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Price discrimination: demand elasticity
Twelve European Union countries have adopted the euro as a common currency, creating “pricing transparency” and forcing companies to harmonize their prices throughout Europe.
4. What’s the pricing objectives of multinational company?
Based on the importance to the company, the pricing objective are as following order: profit, investment yield rate, market share, total sale volume and capital turnover speed Usually, the easier the company control the final price, the better for the company to realize i 7.32 1.83+0.73 10%周转税 9.88 3.29+0.99 10%周转税 14.16 7.08+1.42 10%周转税 22.66
International prices tend to be higher than domestic prices because of price escalation.
(2)反向贸易（Counter trade）
易货贸易(Barter)：交易双方直接互换货物。
例如：西方石油公司与前苏联达成的一项为期两 年、金额200亿美元的协议，是迄今为止最大的易 货贸易之一。按照该协议，西方石油公司用过磷 酸向前苏联换取氨尿素和钾缄.
补偿贸易（Compensation deals）:
反向购买（Counter purchase）:
卖方以某种确定的价格将某种产品出售买方，买 方以现金支付货款，但这种贸易涉及两份合同， 第一份合同以第二份合同为条件。第二份合同规 定 ，卖方必须向买方购买加之相当于第一份合同 总金额的全部或一定百分比的货物。 如:麦道公司向前南斯拉夫出售一批价值1亿美 元的DC-9飞机，后者要求麦道公司必须同时 购买或转卖2500万美元的南斯拉夫货物。
本次尿布价格大战的结果是一次性尿布的价格大跌, 从1990年的每件1美元降到了1998年的每件20美 分,2000年的每件13美分;一次性尿布市场从1995年 的14亿美元增加到2000年的40亿美元. 现在市场增长速度已经减缓,增加的幅度不大,但价 格战依然存在,因为‘‘真正的战争要等到市场不再 成长时才会到来.” 价格竞争作为竞争工具在竞争中的地位越来越重要.
(1) Cost plus pricing 成本加成定价法
Price = total cost +profit Be the same with the company that marginal cost more than fixed cost
(2) Marginal cost pricing 变动(边际)成本定价法
High price to gain profit 撇油定价法 Low price to gain market share渗透定价法
4.其他定价工具 (1) International market tenancy国际市场租
赁 为大量资金短缺的外国企业提供获得设备的途径 有助于销售新的、实验性的设备，使用者风险小， 乐于接受。 得到更好的维护和服务保证 租赁收入比直接销售的收入更稳定。
Channel length: longer channels than domestic markets, may drive up end user prices. Price influence: distribution partners negotiate for the lowest possible “landed cost”.
定价法 It means the firm will pricing based on the market/consumers’ demand. The more the demand is, the higher the price is. 3. competition-Oriented pricing竞争导向定 价法(撇油定价法和渗透定价法) It means the firm will pricing based on competitor’s price. It has two types.
6. The international pricing strategies:
Predatory (quick share-of-market focus): lower prices to drive competitors out, then raise prices Multipoint pricing: pricing in one market may have an impact in another market; subsidize low pricing in one market from profits in another Experience curve: use aggressive pricing to build volume and move firm down experience curve (lower marginal costs)
是用一部分实物，一部分现金来支付的贸易。
例如：通用汽车公司曾将加之1200万美元的机车 和柴油发动机出售给前南斯拉夫，南斯拉夫支付了 800万美元现金，余下400万美元用南斯拉夫产的切 削刀具来支付。 麦道飞机公司与泰国做成了8架F/A-18飞机的补偿 贸易，泰国支付5.78亿美元现金，其余9300万美元 则用泰国橡胶、谷物、家具、冻鸡、水果罐头支付。
In fact, the process of controlling the final price is fairly complex because of the following factors: product line, the number of host country concerned, channel length and so on.
The company only take the marginal cost into account Be suitable to the company that has large scale and overcapacity
2. Market -Oriented pricing 市场(需求)导向
Chapter 8 International Pricing Strategy
国际价格策略
Reference book:
Cateora.P.R and J.L.Graham, International marketing, Irwin Megraw-Hill, 第18章 “国际市 场定价 《国际营销学教程》 张景智 对外经济贸易大学 出版社 第十章
Charge a uniform price all around the world. Charge what consumers in each country will pay. Use a standard markup of costs everywhere.
国内 制造商净价 运费（到岸价） 关税 到岸价的20% 进口商所付金额 进口商转手给批发商 所获得毛利成本25% 批发商所付到岸成本 批发商毛利的33% 零售商所付金额 零售商毛利的50% 零售价格 5
§1 overview
1. What’s international pricing?
The tasks need to be performed to get the product from place of manufacture to foreign customers.
panies face many problems in setting their international prices.
§2 International Pricing Means
1.Cost-Oriented pricing 成本导向定价方法
It means the firm will pricing based on cost mainly. Total cost= total fixed cost + marginal cost Total cost =produce cost + sale cost Produce cost including the cost of raw materials, salary and bonus of the workers and administrators, investment of equipment and workshop. Sale cost including all kinds of fees, such as transportation, storage, selling, tariff, tax, insurance and apply to customer. It could be classified to two types.
Price escalation(价格升级) Pricing to foreign subsidiaries(国外的子公司) Recent economic and technological forces The Internet
3. Possible international pricing approaches include:
