According to Fromkin and Rodman
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语言学纲要语言学纲要引言语言是人类最为重要的交流工具之一,它的起源、演变以及功能一直是语言学领域研究的重要课题。
本文将对语言学的基本概念、语言分类、语音学、语法学、语义学和语用学等方面进行综述,以期帮助读者了解语言学的基础知识。
一、语言学的基本概念语言学是对语言进行科学研究的学科,它关注的对象是人类使用的语言。
语言学的研究范畴包括语音、语法、词汇、语义和语用等方面。
语言学的研究方法主要是通过语言数据的收集、分析和分类,从而揭示语言的规律和特点。
二、语言的分类语言可以根据它们的语系和地理分布进行分类。
根据语系,世界上的语言可以分为汉藏语系、印欧语系、日耳曼语系、阿尔泰语系等。
根据地理分布,语言可以分为汉语、英语、法语、阿拉伯语、俄语等。
三、语音学语音学研究的是语言中音素的产生、组织和运用规律。
语音学通过对语音的分类、描述和分析,揭示语音之间的相似性和差异性,并研究语音对交流的影响。
四、语法学语法学研究的是语言中句子的结构和变化规律。
它关注句子中的词类、词序、词法和句法等方面,通过分析语言的句法结构和语法规则,揭示语言句子的构建方式。
五、语义学语义学研究的是语言中词汇、短语和句子的意义。
它研究语言中的词义、句义和语用等方面,通过对语言的含义进行分析,揭示语言的意义体系。
六、语用学语用学研究的是语言在特定语境中的使用规律和交际功能。
它关注语言的交际目的、语境、文化背景等因素对语言的影响,通过对话语行为和交际效果的分析,揭示语言的使用规范和交际策略。
结论语言学是一门研究语言的学科,它通过对语言的分类、语音、语法、语义和语用的研究,揭示语言的规律和特点,为语言教学和语言技术的发展提供理论支持。
通过对语言学纲要的了解,有助于我们深入理解语言的本质和功能,提高语言分析和交际能力。
希望本文能为读者提供一定的参考和启示。
参考文献:1. Crystal, D. (2011). A dictionary of linguistics and phonetics. John Wiley & Sons.2. Fromkin, V., Rodman, R., & Hyams, N. (2017). An introduction to language. Cengage Learning.。
实践分享Second Language Learning■李祥瑞Abstract:Second language learning involves many aspects of language and each school has different opinions about lan-guage learning.The essay elucidates that second language learn-ing and terminology used in language.Following that,the per-spectives of each school are also provided.Second language learning refers to learning any language to any degree and second language learning starts later than first lan-guage learning(Mitchell and Myles2004).A large number of in-dividuals have undergone second language learning.However,second language learning is not a set of simple steps.Brown (2007)maintained that the second language learning process is complicated,which involves a great number of variables such as motivation,learning attitudes and learning strategies.These fac-tors can result in success or failure in language learning.Besides,Krashen’s(1982)‘Input Hypothesis’stated that second language learning requires a good deal of language input. He defined that comprehensible input is engage with significant language which is above the level of learners and learners can de-duce the meaning in this way.However,comprehensible output involves the production of learners’language.According to Swain(1995),in the process of language learning,learners pay attention to the gap between what learners would like to say and what learners are capable of saying.This helps in understanding of linguistic issues and probably causes cognitive process which produce new language knowledge.Fromkin and Rodman(1997)also stated that second lan-guage learning involves its lexis,syntax,morphology,seman-tics,phonology,discourse and pragmatics.One of the crucial factors of second language learning is to learn how vocabulary is combined into phrases and how phrases are formed into sentenc-es.With regard to second language learning,each school such as behaviourism and constructivism has their own explanation and understanding of how to learn a language and how to combine words into sentences.Two processes called classical conditioning and operant con-ditioning respectively are employed to illustrate how individuals learn.McLeod(2014)pointed out that a new behaviour is learned by means of an association process.In other words,indi-viduals connect with two stimuli to generate a response of new learning.However,Operant conditioning is kind of learning method which happens via rewards and punishments for behav-iours and people are associated with specific behaviours and out-comes,as stated by Skinner(1953).Language learning,like any other learning,is the formation of a habit(Bloomfield1993;Waston1924;Thorndike1932;Skinner1957).Specific reactions form a habit with specific stim-uli and then enhanced by reinforcement.The mode is stimulus→response→reinforcement→the formation of habit(Skinner 1957).New learning habits are obstructed by old habits and one habit impacts on another one,which is called the study of trans-fer in psychology.Learners usually transfer forms and meanings from their native language to second language,as maintained by Lado(1957).However,similar knowledge can be acquired easi-ly and this is called positive transfer,but few similarities make it hard for learners to learn,which is regarded as negative transfer,also called interference.Consequently,the differences between first language and second language produce difficulties in lan-guage learning which can cause mistakes.In contrast,the similar-ities between first language and second language are able to ac-celerate language learning rapidly.According to Piaget’s constructivist theory,he stated that learners should construct new knowledge based on their experi-ence from processes of assimilation and accommodation(Camer-on2001).Assimilation means that when people are assimilated,they integrate new experience and knowledge into the existing framework that cannot be altered.Accommodation refers to a kind of process of reconstructing mental representation of a per-son in the external world to adapt to new experiences(Brown,2007).Constructivism is also divided into cognitive constructivism and social constructivism.Vygotsky(1986)maintained that so-cial constructivism is a form of cognitive learning theory which sees learning as a type of situational,social and collaborative ac-tivity where learners should have responsibilities for building their own paring the two theories,cognitive constructivism emphasises how knowledge is constructed by learners based on their learning styles and the stages of develop-ment.However,social constructivism focuses on how knowl-edge is constructed by interacting with others.In the constructivist classroom,the role of teachers is to ac-celerate learners’discussions.Wilson(1998)pointed out that there are three main roles:modeling,coaching and scaffolding which are used by teachers to sustain learners in the constructiv-ist learning environment.Furthermore,interaction which echoes to what constructivism advocates is a type of cooperative activity.(作者单位:陕西省西安西港花园高级中学)193。
第三章英语词汇的形态结构第三章英语词汇的形态结构【概要】本单元阐释了英语词汇的形态结构~讨论了词素、词素变体、词素的分类和辨别、以及词素和构词的关系~并介绍了词缀、词根、词干、词基等基本概念。
【知识点】1. Morphemes2. Morphs and Allomorphs3. Classifying Morphemes4. Identifying Morphemes5. Morpheme and Word-formation(1)Affix(2)Root, Stem, Base【文本翻译】我们已经讨论了推动英语词汇发展的历史、文化和社会因素。
正如我们所见,借词在扩大词汇量方面起到了积极的作用。
然而,在现代,主要是在内部基础之上来扩大词汇量的。
也就是说,我们运用英语中可以得到的构词材料去创造新的单词。
但是在我们讨论创造新词的实际方法和途径以前,我们需要对英语单词的结构和它们的成分—构词因素有一个清楚的认识。
这一章将讨论词素、词素的分类和辨别,以及词素与构词法之间的关系。
3.1 词素传统上,单词通常被作为一种语言里基本和最小的单位用于遣词造句,而句子则是根据句法规则将单词组合到一起。
但是,从结构上来看,单词并不是最小的单元,因为很多单词都能被分解成更小的意义单位。
以decontextualization一词为例,这是一个单词,但是可以被分解为de-, con-, text,-al, -iz(e), -ation,每一个都有其独特的意义。
这些成分不能被进一步地切分了,否则,它们中的任何一个都不会具有完整的意义。
虽然-ation有着一系列的变体形式,比如-tion,-sion,-ion,它们都属于同一个后缀。
因为它们有着同样的意义和语法功能,仅仅是出现在不同的语音环境之中。
这些最小的意义单位被称为词素(morphe 是希腊词汇,意思是…形式?;-eme出现于…phoneme?这样的单词中,意为…类?)。
英语专业主要课程简介1E10935, 1E10905综合英语(一)(二)学分:6.0,6.0 Integrated English I,II1E10915, 1E10925 综合英语(三)(四)学分:6.0,6.0 Integrated English III, IV预修课程: 无内容简介:本课程是一门综合英语技能课, 通过传授系统的基础语言知识(语音、语法、词汇、篇章结构、语言功能等),对学生进行严格的基本语言技能(听、说、读、写、译)训练,培养学生初步运用英语进行交际的能力。
通过不同文体的学习,了解英语各种文体的表达方式和特点,扩大词汇量,同时指导学生学习方法,培养学生逻辑思维能力,丰富学生社会文化知识,增强学生对中西文化差异的敏感性。
教师鼓励学生积极参与课堂的各种语言交际活动以获得基本的语言交际能力,并达到新《大纲》所规定的听、说、读、写、译等技能的要求。
推荐教材:《综合教程》(1—4册),何兆熊主编,上海外语教育出版社主要参考书:《综合教程》(1—4册,教师用书),何兆熊主编,上海外语教育出版社《英语语音语调教程》,王桂珍,高等教育出版社《College English》,周珊风、张祥保,商务印书馆《College English》,胡文仲等编著,商务印书馆《新编英语语法教程》,章振邦,上海外语教育出版社1E10854,1E10824 英语阅读(一)(二)学分:2.0,2.0 English Reading I,II1E10834,1E10844 英语阅读(三)(四)学分:2.0,2.0English Reading III,IV预修课程:无内容简介:本课程主要培养学生的阅读兴趣和良好的阅读习惯,扩大词汇量,拓宽文化视野,提高人文素质。
主要内容包括通过上下文辨认理解难词和推测词义;理解句子的含义,包括句面意思,句子隐含的意思和句间关系;理解段落的意思,包括段落大意,重要信息,段落内部和段落间的关系;掌握全文的中心思想和大意,以及用以说明中心思想和大意的事实,例证和论点;了解作者的态度、观点、意图和感情等等,并对文章做出判断和推理。
论英语连合词的形态语义特征徐宏亮【摘要】复合法是英语新词的重要构词手段,是现代英语的一大特征.分析2647个带连字符的英语复合词(连合词),揭示它们的构词形态模式及语义特征,并指出连合词的有效使用是较高语言能力的一个重要标志.【期刊名称】《淮南师范学院学报》【年(卷),期】2012(014)006【总页数】4页(P71-74)【关键词】复合词;连合词;形态特征【作者】徐宏亮【作者单位】阜阳师范学院外国语学院,安徽阜阳236037【正文语种】中文【中图分类】H313在常用构词法中,复合法(compounding)是英语词汇量扩大的一项重要手段,它把两个或两个以上独立的词结合在一起构成新词,是仅次于派生法的第二多产构词方式。
英语复合词从形态上可以分成三类,带连字符复合词(如good-looking),不带连字符分开拼写的复合词(如black hole),和不用连字符合并拼写的复合词(如strawberry)。
带连字符的复合词在有些情况下连字符可以省略,有些情况下却不能省略。
例如teacher-student interaction中的复合词连字符就不能删除。
去掉连字符,teacher和student在没有连接词和限定词的情况下则不能并列摆放。
连合词是特指带连字符的英语复合词,如stone-deaf。
这类复合词中的连字符不能省略。
到目前为止,国内外涉及复合词的文献对于英语复合词的连字符连接问题缺少关注,相关研究比较零散,不成系统。
本文旨在通过对2647个带连字符的英语复合词进行系统分析,揭示连合词的形态构成模式,归纳出它们的语义特征及中心性规律。
Bauer①Bauer,L:English Word-Formation,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1983。
把英语构词法分成十类,其中包括前缀法、后缀法和复合法,并指出从1939年到1982年的44年间,英语中的新词中有20.5%是通过复合法构成的。
关于英语性别歧视类型和消除的研究[摘要]本文简要分析了在英语中存在的语言性别歧视的类型以及消除歧视的方法。
由于历史原因,所有语言几乎都有语言歧视问题。
语言建构了我们看世界的角度,而“我们用的语言被社会和价值观所影响”。
本文列举几种英语歧视的现象,并试图列举方案来改变这种情况。
[关键词]性别歧视英语消除众所周知性别歧视存在社会各个方面,语言也不例外。
不平等在所有语言都能看到,英语也不例外。
我将列举英语中一些反应性别歧视的词语,并且提出一些方法来消除这些现象。
一、英语语言歧视的类型和消除方法英语中,性别歧视的语言非常常见。
我在一些杂志,日报和新闻中找到一些类型。
我将随同一些解决方案一起列举:用男性的词语来代表整个人类,比如说man,mankind,forefather,等等。
我们可以用一些同义词来替代man---human being,person,individual;forefather---ancestor。
这种替换可以让人从更宽阔的角度来考虑事物。
(一)用阳性单数代词来代表两种性别。
这样给人的错觉是整个世界只有男性在参与其活动当中,妇女又成了隐形的。
我们可以用各种方法来点明妇女的存在,以此达到平衡。
1.将阳性代词替换为he or she,his or her。
A fashion model should watch about his or herdiet;A diplomat should always care about his or her image because that represents the country.2.用复数来转移对性别的注意。
When bathing a baby/babies,never leave him/themunattended.3.用阳性第二单数或者复数代词来转移对性别的转移。
No man knows his true characteruntil he has run out of gas.---You don’t know what your true character is until you have run out of gas.4.将阳性代词用someone,the one,no one,等代替。
论母语在二语习得中的作用作者:程玉琴来源:《教学与管理(理论版)》2006年第08期一、对传统观点的回顾每一个学外语的人都可能体验到母语对二语习得(Second Langnage Acquisition SLA)所产生的影响,那么这种影响到底是积极的正面的影响,还是消极的负面的影响呢?传统的语言学观点认为:母语对外语学习只有负面影响或者说母语干扰了二语习得,(Ellis 2004)相信第一语干扰的存在,他认为学习者的第一语言会强烈影响第二语言习得。
最明显的证据就是第二语言中的外国口音(foreign accent),好比法国人在说英语时他的英语听起来仍然像法语,而且第一语在第二语习得中通常扮演负面的角色。
母语对二语习得真的只起消极作用吗?本人认为所谓母语负面影响说或国语干扰论都是片面的,不能反映语言学习的本质,也没有揭示母语与二语习得之间的内在联系。
就拿long time no see这句英语来说,严格地说,它是不符合英语表达习惯的,是中国式英语,但是究其实质来说应该是母语“帮助”学习者完成了交际任务。
在外语学习过程中特别是在初级和中级阶段,由于学习者的母语水平与外语水平相差悬殊,总会在情急之中或不得已的情况下“借用”母语知识来完成学习任务或达到交际目的,这即是学习者的一种策略,也是二语习得进程中的一段必经之路。
因此,母语对外语学习来说,不应该说是只起“负面影响”或“干扰作用”,而是在一定程度上有“正面影响”和“帮助作用”。
二、语言共性促进二语习得世界上的语言种类繁多,且分属不同的语系。
尽管各种语言之间存在着大小不等的差异,但在本质上说语言是人类共有的属性,与人类思维有着密切联系,同时也是人类表达思维最有效的手段。
人类的思维是有共性的,因此,用来表达思维的语言也具有共性,正如Fromkin和Rodman所指出“语言学家们对世界上的数千种语言的调查工作做得愈多,对它们之间的差异描述得愈详尽,就愈发现这些差异是有限的,而语言普遍现象(Linguist Universals)则涉及到所有语法组成部分,涉及到它们之间的相互关系,也涉及到语法规则的表现形式,这些规则构成了普遍语法(Universal Grannnar),而普遍语法则是人类每一种语言特定语法的基础”。
外国语言学与应用语言学专业攻读硕士学位研究生培养方案(专业代码:050211)一培养目标培养具有较高的马克思主义理论水平,系统扎实的专业知识和较强的科研能力、德智体全面发展的高层次英语人才。
在业务方面的具体要求是:应具有坚实、宽广的英语语言文学及相关学科的理论和系统、深入的专业知识,掌握本学科的当前状况和发展趋势;具有严谨、求实的学风和独立从事科学研究工作的能力;熟练运用所学语言,第二外国语应具有一定的口、笔译能力及阅读与本专业有关书刊的能力;能熟练运用计算机和互联网进行科研工作;适应各级、各类学校的外语教学工作。
二研究方向1. 外国语言学要求学生较全面系统地了解国外语言学理论及其最新发展,能够准确地将国外先进的语言学理论和方法介绍到中国来,并学会运用科学的研究方法和现代化的科研手段在形式语言学、音系学、语义学、语用学、社会语言学、语篇语言学等方面开展研究。
2.应用语言学通过学习,学生应能够运用语言学、第二语言习得理论以及教育学、心理学等相关学科的理论与方法,就外语教学方法、大纲设计、教材编写、测试、外语学习策略与动机等方面进行较有意义的研究,促进中国外语教学改革与发展。
3.外国文化要求学生对目标语国家文化(包括历史、地理、文学、音乐、哲学、宗教等)有非常深入的了解,并能够运用文化学、人类学、社会学等相关学科的知识,对文化进行更高层次的研究,能够独立从事东西方文化的比较研究,为跨文化交际和外语教学提供帮助。
三学制与学习年限全日制硕士研究生学制为3年,最长学习年限不超过4年。
在完成培养方案规定的各环节的同时,满足以下条件者,可申请提前一年毕业:第一,在CSSCI或者外语类核心期刊上发表论文一篇以上;第二,论文匿名评审合格。
四应修总学分数应修总学分:37学分,其中学位必修课6学分,学位基础课6学分,学位专业课6学分。
五课程设置(具体见课程设置一览表)1 必修课 共21学分马克思主义理论课3学分,第二外国语3学分;学位基础课3门(包括普通语言学、理论句法学和科学研究方法论),共6学分;学位专业课3门(包括英语文体学、第二语言习得理论、应用语言学),共6学分(详见课程设置一览表);前沿讲座2学分,学生应在在读期间积极参加学院组织的各类学术活动(学术讲座、学术沙龙、学术会议等),三年累计不少于8次,并提交导师相应的文字材料(如讲稿、会议宣读论文、就某一专题撰写的论文等,字数不少于3000字)。
英语专业主要课程简介1E10935, 1E10905综合英语(一)(二)学分:,Integrated English I,II1E10915, 1E10925 综合英语(三)(四)学分:,Integrated English III, IV预修课程: 无内容简介:本课程是一门综合英语技能课, 通过传授系统的基础语言知识(语音、语法、词汇、篇章结构、语言功能等),对学生进行严格的基本语言技能(听、说、读、写、译)训练,培养学生初步运用英语进行交际的能力。
通过不同文体的学习,了解英语各种文体的表达方式和特点,扩大词汇量,同时指导学生学习方法,培养学生逻辑思维能力,丰富学生社会文化知识,增强学生对中西文化差异的敏感性。
教师鼓励学生积极参与课堂的各种语言交际活动以获得基本的语言交际能力,并达到新《大纲》所规定的听、说、读、写、译等技能的要求。
推荐教材: 《综合教程》(1—4册),何兆熊主编,上海外语教育出版社主要参考书:《综合教程》(1—4册,教师用书),何兆熊主编,上海外语教育出版社《英语语音语调教程》,王桂珍,高等教育出版社《College English》,周珊风、张祥保,商务印书馆《College English》,胡文仲等编着,商务印书馆《新编英语语法教程》,章振邦,上海外语教育出版社1E10854,1E10824 英语阅读(一)(二)学分:,English Reading I,II1E10834,1E10844 英语阅读(三)(四)学分:, English Reading III,IV预修课程:无内容简介:本课程主要培养学生的阅读兴趣和良好的阅读习惯,扩大词汇量,拓宽文化视野,提高人文素质。
主要内容包括通过上下文辨认理解难词和推测词义;理解句子的含义,包括句面意思,句子隐含的意思和句间关系;理解段落的意思,包括段落大意,重要信息,段落内部和段落间的关系;掌握全文的中心思想和大意,以及用以说明中心思想和大意的事实,例证和论点;了解作者的态度、观点、意图和感情等等,并对文章做出判断和推理。
According to Fromkin and Rodman, from the lexical point of the view a word is ambiguity if it can be understood or interpreted in more than one way (1983: 169). The problem of this definition is that it limits ambiguity to the lexical level. "A sentence is said to be ambiguous whenever it can be associated with two or more different meanings." This explanation is somewhat concise and direct. Zhang Qiao states, "An ambiguous expression has more than one meaning, and they are semantically unrelated"(1997:180). Kempson argues, "A sentence is ambiguous if it can be true in quite different circumstances"(1977:128). Kempson's definition is a truth-conditional definition.
From the syntactic point of view, Lyons(1977)gives definition that: any sentence (according to gencrative grammar), which can make more than one paring, is ambiguous. With the birth and development of pragmatic, some scholars investigate ambiguity from the pragmatic perspective. J. Thomas (1977) and Y u Dongming (1995) define that pragmatic ambiguity occurs when the speaker does not make clear precisely which of a range of related illocutionary values is intended.
The above is some scholars' understanding of ambiguity or attempted definitions from different linguistic point of view. Though so many people have tried to define ambiguity, ambiguity is still a controversial topic. According to how people understand and study ambiguity, ambiguity can be roughly divided into two kinds:ambiguity in a narrow
sense and ambiguity in a broad sense. The typical representative of the former is Kempson, who studies ambiguity in a narrow sense. From this point of view, ambiguity refers to a special relation between the language form and its meaning. A language form, which has more than one meaning, is ambiguous. This form can mean a word, a phrase, a sentence or a discourse. The meaning can be any meaning produced in the use of language, such as conceptual meaning, situational meaning and so on. So a sentence like john killed a bird today is not an ambiguous sentence but a vague one. Because the meaning of an expression is vague in the sense that it is not specific detail, that is , vagueness is a matter of unspecification. In this sentence, bird can refer to crow, sparrow, and parrot. So it is not clear information but a vague one. While in a broad sense, ambiguity is over generalized. It refers to the indeterminacy of language, including vagueness. So the sentence "John believes that Smith's murderer is insane" is ambiguous. According to Plamer (Plamer, 1983), there is triple ambiguity in the sentence. Smith's murderer may be taken to refer to John, who actually murdered Smith, or to someone else who John believes to have murdered Smith, or in the attributive sense, to whomever it may be that murdered Smith.
Above many Linguists pose a number of definitions of ambiguity. In this way, ambiguity is a universal phenomenon, which exists in every language and on every linguistic level. Of course, English is no exception.
Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics gives English ambiguity:" A word , phrase or sentence which has more than one meaning is said to be ambiguous." (Richard,2000). Qian Gechuan(1980:50) points out "English is a kind of ambiguous language". Because the development of English has long history and there are many polysemy and homonym. In addition, the grammatical structure of English is not so rigorous, which all provide English ambiguity with linguistic condition. As a matter of fact, we can find this feature from the following classification in different ways.。