italian,Spanish, portuguese,Romanian) etc.(7)The Celtic Group（凯尔特语族）：Irish,Welsh,Breton etc.(8)The Germanic Group（日耳曼语族）：Flemish,German,Dutch,Scandinavian(Norweigian, Swedish,Danish,Icelandic) etc.The Three Stages of Development of the English Vocabulary:1 Old English (450-1100) (vocabulary 50,000 to 60,000):was I high inflected language.2 Middle English (1150-1500):retaines much fewer inflections3 Modern English (1500-up to now): in fact more than 25% of modern E words come almost directly from classical languages. In Modern E, words endings were mostly lost with just a few expections.English has evolved from a synthetic language(Old English) to the present analytic language.Modes of Vocabulary Development(词汇的发展模式):1)creation创造新词：the formation of new words by using the existing materials,namely toots,affixes and other elements.(最重要方式)2)semantic change旧词新义:does not increase the number of word forms but create many more new useages of the words.3) borrowing借用外来词:constitute merely 6 to 7 percent of all new wordsReviving words or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant.Chapter 3 Word Formation IMorpheme(词素):the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words Allomorph(词素变体): is a different variant form of a morpheme，differ in phonological and spelling form, but at the same in function and meaningType of Morpheme(词素的分类)（1）Free Morphemes（自由词素）: have complete meaning in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself. (independent).（2）Bound Morpheme(粘着语素): A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself. Bound Morpheme includes two types: (1) bound root(粘附词根) (2)Affix(词缀)Affixes can be put into two groups:1)Inflectional affixes (屈折词缀):affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional,thus known as inflectional morphemes.2)Derivational affixes(派生词缀): A) prefix: A prefix comes before words. B)suffix:An adjective suffix（形容词后缀）that is added to the stem, whatever class is belongs to , the result will be an adjective.Free Morpheme =free root（自由词根）Morpheme(词素)Bound root prefixbound derivationalaffix suffixinflectionalRoot and stem（词根和词干）The differences between root and stem:A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root.Chapter 4 Word-Formation II(构词法)1.Affixation词缀法（Derivation派生法）：the formation of words by adding word-formaing or derivational affixes to stem.（1）Prefixation(前缀法)：It's the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems.1)Negative prefixes(否定前缀): un-,non-,in-,dis,a- ,il-,ir-,im-,etc.disobey(not obey)2)Reversative prefixes（逆反前缀）: un-,de-，dis- etc. unwrap(open)3) Pejorative prefixes: mis（贬义前缀）：mis-，mal-, pseudo- etc.misconduct(bad behaviour)4) Prefixes of degree or size(程度前缀)：arch-,extra-,hyper-,macro-,micro-,mini-,out-,over-,sub-,super-,sur-,ultra-,under-,ect. overweight5) Prefixes of orientation and attitude（倾向态度前缀）:contra-,counter-,anti-,pro- etc.anti-nuclear6)Locative prefixes（方位前缀）:extra-,fore-,inter-,intra-,tele-,trans-, etc. extraordinary(more than ordinary)7) Prefixes of time and order（时间和顺序前缀）:fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc. monorail(one rail)8) Number prefixes（数字前缀）:uni-，mono-, bi-，di-, tri-,multi-，poly- ，semi-，etc.bilingual(concerning two languages)9) Miscellaneous prefixes（混杂前缀）：auto-, neo-, pan-, vice-.vice-chairman(deputy chairman)(2)Suffixation（后缀法）: It's the formation of a new word by adding suffixes to stems.1)noun suffixes 2)adjective suffixes 3)Adverb suffixes 4)verb suffixespounding复合法（also called composition）Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stemsCompounds are written in three ways: solid连写(airmail)，hyphenated带连字符(air-conditioning)and open分开写(air force, air raid)Formation of compounds（复合词的形式）（1）noun compounds ：e.g. : air + plane = airplane,flower + pot = flower pot（2）adjective compounds ：e.g. acid + head = acid-head（3）verb compounds ：e.g. house + keep = housekeep3.Conversion转类法Conversion: is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class.（功能转换，又叫零派生.functional shift/zero-derivation）4.Blending拼缀法Blending : is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. e.g: motor + hotel = motel, smoke + fog = smog, formula + translation = FORTRAN5.Clipping截短法Clipping:is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead.e.g. plane from airplane, phone from telephone. 四种形式：1).Front clippings删节前面(phone from telephone)2).Back clippings删节后面(dorm from dormitory)3).Front and back clippings 前后删节(flu from influenza)4).Phrase clippings 短语删节(pop from popular music)6.Acronymy首字母缩写法Acronymy:is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.（1）Initialism（首字母缩写词法）: initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter. e.g.: BBC(for British Broadcasting corporation)（2）Acronym（首字母拼音法）:Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word. E.g.:TEFL(teaching English as a foreign language)7.Back-formation（逆生法，逆构词）Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. It’s the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes. (greed from greedy)8.Words From Proper Name(专有名词转成法):Names of people, places, book, and tradenames (e.g.: sir watt siemens(人名) -- watt（瓦特，电功率单位）Chapter 5 Word MeaningThe meanings of “Meaning” (“意义”的意义)Reference(所指):It is the relationship between language and the word. It is the arbitrary and conventional. It is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer to something specific.Concept（概念）:which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition(认识),reflecting the objective world in the human mind.Sense（意义）:It denotes the relationship inside the language. ‘The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language.’Motivation(理据)：It accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.1) Onomatopoeic motivation（拟声理据）:words whose sounds suggest their meaning, for these words were creates by imitating the natural sounds or noises. Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning. E.g.: bang, ping-pong, ha ha. 2)Morphological motivation （形态理据）:multi-morphemic words and the meaning of many are the sum total of the morphemes combines. E.g.: airmail, miniskirt .例外：black market, ect.3)Semantic motivation（词义理据）：refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word. E.g:the foot of the mountain(foot)4)Etymological motivation （词源理据）:the history of the word explains the meaning of the word. E.g:pen-featherTypes of meaning(词义的类别)1.Grammatical Meaning（语法意义）:indicates the grammatical concept or relationships (becomes important only in actual context)2.Lexical Meaning （词汇意义）(Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning make up the word-meaning)Lexical meaning has 2 components内容: Conceptual meaning(概念意义) and associative meaning(关联意义)1）Conceptual meaning(概念意义): also known as denotative meaning(外延意义) is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning.2）Associative meaning(关联意义):is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning.[4types:（1）Connotative（内涵意义）：the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning, traditionally known as connotations.(例如“母亲”经常与“爱”“关心”“温柔”联系起来)（2）Stylistic（文体意义）：many words have stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different contexts.（3）Affective（感情意义）：indicates the speaker’s attitude towards the person or thing in question.这种情感价值观分两类：褒义和贬义appreciative & pejorative （4）Collocative（搭配意义）：is the part of the word-meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in discussion.]Chapter 6 --Sense relation and semantic field（语义关系和语义场）Polysemy（多义关系）Two approached to polysemy（多义关系的两种研究方法）:1.diachronic approach(历时方法) ：from the diachronic point of view, polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word. First meaning is the primary meaning , the later meanings are called derived meanings.2. synchronic approach (共时方法) : synchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a certain historical period of time.基本意义是central meaning , 次要意义是derived meaning.Two processes of development（词义的两种发展类型）:1.radiation（辐射型）：is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands atthe centre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes.(e.g: face, neck)2.concatenation（连锁型）:is the semantic process in which the meaning of a wordmove gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had at the beginning.(e.g:treacle)3.In radiation, each of the derived meaning is directly connected to the primarymeaning. In concatenation, each of the later meaning is related only to the preceding one like chains. Though the latest sense can be traced back to the original, there is no direct connection in between.4.They are closely related, being different stages of the development leading topolysemy. Generally, radiation precedes concatenation. In many cases, the two processes work together, complementing each other.Homonymy（同形同音异义关系）:words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.Types of homonyms(同音同形异义关系的类别)1）Perfect homonyms（完全同音同形异义词）：words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning.2)Homographs（同形异义词）:words identical only in spelling, but different in sound and meaning.(最多最常见)3）Homophones（同音异义词）：words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning.Origins of homonyms (同形同音异义词的来源)1）change in sound and spelling ：(eare-ear, lang-long, langian-long)2）borrowing (feria-fair, beallu-ball, baller-ball )3）Shortening(缩略): (ad-advertisement,)The differentiation of Homonyms from Polysemes（同音同形异义词和多义词的区别)：1)The fundamental difference : Homonymy refers to different words which happen to share the same form and polysemy are the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings.2)One important criterion is to see their etymology(词源)：Homonymys are from different sources. Polysemant is from the same source.3)The second principle consideration is semantic relatedness(语义关联): The various meanings of polysemant are correlated and connected to one central meaning. Meanings of different homonymys have nothing to do with one another. In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meaning all listed under one headword whereas homonyms are listed as separate entries.Rhetoric features of homonyms(同形同音异义词的修辞特色)：As homonyms are identical in sound or spelling, particularly homophones, they are often employed to create puns for desired effect of, say, humor, sarcasm or ridicule.Synonymy (同义关系): one of two or more words in the English language which have the same or very nearly the same essential meaning .Types of Synonymy(同义词的类别) :(1)Absolute synonyms（完全同义词）：also known as complete synonyms are wordswhich are identical in meaning in all aspects, i.e. both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, including conceptual and associative meanings.[ Absolute synonyms are restricted to highly specialized vocabulary in lexicology. ](2)relative synonyms（相对同义词）:also called near-synonyms are similar or nearly thesame in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees ofa given quality.(e.g: change/alter/vary, stagger/reel/totter, strange/odd/queer,idle/lazy/indolent)Sources of synonyms(同义词的来源) :1)Borrowing（借词）：最重要的来源(room-chamber, foe-enemy, help-aid, leave-depart, wise-sage, buy-purchase)2)Dialects and regional English （方言和地区英语）3)Figurative and euphemistic use of words （单词的修饰和委婉用法）:occupation/profession-walk of life, dreamer--star-gazer, drunk-elevated, lie-distort of fact.4)Coincidence with idiomatic expressions（与习惯表达一致）:win-gain the upper hand, decide-make up one’s mind, finish-get through, hesitate-be in two minds, help-lend one a hand.Discrimination of Synonyms(1)difference in denotation外延不同. Synonyms may differ in the range and intensity ofmeaning.(rich-wealthy, work-toil, want-wish-desire)(2)difference in connotation内涵不同. By connotation we mean the stylistic and emotivecolouring of words. Some words share the same denotation but differ in their stylistic appropriateness. (借词：answer-respond, storm-tempest, wood-forest, handy-manual, unlike-dissimilar, homely-domestic, fleshy-carnal.中性词：policeman-constable-bobby-cop, ask-beg-request. 古语词、诗歌：ire/anger, bliss-happiness, forlorn-distresses, dire-dreadful, list-listen, enow-enough, save-expect, mere-lake ) (3)difference in application. Many words are synonymous in meaning but difference inusage in simple terms. They form different collocations and fit into difference sentence patterns. (allow sb. to do sth.- let sb. do sth. / answer the letter-reply to the letter)Antonymy (反义关系) :it is concerned with semantic opposition. Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning.Types of Antonyms:1)contradictory terms (矛盾反义词): these antonyms truly represent oppositeness of meaning. 特点：①The assertion of one is the denial of the other. ②Such antonyms are non-gradable. They cannot be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs of intensity like “very” to qualify them . (e.g: single/married)2)contrary terms（对立反义词）: antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremes.(e.g: old/young, rich/young, big/small) The two opposites are gradable and one exists in comparison with the other.3)relative terms（关系反义词）：this type consists of relational opposites.（parent/child, husband/wife, employee/employer, sell/buy, receive-give）Some of the characteristics of antonyms(反义关系的特点):1)antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition(语义对立)2)a word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym3)antonyms differ in semantic inclusion（语义内涵）4)contrary terms are gradable antonyms，differing in degree of intensity, so each has its own corresponding opposite.(hot/warm: hot-cold/warm-cool)The use of antonyms（反义词的使用）1）Antonyms are helpful and valuable in defining the meaning of words.2)To express economically the opposite of a particular thought for the sake of contrast.(e.g :now or never, rain or shine, friend or foe敌友，weal and woe哀乐)3）To form antithesis(对比法) to achieve emphasis by putting contrasting idea together. (proverbs and sayings: easy come , easy go./ more haste, less speed.)Hyponymy(上下义关系): Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. The meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. For example, a cat is hyponym of animalSuperordinate and Subordinate (上义词和下义词)：use subordinates which are concrete and precise ,presenting a vivid verbal picture before the reader. Superordinates which convey only a general and vague idea.Semantic Field(语义场)Viewing the total meaning in this way is the basis of field theory.e.g.(apple, pear, peach, date, mango, orange, lemon, etc. make up the semantic field of ‘fruits’)The semantic field of the same concept may not have the same members in different language.e.g.(aunt in English, may means “父亲的姐姐，妈妈的姐姐，父亲哥哥的妻子” in Chinese.(122)Chapter 7 Changes in Word Meaning词义的演变Vocabulary is the most unstable element of a language as it is undergoing constant changes both in form and content. Comparatively the content is even more unstable than the form.Types of Changes (词义变化的种类)1.Extension /generalization(词义的扩大): is the name given to the widening of meaning which some words undergo. It is a process by which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized.(e.g: manuscript, fabulous, picture, mill, journal, bonfire, butcher, companion)2.Narrowing/ specialization(词义的缩小)：is the opposite of widening meaning. It is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense.In other words, a word which used to have a more general sense becomes restricted in its application and conveys a special meaning in present-day English.(e.g: deer, corn, garage, liquor, meat, disease, poison, wife, accident, girl). [ when a common word is turned into a proper noun, the meaning is narrowed accordingly. ]3.Elevation /amelioration(词义的升华):refers to the process by which words rise from humble（粗陋的）beginnings to positions of importance. [nice, marshal, constable, angel, knight, earl, governor, fond, minister, chamberlain ]4.Degradation / pejoration(词义的降格):A process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to used in derogatory（贬损的）sense.[boor, churl, wench, hussy, villain, silly, knave, lewd, criticize, lust ]5.Transfer(词义的转移): Words which were used to designate指明one thing but later changed to mean something else have experienced the process of semantic transfer. Causes of Semantic Change(词义变化的原因)1.Extra-linguistic factors(词义演变的语言外部因素):1) Historical reason(历史原因)：Increased scientific knowledge and discovery, objects, institutions, ideas change in the course of time. E.g: pen, car, computer.2 )Class reason(阶级原因)：The attitude of classes have also made inroads into lexical meaning in the case of elevation or degradation.3) Psychological reason(心理原因)：the associated transfer of meaning and euphemistic use of words are often due to psychological factors. Such slow, humble and despised occupations take more appealing names is all due to psychological reasons.2.Linguistic factors（语言内部原因）：the change of meaning may be caused by internal factors with in the language system.1)shorting缩略:gold-gold medal, gas-coal gas, bulb-light bulb, private-private soldier2)borrowing借用:deer-animal-beast3)analogy类推:Chapter 8 Meaning and Context 词义和语境Context in its traditional sense refers to the lexical items that precede or follow a given word. Modern linguists have broadened its scope to include both linguistic and extra-linguistic contexts.Two types of context（语境的种类）1. Extra-linguistic context/ Non-linguistic situation（非语言语境）：In a broad sense, context includes the physical situation as well, which embraces the people, time, place, and even the whole cultural background. (look out, weekend, landlord )2.Linguistic context/ grammatical context(语言语境)：In a narrow sense, it refers to the words, clauses, sentences in which a word appears. It may cover a paragraph, a whole chapter and even the entire book.分为两类：1) Lexical context（词汇语境）：It refers to the word that occurs together with the word in question. (e.g: paper, do)2) Grammatical context（语法语境）：It refers the situation when the meaning of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs. (e.g: become)The role of context(语境的作用)1.Elimination of ambiguity(消除歧义)1）Ambiguity due to polysemy or homonymy.2）Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity如何消除歧义？——①extend the original sentence ②alter the context a little2.Indication of referents(限定所指)如何限定所指？——①with clear context ②with adequate verbal context3.Provision of clues for inferring word-meaning (提供线索以猜测词义)1)definition2)explanation3)example4)synonymy5)antonymy6)hyponymy（上下义关系）7)relevant details8)word structureChapter 9 English Idioms 英语习语Idioms（习语的定义）: are expressions that are not readily understandable from their literal meaning of individual elements. In a broad sense, idiom may include colloquialisms （俗语）, Catchphrases（标语）,slang expressions （俚语）,proverbs（谚语）,etc. They form an important part of the English vocabulary.Characteristics of Idioms（英语习语的特点）1.Semantic unity （语意的整体性）：words in the idiom they have lost their individual identity. Their meanings are not often recognizable in the meaning of the whole idiom.The semantic unity of idioms is also reflected in the illogical relationship between the literal meaning of each of the idiom.2.Structural stability(结构的稳定性):the structure of an idiom is to a large extent un changeable.1) the constituents of idioms cannot be replaced2) the word order cannot be inverted or changed3) the constituents of idioms cannot be deleted or added to, not even an article.4) many idioms are grammatically unchangeableThe fixity of idiom depends on the idiomaticity.习语性表达习惯Classification of Idioms（英语习语的分类）1. idioms nominal in nature 名词性习语(white elephant累赘物)2 .idioms adjectival in nature形容词性习语（as poor as a church mouse）3 .idioms verbal in nature 动词性习语（look into）4 .idioms adverbial in nature副词性习语（tooth and nail 拼命）5 .sentence idioms 句式习语（never do things by halves）Use of idioms（习语的使用）1.Stylistic features（文体色彩）：1）colloquialisms（俗语）2）slang （俚语）3）literary expressions（书面表达）The same idiom may show stylistic differences when it is assigned（指派）different meanings.2.Rhetorical features(修辞色彩)1) phonetic manipulation （语音处理）：（1）alliteration头韵法（2）rhyme尾韵法2）lexical manipulation（词法处理）（1）reiteration（duplication of synonyms）同义词并举[scream and shout]（2）repetition 重复[out and out]（3）juxtaposition (of antonyms) 反义词并置[here and there]3.figures of speech（修辞格）（1）simile明喻（2）metaphor暗喻（3）metonymy换喻/以名词代动作：live by one’s pen（4）synecdoche提喻/以部分代整体：earn one’s bread（5）Personification拟人法（6）Euphemism委婉语：kick the bucket(die)（7）hyperbole 夸张：a world of troubleVariations of idioms(习语的变异形式)：1.addition增加2.deletion删除3.replacement替换4.position-shifting位置转移5.dismembering分解Chapter 10 English Dictionaries 英语字典Dictionary: presents in alphabetical order the words of English, with information as to their spelling ,pronunciation, meaning, usage , rules and grammar, and in some, their etymology（语源）.Types of dictionaries(词典的种类):1.Monolingual & bilingual dictionaries（单语词典和双语词典）：最早的词典都是双语的(1).Monolingual dictionary: is written in one language (LDCE, CCELD). The headword or entries are defined and illustrated in the same language.(2).Bilingual dictionary: involve two languages (A New English-Chinese D, A Chinese-English D)2.Linguistic and Encyclopedic dictionaries（语文词典与百科词典）（1）Linguistic dictionary: aim at defining words and explaining their usages in the language (spelling, pronunciation, meaning, grammatical, function, usage and etymology etc.)可以是单语或是双语的（2）Encyclopedic dictionary:1）encyclopedia (百科全书):is not concerned with the language per se（本身）but provides encyclopedic information. Concerning each headword (not pronunciation, meanings, or usages) but only information.2）Encyclopedic Dictionaries: have the characteristics of both linguistic D and encyclopedia (<Chamber’s Encyclopedic English Dictionary>)3.Unabridged, desk and pocket dictionaries(大型词典、案头词典、袖珍词典)（1）Unabridged D: basic information about a word——its origin, meaning, pronunciation, cognates(同词源的),usage, grammatical, function, spelling, hyphenation,。

semantics知识点总结Semantics is the study of meaning in language. It is concerned with how words and sentences are interpreted, how meaning is assigned to linguistic expressions, and how meaning is inferred from language. In this summary, we will explore some key concepts and topics in semantics, including the following:1. Meaning and reference2. Sense and reference3. Truth-conditional semantics4. Lexical semantics5. Compositional semantics6. Pragmatics and semantics7. Ambiguity and vagueness8. Semantic changeMeaning and referenceMeaning is a fundamental concept in semantics. It refers to the content or interpretation that is associated with a linguistic expression. The study of meaning in linguistics is concerned with understanding how meaning is established and conveyed in language. Reference, on the other hand, is the relationship between a linguistic expression and the real world entities to which it refers. For example, the word "dog" refers to the concept of a four-legged animal that is commonly kept as a pet. The study of reference in semantics is concerned with understanding how words and sentences refer to objects and entities in the world.Sense and referenceThe distinction between sense and reference is an important concept in semantics. Sense refers to the meaning or concept associated with a linguistic expression, while reference refers to the real world entities to which a linguistic expression refers. For example, the words "morning star" and "evening star" have the same reference - the planet Venus - but different senses, as they are used to describe the planet at different times of the day. Frege, a prominent philosopher of language, introduced this important distinction in his work on semantics.Truth-conditional semanticsTruth-conditional semantics is an approach to semantics that seeks to understand meaning in terms of truth conditions. According to this view, the meaning of a sentence isdetermined by the conditions under which it would be true or false. For example, the meaning of the sentence "The cat is on the mat" is determined by the conditions under which this statement would be true - i.e. if there is a cat on the mat. Truth-conditional semantics has been influential in the development of formal semantics, and it provides a formal framework for analyzing meaning in natural language.Lexical semanticsLexical semantics is the study of meaning at the level of words and lexical items. It is concerned with understanding the meanings of individual words, as well as the relationships between words in a language. Lexical semantics examines how words are related to each other in terms of synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, and other semantic relationships. It also explores the different senses and meanings that a word can have, and how these meanings are related to each other. Lexical semantics plays a crucial role in understanding the meaning of sentences and discourse.Compositional semanticsCompositional semantics is the study of how the meanings of words and sentences are combined to create complex meanings. It seeks to understand how the meanings of individual words are combined in sentences to produce the overall meaning of a sentence or utterance. Compositional semantics is concerned with understanding the rules and principles that govern the composition of meaning in natural language. It also explores the relationship between syntax and semantics, and how the structure of sentences contributes to the interpretation of meaning.Pragmatics and semanticsPragmatics is the study of how language is used in context, and how meaning is influenced by the context of language use. Pragmatics is closely related to semantics, but it focuses on the use of language in communication, and how meaning is affected by factors such as the speaker's intentions, the hearer's inferences, and the context in which the language is used. While semantics is concerned with the literal meaning of linguistic expressions, pragmatics is concerned with the implied meaning that arises from the use of language in context.Ambiguity and vaguenessAmbiguity and vagueness are common phenomena in natural language, and they pose challenges for semantic analysis. Ambiguity refers to situations where a linguistic expression has multiple possible meanings, and it is unclear which meaning is intended. For example, the word "bank" can refer to a financial institution or the edge of a river. Vagueness, on the other hand, refers to situations where the boundaries of a linguistic expression are unclear or indistinct. For example, the word "tall" is vague because it is not always clear what height qualifies as "tall". Semantics seeks to understand how ambiguity and vagueness arise in language, and how they can be resolved or managed in communication.Semantic changeSemantic change refers to the process by which the meanings of words and linguistic expressions evolve over time. Over the course of history, languages undergo semantic change, as words acquire new meanings, lose old meanings, or change in their semantic associations. Semantic change can occur through processes such as metaphor, metonymy, broadening, narrowing, and generalization. Understanding semantic change is important for the study of historical linguistics and the diachronic analysis of language.ConclusionSemantics is a rich and complex area of study that plays a fundamental role in understanding the meaning of language. It encompasses a wide range of topics and concepts, and it has important implications for fields such as philosophy of language, cognitive science, and natural language processing. By exploring the key concepts and topics in semantics, we can gain valuable insights into how meaning is established and conveyed in language, and how we can analyze and understand the rich complexity of linguistic expressions.。

1.判断题：We were all born with the ability to acquire language, which means the details of any language system can be genetically transmitted.正确错误参考答案：错误2.单选题：__________ deals with language application to other fields, particularly education.A. Linguistic theoryB. Practical linguisticsC. Comparative linguisticsD. Applied linguistics参考答案：D3.单选题：Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human __________A. contactB. communicationC. relationD. community参考答案：B4.判断题：Only human beings are able to communicate.正确错误参考答案：错误5.填空题：Saussure put forward two important concepts. _____refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.参考答案：langue6.判断题：The conventional nature of language is illustrated by a famous quotation from Shakespear’s play Romeo and Juliet: “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet”.正确错误参考答案：正确7.填空题：Linguistic potential is similar to Saussure’s langue and Chomsky’s_______参考答案：competence8.判断题：Speech and writing came into being at much the same time in human history.正确错误参考答案：错误9.填空题：The description of a language as it changes through time is a _______ study.参考答案：diachronic10.填空题：Linguistics is the______ study of language.参考答案：scientific11.填空题：One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of _______ over writing. 参考答案：speech12.填空题：Modern linguistics is _______ in the sense that the linguist tries to discover what language is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.参考答案：descriptive13.单选题：Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?A. treeB. typewriterC. crashD. bang参考答案：A14.判断题： F. de Saussure, who made the distinction between langue and parole in the early 20th century, was a French linguist.正确错误参考答案：错误15.单选题：__________ refers to the actual realization of the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language in utterances.A. PerformanceB. CompetenceC. LangueD. Parole参考答案：A16.判断题：Language is written because writing is the primary medium for all languages.正确错误参考答案：错误17.单选题：Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place, due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation?A. TransferabilityB. DualityC. DisplacementD. Arbitrariness参考答案：C【quiz2 phonology】测试总分：18 分【jenny1027】的测试概况：(得分：18 分)1.填空题：In phonological analysis the words fail / veil are distinguishable simply because of the two phonemes /f/ - /v/. This is an example for illustrating _______参考答案：minimal pairs2.填空题：Speech takes place when the organs of speech move to produce patterns of sound. These movements have an effect on the coming ______from the lungs.参考答案：air stream3.判断题：According to the length or tenseness of the pronunciation, vowels can be divided into long vs. short or tense vs. lax.正确错误参考答案：正确4.判断题：In English, all the back vowels are rounded.正确错误参考答案：错误5.填空题：In English there are a number of_________, which are produced by moving from onevowel position to another through intervening positions.参考答案：diphthongs6.填空题：According to the feature of voicing, consonant sounds can be either ____ or ____ , while all vowel sounds are ____ .参考答案：voiced voiceless voiced7.单选题：Pitch variation is known as __________ when its patterns are imposed on sentences.A. intonationB. toneC. pronunciationD. voice参考答案：A8.单选题：Which one is different from the others according to places of articulation?A. [n]B. [m]C. [b]D. [p]参考答案：A9.判断题：In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unrounded.正确错误参考答案：正确10.单选题：Which branch of phonetics concerns the production of speech sounds?A. Acoustic phoneticsB. Articulatory phoneticsC. Auditory phoneticsD. None of the above参考答案：B11.单选题：What kind of sounds can we make when the vocal cords are vibrating?A. V oicelessB. V oicedC. Glottal stopD. Consonant参考答案：B12.填空题：Consonants differ from vowels in that the latter are produced without ______ .参考答案：obstruction13.判断题：Suprasegmental phonology refers to the study of phonological properties of units larger than the segment-phoneme, such as syllable, word and sentence.正确错误参考答案：正确14.判断题：[p] is a voiced bilabial stop.正确错误参考答案：错误15.判断题：Acoustic phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.正确错误参考答案：错误16.单选题：Which vowel is different from the others according to the characteristics of vowels?A. [i:]B. [u]C. [e]D. [i]参考答案：B【quiz3 Morphology】1.填空题：Bound morphemes are classified into two types: ______ and ______.参考答案：derivational morphemes inflectional morphemes2.填空题：______is a reverse process of derivation, and therefore is a process of shortening.参考答案：Back-formation3.单选题：The three subtypes of affixes are: prefix, suffix and __________.A. derivational affixB. inflectional affixC. infixD. back-formation参考答案：C4.单选题：Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified as __________.A. content wordsB. grammatical wordsC. function wordsD. form words参考答案：A5.填空题：______is extremely productive, because English had lost most of its inflectional endings by the end of the Middle English period, which facilitated the use of words interchangeably as verbs or nouns, verbs or adjectives, and vice versa.参考答案：Conversion6.单选题：__________ is a way in which new words may be formed from already existing words by subtracting an affix which is thought to be part of the old word.A. affixationB. back-formationC. insertionD. addition参考答案：B7.填空题：A small set of conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns belong to ______class, while the largest part of nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs belong to______ class.参考答案：closed open8.单选题：The words like smog and motel are formed by __________.A. blendingB. clippingC. back-formationD. acronymy参考答案：A9.单选题：In English –ise and –tion are called __________.A. prefixesB. suffixesC. infixesD. stems参考答案：B10.填空题：A word formed by derivation is called a ______, and a word formed by compounding is called a ______.参考答案：derivative compound11.单选题：The word DINK is formed in the way of __________.A. acronymyB. clippingC. compoundingD. blending参考答案：A12.单选题：There are __________ morphemes in the word denationalization.A. threeB. fourC. fiveD. six参考答案：C13.单选题：Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case are called __________ morpheme.A. inflectionalB. freeC. boundD. derivational参考答案：A【quiz4-syntax】1.填空题：Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed ______参考答案：complementizers2.判断题：Minor lexical categories are open because these categories are not fixed and new members are allowed for.正确错误参考答案：错误3.填空题：______is "a syntactic unit that functions as part of a larger unit within a sentence"参考答案：Constituent4.填空题：There are two levels of syntactic structures. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s sub-categorization properties, is called ______. The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called ______.参考答案：deep structure surface structure5.填空题：Infl is the short form of ______, an abstract category which indicates ______ and ______.参考答案：inflection tense agreement6.填空题：Major lexical categories play a very important role in sentence formation. They differ from minor lexical categories in that they are often ______ assumed to be the around which phrases are built.参考答案：heads7.判断题：In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase.正确错误参考答案：错误8.判断题： A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.正确错误参考答案：正确9.填空题：______ is the inversion operation involving the movement of a word from the head position in one phrase into the head position in another phrase.参考答案：head movement10.填空题：Sentence head---- ______ position can be taken by an ______ or an abstract category encoded in a verb which indicates the sentence’s ______.参考答案：Infl auxiliary tense11.填空题：Syntax is ______ that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the ______ the formation of sentences.参考答案：a branch of linguistics rules that govern12.判断题：Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.正确错误参考答案：正确13.判断题：In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.正确错误参考答案：正确14.判断题：The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.正确错误参考答案：正确15.填空题：the XP rule (revised): XP--> ______ + ______ + ______参考答案：(Specifier) X (Complement*)16.填空题：Wh-movement: Move a wh-phrase to the position under CP.参考答案：specifier【quiz5 semantics】1.填空题：_______ opposites may be seen in terms of degrees of the quality involved.参考答案：Gradable2.单选题：The semantic components of the word “man”can be expressed as________.A. +human, +male, -adultB. +human, -male, -adultC. +human, +male, +adultD. +human, -male, +adult参考答案：C3.填空题：_______ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components.参考答案：componential4.单选题： A word with several meaning is called___________.A. an abnormal wordB. a polysemic wordC. a synonymous wordD. None of the above参考答案：B5.单选题：What is the meaning relationship between the two words “flower/tulip”?A. PolysemyB. HomonymyC. HyponymyD. Antonymy参考答案：C6.填空题：The semantic component of the word _______ are +Human, +Adult, +male, -Married.参考答案：bachelor7.填空题：According to the “semantic triangle”presented by Ogden and Richards, the symbol or _______ refers to the linguistic elements(words, sentences, etc.), the _______ refers to the object in the world of experience and the thought or reference refers to concept.参考答案：form referent8.单选题：We call the relation between “animal”and “cow”as___________.A. polysemyB. antonymyC. homophonyD. hyponymy参考答案：D9.单选题：Which description of componential analysis for the word “woman”is right?A. +human, -adult, -maleB. +human, +adult, -maleC. +human, +adult, +maleD. +human, -adult, +male参考答案：B10.单选题：What is the meaning relationship between the two words “rose/tulip”?A. polysemyB. hyponymyC. homophonyD. co-hyponyms参考答案：D11.单选题：The pair of words “wide/narrow”are called__________.A. gradable oppositesB. complementary antonymsC. co-hyponymsD. relational opposites参考答案：A12.单选题：The pair of words “borrow/lend”are called __________.A. relational oppositesB. synonymsC. complementariesD. gradable opposites参考答案：A【quiz6 Pragmatics】1.单选题：What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning _________ is considered.A. referenceB. speech actC. practical usageD. context参考答案：D2.单选题：According to Searle, the illocutionary point of the representative is ______.A. to get the hearer to do somethingB. to commit the speaker to something’s being the caseC. to commit the speaker to some future course of actionD. to express the feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs参考答案：B3.填空题：A(n) _______ act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.参考答案：locutionary4.单选题： A sentence is a _________ concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied in isolation.A. pragmaticB. grammaticalC. mentalD. conceptual参考答案：B5.填空题：A(n) _______ act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.参考答案：illocutionary6.填空题：There are four maxims under the cooperative principle: the maxim of _______, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the maxim of manner.参考答案：quantity7.判断题：The meaning of a sentence is abstract, but context-dependent正确错误参考答案：错误8.填空题：_______ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable.参考答案：Performatives9.判断题：It would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the context of language use was left unconsidered.正确错误参考答案：正确10.单选题：When any of the maxims under the cooperative principle is flouted, _______ might arise.A. impolitenessB. contradictionsC. mutual understandingD. conversational implicatures参考答案：D11.判断题：The meaning of an utterance is decontexualized, therefore stable.正确错误参考答案：错误12.填空题：A(n) _______ is to express feelings or attitude towards an existing state.参考答案：expressive13.填空题：_______ were statements that either state or describe, and were thus verifiable.参考答案：Constatives14.判断题：Utterances always take the form of complete sentences.正确错误参考答案：错误15.判断题：Speech act theory was originated with the British philosopher John Searle.正确错误参考答案：错误16.单选题：All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose, but they differ __________.A. in their illocutionary actsB. in their intentions expressedC. in their strength or forceD. in their effect brought about参考答案：C17.单选题：If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes a (n) _________.A. constativeB. directiveC. utteranceD. expressive参考答案：C18.判断题：Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent.正确错误参考答案：错误19.单选题：__________ is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.A. A locutionary actB. An illocutionary actC. A perlocutionary actD. A performative act参考答案：C20.填空题：A(n) _______ is commit the speaker himself to some future course of action.参考答案：commissive21.判断题：What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.正确错误参考答案：正确。

semantics名词解释1. Semantics(semantically)意义学，语义学；关于意义的研究。

在语言学中指对词和句子的含义进行探讨，包括各种词汇和语法构造的意思以及它们在具体语境中的运用方式。

例句：1. Semantics is a branch of linguistics that studies the meaning of words and sentences.意义学是语言学的一个分支，研究词汇和句子的含义。

2. Semantic analysis involves examining the structure and meaning of language.语义分析涉及审查语言的结构和含义。

3. The study of semantics is important in understanding how language is used to convey meaning.研究语义对于理解语言如何传达含义至关重要。

4. The semantics of a sentence can change depending on the context in which it is used.一句话的语义会因其所在的语境而有所改变。

5. In semantics, we look at both the denotative and connotative meanings of words.在语义学中，我们关注词语的指示意义和隐含意义。

6. The semantic content of a text refers to its underlying meaning and themes.一段文本的语义内容指的是其潜在的意义和主题。

7. Understanding the semantics of a language is important in accurately translating it into another language.了解一种语言的语义对于准确翻译它到另一种语言至关重要。

SemanticsI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False.synonyms can often be found in different regional dialects such as British English and American English but cannot be found within the variety itself，for example，within British English or American English.is concerned with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience，while the reference deals with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations.semantics，meaning of language is considered as the intrinsic and inherent relation to the physical world of experience.is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts.attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all its components.】languages have sets of lexical items similar in meaning but ranked differently according to their degree of formality.9.“it is hot.” is a no-place predication because it contains no argument.grammatical analysis，the sentence is taken to be the basic unit，but in semantic analysis of a sentence，the basic unit is predication，which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given.can be defined as the study of meaning.conceptualist view holds that there is no d______ link between a linguistic form and what it refers to.means what a linguistic form refers to in the real，physical world；it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.that are close in meaning are called s________.two words are identical in sound，but different in spelling and meaning，they are called h__________.opposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items.~analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components.a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called s________ restrictions，which are constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.a________ is a logical participant in a predication，largely identical with the nominal element（s）in a sentence.to the n____ theory of meaning，the words in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.21. The naming theory is advanced by ________.A. PlatoB. BloomfieldC. Geoffrey LeechD. Firth$22. “We shall know a word by the company it keeps.” This statement represents _______.33. Reference：Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real，physical world；it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience34. Synonymy：Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.35. Polysemy：Polysemy refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.36. Homonymy：Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form，. different words are identical in sound or spelling，or in both.37. Homophones：When two words are identical in sound，they are called homophones.[38. Homographs：When two words are identical in spelling，they are homographs.39. Complete homonyms：When two words are identical in both sound and spelling，they are called complete homonyms.40. Hyponymy：Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general，more inclusive word anda more specific word.41. Antonymy：Antonymy refers to the relation of oppositeness of meaning.42. Componential analysis：Componential analysis is a way to analyze word meaning. It was proposed by structural semanticists. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components，which are called semantic features.43. The grammatical meaning：The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality，. its grammatical well-formedness. The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.44. Predication：The predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.45. Argument：An argument is a logical participant in a predication. It is generally identical with the nominal element （s）in a sentence.46. Predicate： A predicate is something that is said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.47. Two-place predication： A two-place predication is one which contains two arguments.!V. Answer the following questions.48.Why do we say that a meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its componentsThe meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components because it cannot be worked out by adding up all the meanings of its constituent words. For example：（A）The dog bit the man.（B）The man bit the dog.If the meaning of a sentence were the sum total of the meanings of all its components，then the above two sentences would have the same meaning. In fact they are different in meanings.As we know，there are two aspects to sentence meaning：grammatical meaning and semantic meaning. The grammatical meanings of “the dog” and “the man” in （A）are different from the grammatical meanings of “the dog” and “the man” in （B）. The meaning of a sentence is the product of both lexical and grammatical meaning. It is the product of the meaning of the constituent words and of the grammatical constructions that relate one word syntagmatically to another.49. What is componential analysis Illustrate it with examples.Componential analysis，proposed by structural semanticists，is a way to analyze word meaning. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components，which are called semantic features. Plus and minus signs are used to indicate whether a certain semantic feature is present or absent in the meaning of a word，and these feature symbols are usually written in capitalized letters. For example，the word “man” is ana lyzed as consisting of the semantic features of [+ HUMAN，+ ADULT，+ ANIMATE，+MALE]50. How do you distinguish between entailment and presupposition in terms of truth values)Entailment is a relation of inclusion. Suppose there are two sentences X and Y：X：He has been to France.Y：He has been to Europe.In terms of truth values，if X is true，Y is necessarily true，. if he has been to France，he must have been to Europe.If X is false，Y may be true or false，e. g. if he has not been to France，he may still have been to Europe or he has not been to Europe. If Y is true，X may be true or false，. if he has been to Europe，he may or may not have been to France.If Y is false，X is false，. If he has not been to Europe，he cannot have been to France.Therefore we conclude that X entails Y or Y is an entailment of X.The truth conditions that we use to judge presupposition is as follows：Suppose there are two sentences X and Y：X：John's bike needs repairing.~Y：John has a bike.If X is true，Y must be true，. if John's bike needs repairing，John must have a bike.If X is false，Y is still true， e. g. If John's bike does not need repairing，John still has a bike. If Y is true，X is either true or false，. if John has a bike，it may or may not need repairing. If Y is false，no truth value can be said about X，. if John does not have a bike，nothing can be said about whether his bike needs repairing or not. Therefore，X presupposes Y，or Y is a presupposition of X.51. How do you account for such sense relations between sentences as synonymous relation，inconsistent relation in terms of truth valuesIn terms of truth condition，of the two sentences X and Y，if X is true，Y is true；if X is false，Y is false，therefore X is synonymous with Y.. X：He was a bachelor all his life.Y：He never married all his life.Of the two sentences X and Y，if X is true，Y is false；if X is false，Y is true，then we can say A is inconsistent with Y..X：John is married.Y：John is a bachelor.》52. According to the ways synonyms differ，how many groups can we classify synonyms into Illustrate them with examples.According to the ways synonyms differ，synonyms can be divided into the following groups.i. Dialectal synonymsThey are synonyms which are used in different regional dialects. British English and American English are the two major geographical varieties of the English language. For examples：British English American Englishautumn falllift elevator；Then dialectal synonyms can also be found within British，or American English itself. For example，"girl" is called "lass" or "lassie" in Scottish dialect，and "liquor" is called "whisky" in Irish dialect.ii. Stylistic synonymsThey are synonyms which differ in style or degree of formality. Some of the stylistic synonyms tend to be more formal，others tend to be casual，and still others are neutral in style. For example：old man，daddy，dad，father，male parentchap，pal，friend，companioniii. Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaningThey are the words that have the same meaning but express different emotions of the user. The emotions of the user indicate the attitude or bias of the user toward what he is talking about. For example，“collaborator” and “accomplice” are synonymous，sharing the meaning of "a person who helps another"，but they are different in their evaluative meaning. The former means that a person who helps another in doing something good，while the latter refers to a person who helps another in a criminal act.iv. Collocational synonymsThey are synonyms which differ in their collocation. For example，we can use accuse，charge，rebuke to say that someone has done something wrong or even criminal，but they are used with different prepositions accuse. . . of，charge. . . with，rebuke. . .for.v. Semantically different synonymsSemantically different synonyms refer to the synonyms that differ slightly in what they mean. For example，"amaze" and "astound" are very close in meaning to the word "surprise，" but they have very subtle differences in meaning. While amaze suggests confusion and bewilderment，"astound" implies difficulty in believing.are the major views concerning the study of meaning How do they differOne of the oldest was the naming theory，proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato，who believed that the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to. The form and the meaning are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. Two kinds of context are recognized：the situational context and the linguistic context.For example，the meaning of the word "seal" in the sentence "The seal could not be found" can only be determined according to the context in which the sentence occurs：The seal could not be found. The zoo keeper became worried.（‘seal’ meaning an aquatic mammal）The seal could not be found. The king became worried.（‘seal’ meaning the king's stamp）Behaviorism drew on behaviorist psychology when he tried to define the meaning of linguistic forms. Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as "the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer".。

名词解释petence and Performance:•The distinction is discussed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.•Competence----the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.•Performance----the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.(American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s proposed the distinction between competence and performance. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communicatio n. Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc.. Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard. )2.Sociolinguistics:is the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.( It is a field of study that assumes that human society is made up of many related patterns and behaviors, some of which are linguistic.)nguage Acquisition:refers to the child’s acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community. (Language acquisition is concerned with language development in humans. In general, language acquisition refers to children’s development of their first language, that is, the native language of the community in which a child has been brought up.)4.the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis:The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is a theory put forward by the American anthropological linguists Sapir and Whorf (and also a belief held by some scholars). It states that the way people view the world is determined wholly or partly by the structure of their native language. (2) The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis consists of two parts, i.e. linguistic determinism and relativism. Whorf proposed first that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on language. Or put it more bluntly, language determines thought, i.e. the notion of linguistic determinism. Because languages differ in many ways, Whorf also believed that speakers of different languages perceive and experience theworld differently, i.e. relative to their linguistic background, hence the notion of linguistic relativism.5.Phrase structure rule:The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule, such as:NP→(Det) + N +(PP)……e.g. those people, the fish on the plate, pretty girls.VP→(Qual) + V + (NP)……e.g. always play games, finish assignments.AP→(Deg) + A + (PP)……very handsome, very pessimistic, familiar with,very close toPP →(Deg) + P + (NP)……on the shelf, in the boat, quite near the station.The boy liked the dog.(The combinational pattern in a linear formula may be called a phrase structural rule, or rewrite rule[重写规则]. )6.Arbitrariness:The form of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. The link between them is a matter of convention.( It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. For instance, there is no necessary relationship between the word dog and the animal it refers to. The fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages and that the same sound may be used to refer to different objects is another good example. Although language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary. Some words, such as the words created in the imitation of sounds by sounds are motivated in a certain degree. The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions. )7.narrow transcription:transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics. This is the transcription required and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds.(The narrow transcription is the transcription with diacritics to show detailed articulatory features of sounds.)8.Second Language Acquisition:Second Language Acquisition (SLA) refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language.( SLA is viewed as a process of creative construction, in which a learner constructs a series of internal representations that comprises the learner's interim knowledge of the target language, known as interlingua. This is the language that a learner constructs at a given stage of SLA. Specifically, interlanguage consists of a series of interlocking and approximate linguistic systems in-between and yet distinct from the learner's native and target languages. It represents the learner’s transitional competence moving along a learning continuum stretching from one’s LI competence to t he target language competence. As a type of linguistic system in its own right, interlanguage is a product of L2 training, mother tongue interference, overgeneralization of the target language rules, and communicative strategies of the learner. If learners were provided sufficient and the right kind of language exposure and opportunities to interact with language input, their interlanguage would develop gradually in the direction of the target language competence. )9.sense and reference:Sense and reference are both concerned with the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning.➢Sense—is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.➢Reference—what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.10.Interlanguage:Learns put their first language back to the whole picture and studied its role from a cognitive perspective. In this sense, native language functions as a kind of “input from inside,”therefore transfer is not transfer, but a kind of mental process.( SLA is viewed as a process of creative construction, in which a learner constructs a series of internal representations that comprisesthe learner’s interim knowledge of the target language, known as interlanguage.)nguage Acquisition Device:The Language Acquisition Device (LAD) is a hypothetical brain mechanism that Noam Chomsky postulated to explain human acquisition of the syntactic structure of language. This mechanism endows children with the capacity to derive the syntactic structure and rules of their native language rapidly and accurately from the impoverished input provided by adult language users. The device is comprised of a finite set of dimensions along whichlanguages vary, which are set at different levels for different languages on the basis of language exposure. The LAD reflects Chomsky's underlying assumption that many aspects of language are universal (common to all languages and cultures) and constrained by innate core knowledge about language called Universal Grammar. This theoretical account of syntax acquisition contrasts sharply with the views of B. F. Skinner, Jean Piaget, and other cognitive and social-learning theorists who emphasize the role of experience and general knowledge and abilities in language acquisition.??????(LAD, that is Language Acquisition Device, is posited by Chomsky in the 1960s as a device effectively present in the minds of children by which a grammar of their nativelanguage is constructed.)12.Cooperative Principle: According to Grice, in making conversation, there is a general principle which all participants are expected to observe. It goes as follows: Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.使你所说的话，在其所发生的阶段，符合你所参与的交谈的公认目标或方向。