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在海拔5000米以上地区利用单粒子方法探测γ暴实验构想--基于水切伦科夫技术刘茂元;厉海金;扎西桑珠;周毅【摘要】Ground extensive air shower experiment is powerless for detecting cosmic ray particles of tens GeV en⁃ergy renge in the GRBs (Gamma Ray Burst) so far, because of its threshold energy. The experimental altitude needs to be increased in order to achieve more effective observation. In the present paper, setting up a water Che⁃renkov detector array at 5200m altitude in Tibet was proposed and the idea of ground experiments on multi-GRB and tens of GeV photon observing can be achieved by using single-particle technology, and also can supportpre⁃dicting for large-scale experiments.%目前，对于伽玛射线暴（Gamma Ray Burst, GRB）的探测，地面广延大气簇射实验由于阈能原因，对几十GeV能区的宇宙线粒子探测无能为力，只有提高实验海拔才能实现更有效的观测。
文章描述了在海拔5000m以上地区建造水切伦科夫(WCD)探测器阵列，利用单粒子技术，来实现地面实验多GRB几十GeV光子的正观测设想，为大规模实验提供预言支持。
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生态学通讯9.392 ↑119 PNAS Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 美国国家科学院汇刊9.38 ↓120 Trends in Pharmacological Sciences Trends Pharmacol Sci 药理学趋势9.34 ↓ 121 Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics Annu Rev Fluid Mech 流体力学年评9.314 ↓ 122 Plant Cell Online Plant Cell 植物细胞9.296 ↓123 Trends in Plant Science Trends Plant Sci 植物科学趋势9.21 ↑124 Progress in Neurobiology Prog Neurobiol 神经生物学进展9.13 ↓125 PLoS Pathogens PLoS Pathog PLoS病原体9.125 ↓126 The Journal of Cell Biology J Cell Biol 细胞生物学杂志9.12 ↓127 Seminars in Immunology Semin Immunol 免疫学论文集9.114 ↑128 Nature Clinical Practice Oncology Nat Clin Pract Oncol 自然临床诊疗:肿瘤学9.113 ↑129 Archives of Internal Medicine Arch Intern Med 内科学集刊9.11 ↑130 Current Opinion in Structural Biology Curr Opin Struct Biol 结构生物学新见 9.06 ↓131 European Heart Journal Eur Heart J 欧洲心脏杂志8.917 ↑132 Medicinal Research Reviews Med Res Rev 医药研究评论8.907 ↑133 PLoS Genetics PLoS Genet PLoS遗传学8.883 ↑134 Molecular & Cellular Proteomics Mol Cell Proteomics 分子和细胞蛋白质8.834 ↓ 135 Biological Reviews Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 剑桥哲学学会生物学评论8.755 ↓ 136 Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology Front Neuroendocrinol 神经内分泌学前沿 8.692 ↑137 Current Opinion in Plant Biology Curr Opin Plant Biol 植物生物学最新观点 8.688 ↓138 Biological Psychiatry Biol Psychiatry 生物精神病学8.672 ↑139 Trends in Genetics Trends Genet 遗传学趋势8.659 ↓140 Leukemia Leukemia 白血病8.634 ↑141 Advances in Immunology Adv Immunol 免疫学研究进展8.625 ↑142 Annals of Surgery Ann Surg 外科学年鉴8.46 ↑143 Diabetes Diabetes 糖尿病8.398 ↑144 Critical Reviews in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Crit Rev Biochem Mol Biol 生物化学和分子生物学评论8.306 ↓145 EMBO Journal EMBO J 欧洲分子生物学学会志8.295 ↓146 Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews Adv Drug Deliv Rev 先进药物输送评论8.287 ↑ 147 Seminars in Cancer Biology Semin Cancer Biol 癌生物学文辑 8.284 ↑148 Molecular Interventions Mol Interv 分子介入8.273 ↑149 Clinical Infectious Diseases Clin Infect Dis 临床传染病8.266 ↑150 Advances in Microbial Physiology Adv Microb Physiol 微生物生理学进展8.25 ↑151 Annual Review of Nutrition Annu Rev Nutr 营养学年评8.205 ↓152 Advanced Materials Adv Mater Deerfield 先进材料8.191 ↑153 Current Opinion in Neurobiology Curr Opin Neurobiol 神经生物学新见8.102 ↓ 154 Journal of the American Chemical Society J Am Chem Soc 美国化学会志8.091 ↑ 155 FEMS Microbiology Reviews FEMS Microbiol Rev 欧洲微生物学会联合会：微生物学评论7.963 ↓156 Journal of Autoimmunity J Autoimmun 自体免疫杂志7.881 ↑157 Current Opinion in Chemical Biology Curr Opin Chem Biol 化学生物学新见 7.854 ↑158 Systematic Biology Syst Biol 系统生物学7.833 ↓159 Current Topics in Developmental Biology Curr Top Dev Biol 发育生物学当代课题7.827 ↑160 Blood Reviews Blood Rev 血液评论7.816 ↑161 Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews Neurosci Biobehav Rev 神经学与生物行为评论7.804 ↓162 Aging Cell Aging Cell 老化细胞7.791 ↑163 Stem Cells Stem Cells 干细胞7.741 ↑164 Human Reproduction Update Hum Reprod Update 人类生殖学新资讯7.59 ↑165 Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics Clin Pharmacol Ther 临床药理学与治疗学7.586 ↓166 Cell Death and Differentiation Cell Death Differ 细胞死亡与变异7.548 ↓ 167 Annual Review of Pathology: Mechanisms of Disease Annu Rev Pathol 病理学年评7.529 ↑168 Cancer Research Cancer Res 癌症研究7.514 ↓169 Journal of the American Society of Nephrology J Am Soc Nephrol 美国肾病学会志7.505 ↑170 Current Opinion in Biotechnology Curr Opin Biotechnol 生物技术新见7.485 ↑ 171 Current Opinion in Microbiology Curr Opin Microbiol 微生物学新见7.483 ↓ 172 Canadian Medical Association Journal CMAJ 加拿大医学会志7.464 ↑173 Journal of Neuroscience J Neurosci 神经科学杂志7.452 ↓174 Natural Product Reports Nat Prod Rep 天然产物报告7.45 ↓175 Cell Host & Microbe Cell Host Microbe 细胞宿主与微生物7.436 ↑176 Hypertension Hypertension 高血压7.368 ↑177 Gastrointestinal Endoscopy Gastrointest Endosc 胃肠内窥镜检查7.367 ↑178 Diabetes Care Diabetes Care 糖尿病护理7.349 ↓179 Molecular Aspects of Medicine Mol Aspects Med 医学分子问题7.32 ↓180 Molecular Biology and Evolution Mol Biol Evol 分子生物学与进化7.28 ↑181 Human Molecular Genetics Hum Mol Genet 人类分子遗传学7.249 ↓182 Oncogene Oncogene 致癌基因7.216 ↑183 Drug Resistance Updates Drug Resist Updat 耐药性新资讯7.206 ↑184 Critical Reviews in Toxicology Crit Rev Toxicol 毒理学评论7.204 ↑185 Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases Ann Rheum Dis 风湿病纪事7.188 ↑186 Physical Review Letters Phys Rev Lett 物理评论通讯7.18 ↑187 Physiology Physiology (Bethesda) 生理学7.159 ↑188 Reviews in Medical Virology Rev Med Virol 医学病毒学评论 7.13 ↓189 Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism Trends Endocrinol Metab 内分泌学和新陈代谢趋势7.119 ↓190 Reviews of Geophysics Rev Geophys 地球物理学评论7.114 ↑191 EMBO Reports EMBO Rep 欧洲分子生物学会报告7.099 ↓192 Thorax Thorax 胸腔7.069 ↑193 Journal of Hepatology J Hepatol 肝脏病学杂志7.056 ↑194 The FASEB Journal FASEB J 美国实验生物学会联合会会志7.049 ↑195 Neurology Neurology 神经病学7.043 ↑196 Human Mutation Hum Mutat 人类突变7.033 ↑197 Cytokine & Growth Factor Reviews Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 细胞因子与生长因子评论7.022 ↓198 Nature Clinical Practice Neurology Nat Clin Pract Neurol 自然临床诊疗:神经病学6.979 ↑199 Nucleic Acids Research Nucleic Acids Res 核酸研究6.878 ↓200 Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 动脉硬化、血栓形成与血管生物学。
(完整版)学术期刊字母缩写引言学术期刊是学术界重要的信息传播渠道之一，它们起到了促进学术交流和知识传播的关键作用。
然而，由于研究领域的多样性和学科之间的交叉性，学术期刊的数量庞大且多样化，常常使人难以辨识。
为了便于学术界内外的传播和理解，学术期刊常常使用字母缩写来代表其完整名称。
本文旨在提供一份完整的学术期刊字母缩写列表，帮助读者快速地识别和理解学术期刊的缩写。
学术期刊字母缩写列表下面是一份包含广泛学术领域的学术期刊字母缩写列表（仅供参考）：1. AAS - Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series3. AGU - American Geophysical Union4. APS - American Physical Society5. BMC - BioMed Central6. JAMA - Journal of the American Medical Association7. IEEE - Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers8. IOP - Institute of Physics9. Nat - Nature10. PNAS - Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences11. RSC - Royal Society of Chemistry12. Science - Science备注：上述列表仅是学术期刊字母缩写的一小部分示例，实际的学术期刊字母缩写数量庞大且多种多样。
应用与使用掌握学术期刊字母缩写对于学术界的研究人员、学生和科学编辑等都非常重要。
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在学术论文、科研报告、学术讲座和期刊投稿等场合，使用学术期刊字母缩写能够有效地节约篇幅和提高阅读效率。
T HE A STROPHYSICAL J OURNAL S UPPLEMENT S ERIES ,127:513È518,2000April2000.The American Astronomical Society.All rights reserved.Printed in U.S.A.(DENSE AND RELATIVISTIC PLASMAS PRODUCED BY COMPACT HIGH-INTENSITY LASERS D.U MSTADTER ,S.-Y.C HEN ,G.M A ,A.M AKSIMCHUK ,G.M OUROU ,M.N ANTEL ,S.P IKUZ ,G.S ARKISOV ,AND R.W AGNERCenter for Ultrafast Optical Science,University of Michigan,Ann Arbor,MI 48109-2099;dpu =Received 1999January 19;accepted 1999November 24ABSTRACTHigh-intensity lasers interacting with plasmas are used to study processes in the laboratory that would otherwise only occur in astrophysics.These include relativistic plasmas,electron acceleration in ultrahigh Ðeld-gradient wake Ðelds,pressure ionization and continuum lowering in strongly coupled plasmas,and X-ray line emission via Raman scattering.Subject headings:acceleration of particles ÈMHD Èplasmas Èrelativity1.INTRODUCTIONMany of the phenomena that occur in the extreme condi-tions of high-intensity laser-plasma interactions would otherwise only occur in the astrophysical realm.In this paper,we discuss several examples that can be classiÐed into two categories:relativistic plasmas and dense plasmas.2.RELATIVISTIC PLASMASIn the focus of an ultrashort-pulse high-power laser,elec-trons oscillate at close to the speed of light,giving rise to novel e†ects in a new regime of laser intensity (I [1018W cm ~2;Umstadter &Norris 1997).For instance,above the relativistic self-focusing threshold (a few terawatts),a laser is observed to self-guide over many Rayleigh ranges,boring a hole in the plasma in which it propagates,driving a laser wake Ðeld,and generating a well-collimated beam of rela-tivistic electrons (Umstadter et al.1996).The electrons are accelerated from rest to MeV energies in a micron distance,corresponding to accelerations of 1021g.In laser/wake Ðeld Ègenerated plasma waves,electrostatic Ðeld gradients are measured to be E º200GV m ~1,the highest terrestrial Ðelds ever recorded.Due to the enormous pressure (Gbar)exerted radially by the self-focused laser pulse on the plasma,both electrons and ions are expelled from the path of the laser (Chen et al.1998).The MeV-energy ion ““shock ÏÏfront then interacts with the surrounding plasma.Similar phenomena might be also be produced when strong electro-magnetic bursts propagate through the interstellar medium.Recently,we have shown that an accelerated electron beam appeared to be naturally collimated with a low-divergence angle (less than 10¡)and that it had over 1nC of charge per bunch.Moreover,acceleration occurred in this experiment only when the laser power exceeded a certain critical value the threshold for relativistic self-focusing.P c ,In what follows,we discuss in detail some of these experi-mental results.In these experiments,we used a Ti:sapphire/Nd:glass laser system based on chirped-pulse ampliÐcation that produces 3J,400fs pulses at 1.053k m.The 43mm diameter beam was focused with an f/4o†-axis parabolic mirror to k m (1/e 2),corresponding to vacuum intensities r 0\8.5exceeding 4]1018W cm ~2.This pulse was focused onto a supersonic helium gas jet with a sharp gradient (250k m)and a long,Ñat-topped interaction region (750k m).The maximum density varies linearly with a backing pressure that is up to the maximum backing pressure of 1000pounds per square inch,and an underdense plasma at 3.6]1019cm ~3is formed by the foot of the laser pulse that is tunnel-ionizing the gas.This plasma density corresponds to a criti-cal power of GW.A sharp gradient and longP c \470interaction regionare found to be essential.The electron-beam proÐle was measured using a scintil-lating screen (LANEX)imaged by a CCD camera (Wagner et al.1997).The LANEX is placed behind an aluminum sheet that blocks the laser light,so only electrons greater than 100keV can be imaged.Analysis of the electron spec-trum indicates that the bulk of the electrons that create an image on the screen are in the 100keV È3MeV range.We have found,using aluminum absorbers,that the electron divergence does not depend on electron energy in this range.At low power the electron beam has a (\5P c ),Gaussian-like proÐle with a 10¡radius at half-maximum (see Fig.1).As the laser power increases and the plasma channel length increases to D 250k m,a second peak seems to grow out of the low-power proÐle.Ultimately,at the highest laser powers and longest channel lengths,the diver-gence decreases to 5¡,and the proÐle becomes more Lorentzian-like.The electron-beam divergence should decrease as the longitudinal energy of the electrons increases since the space charge will be less and the relative transverse momentum decreases because of the longer accelerating length.However,there should be a minimum divergence due to the space charge e†ect after the electrons leave the plasma.This e†ect is signiÐcant since the electrons are in the few MeV range (small c )and the peak current is high (large number of electrons in a short bunch).We have roughly estimated the space charge divergence to be 6¡by assuming 109electrons at 1MeV in a 1ps bunch (note that where N is the number of electrons,h hwhm P [N /q e (bc )3]1@2,is the electron-bunch duration,and bc is the normalized q e momentum of the electrons).The electron-beam emittance can be found from the measured divergence angle and the radius of the plasma channel,and in the best case (5¡half-angle and 5k m half-maximum radius),the calculated emit-tance is 0.4n mm mrad.(v \r 0h hwhm )In ponderomotive self-channeling,the laser ponder-omotive force expels electrons from the axis (the ions do notmove much because of their greater mass)and prevents their return,despite the Coulomb force,which arises from charge separation.If the laser-pulse duration is long enough,the ions can start to move out as a result of this Coulomb force and gain momenta during the process.After the laser pulse is gone,electrons quickly return in order to neutralize the bare ions.However,the ions (and electrons)keep moving out of the axis as a result of the ion momen-5130500100015002000250030003500-30-20-100102030n u m b e r o f e l e c t r o n s (a .u .)angle (degrees)(d)(c)(b)(a)(a)(c)514UMSTADTER ET AL.Vol.127F IG .1.ÈElectron-beam divergence as a function of laser power.The various curves represent laser powers of (a )(b )5.0,(c )6.0,and (d )7.5.TheP /P c \3.4,two insert Ðgures show the complete beam images for curves a and c .tum gained during the laser pulse.This is predicted to leadto the formation of a plasma-density depression on-axis (Barnes,Kurki-Suonio,&Tajima 1987;Pukhov &Meyer-ter-Vehn 1996),which becomes deeper and wider with time.In order to observe the formation and evolution of the density-depression and ion blowout,probing interferometry and shadowgraphy were used.Two-dimensional images of the plasma-density distribution were obtained in this way at di†erent times.A probe pulse (400fs,1.053k m)is obtained by splitting 5%of the pump pulse,sending it into a delay line and crossing it perpendicularly with the pump pulse in the interaction region.A lens was used to image the probe pulse in the plasma region to a CCD camera,forming shad-owgrams.Interferograms were obtained by use of two glass wedges forming a vacuum wedge gap after the lens.To get quantitative measurements of the evolution of the plasma waveguide,a two-dimensional plasma-density distribution was obtained by means of a fringe-tracking program (to get a two-dimensional phase-shift distribution)in conjunction with an algorithm used to perform the Abel integration.Figure 2shows the two-dimensional plasma-density dis-tribution (cylindrically symmetric)evolving in time.As can be seen,the density depression on-axis becomes deeper and the width of the channel becomes larger as time goes by.At about a 40ps delay,a plasma waveguide of 800k m in length is formed,which has an on-axis plasma density less than 1018cm ~3and a channel width of 30k m.In Figure 2,the waveguide length is equal to the self-channeling length of the pump pulse.At 2.5TW laser power,of which 45%is guided in the channels,the mean ion velocity is about 1k m ps ~1.This is consistent with the measured speed of waveguide formation (D 1k m ps ~1).Figure 2also shows the increase of the diam-eter of the plasma region with time at a speed of approx-imately 1k m ps ~1(about 10times the thermal expansion velocity at a temperature of 100eV).This expansion is due to the production of new plasma in the radial directioncaused by collisional ionization.The size of the initial plasma region is determined by ionization by the unguided part (55%at high powers)of the laser beam,which is defo-cused to about 100k m FWHM.This gives a laser intensity of 1.5]1016W cm ~2,which is enough to ionize the entire 100k m diameter plasma region.The accelerated ions that were produced in the experi-ments on relativistic plasmas interact with the surrounding gas and plasma to promote bound electrons to excited states.When the electrons eventually radiatively decay to the ground state,they emit photons,creating a glow that can be observed with a CCD camera.We are currently making such measurements in order to test some of the theories on the shock kinetics in neutral and ionized gases.This may help astrophysicists understand how shocks from supernova explosions interact with ejecta and the inter-stellar medium.As another example,Raman scattering by the strong elec-tromagnetic Ðelds of intense laser beams has been shown to cause the emission of X-ray satellites that are normally for-bidden by dipole selection rules.The observations of these satellites in X-ray astronomical spectra might give clues about the presence of strong Ðelds in the vicinity of the emitting source.The satellites that are induced by lasers can be used to measure the energies of metastable states of highly stripped ions with high accuracy.They might also be observed in spectra of light emitted from astrophysical bodies in which strong electric Ðelds perturb the ions,and thus they form a basis for the measurement of such Ðelds.3.DENSE PLASMASDetailed studies of strongly coupled plasmas are now being made with table-top lasers at university laboratories,permitting tests of previously unveriÐed theoretical predic-tions about pressure ionization and continuum lowering.Such plasmas typically occur in dwarf stars and Jovian pact laser systems have also been used to showNo.2,2000DENSE AND RELATIVISTIC PLASMAS515F IG.2.ÈTwo-dimensional plasma-density distribution for2.5TW laser power and2]1019cm~3gas density at di†erent times:(a)5,(b)15,(c)30,and (d)40ps.Line-outs of the cross sections at the position indicated by the vertical arrow are shown along with the error bars at three selected positions.how X-ray opacities are a†ected by the pressure changes ofionized gases;speciÐcally,the position of the absorptionedge is seen to shift.Such measurements are critical to spec-troscopic measurements in astrophysics,which are used toestimate the velocities of,and distances to,stars and otherluminous objects.Strongly coupled plasmas(SCPs)are found in stellar andJovian planet interiors(Ichimaru1982),inertial conÐne-ment fusion(ICF)pellets,and are essential for a thoroughunderstanding of compressed material equations of state.These plasmas are characterized by high densities and/orrelatively low temperatures,such that the Coulomb poten-tial energy between the particles exceeds their kineticenergy,and thus the coupling parameter!\(Z2e2)/(ri kT)(where is the ion-sphere radius)is larger than one.Unfor-ritunately,relatively little experimental work on strongly coupled plasmas(DaSilva et al.1989;Leboucher-Dalimier et al.1994;Workman et al.1997)has been done up to now, as these studies are rendered difficult by the need to obtain and diagnose high-density/low-temperature conditions simultaneously.This is particularly true for subpicosecond laser-produced plasmas,which are increasingly important in applications such as fast-ignitor ICF,ultrafast X-ray sources,and ion acceleration.Pressure ionization and line merging are two spectroscopic e†ects arising from the deformation of the ionic potential by the plasmaÐelds in SCPs;although both have been used for density diagnos-tics,independent plasma diagnostics must be used to ensure their validity in the strongly coupled regime.We recently reported X-ray and ultraviolet(XUV) spectra emitted from a strongly coupled laser-produced plasma,making use of two novel experimental techniques: (1)a high-contrast,high-seed injection short-pulse laser to achieve nearly solid density and(2)a jitter-free X-ray streak camera to achieve both a high signal-to-noise ratio and an ultrahigh temporal resolution(in picoseconds).This com-bination,short laser pulses and high temporally and spa-tially resolved spectroscopy,makes it possible to study the516UMSTADTER ET AL.Vol.127 dynamics of SCPs over a wide range of densities and tem-peratures,which makes for an interesting test bed foratomic physics models of such plasmas.While the experiments discussed in°2were performedwith a gaseous-density target,the results described in thissection were obtained by focusing a laser onto rotatingsolid-disk targets composed of various elements.In allof the following experiments,copious X-ray emission ischaracterized by use of temporally and spectrally resolveddiagnostics.In a related experiment,we followed the change in theobserved series limits that occurs as carbon is heated andthen decompresses over a range of electron density andnetemperature extending from1023to1021cm~3and fromTe80to50eV,respectively,which corresponds to 1.5[![0.5.Making use of independent plasma diagnosticsover this large range of parameter space,we demonstrate (Nantel et al.1998)the validity of the Inglis-Teller limit for line-merging predictions.In this experiment,a higher repetition rate(10Hz),100fs Ti:sapphire laser was used.Pulses of50mJ in energy at780 nm were focused with a lens to an intensity of1017WMgF2cm~2.The use of subpicosecond pulses has the advantage of depositing the energy impulsively,in a thin target layer. Thus,the measurements are conducted after the laser pulse, in a freely decompressing ionized material.The emission spectra from the target were recorded with a grazing-incidenceÑat-ÐeldÈimaging XUV spectrometer coupled to an X-ray streak camera with CCD readout,for a spatial resolution of80k m in the direction normal to the target plane and a spectral resolution of0.15The sub-A. picosecond X-ray streak camera was coupled to a jitter-free averaging sweep system(Maksimchuk et al.1996),consist-ing of two photoconductive switches triggered by part of the laser beam to sweep the plates of the camera at10Hz,in synchronization with the target emission.This novel techniqueÈused for theÐrst time here for spectroscopyÈsigniÐcantly extends the dynamic range of the streak camera and increases the signal-to-noise ratio.We were able to average the XUV spectrum over600shots with a temporal resolution of4ps,limited by a residual jitter of ^2ps.The laser contrast was improved by a factor of more than100over the typicalÐgure of105for Ti:sapphire lasers through high-energy seeding of clean pulses in the regener-ative ampliÐer.This new technique delivers a laser contrast of greater than5]107in order to allow the deposition of the laser energy at solid-target densities without the energy losses incurred by frequency doubling.We present data from the80k m region closest to the target plane.Figure3shows three spectra between25and 37taken at0,50,and225ps.These line-outs are inte-Agrated over4ps,and t\0ps is arbitrarily deÐned as the time of the start of the emission.The principal emission lines of the H-like and He-like series are identiÐed,as well as the n\2He-like satellites to the H-like2pÈ1s line.There is considerable free-bound continuum radiation ending at the He-like series limit near the H-like2pÈ1s line.The vacuum ionization potential(IP)of the He-like ion is marked at 31.62(392.09eV),and the He-like radiative recombi-Anation continuum and edge are sketched in thick solid lines. The position of the detectable series limit(marked by verti-cal dotted lines for each spectrum)is determined to be B0.4È0.7limited by the presence of the unmerged A,bound-bound emission lines masking its exact position.F IG.3.ÈLine-outs from the time-resolved spectra taken at t\0,50, and225ps.The He-like np1sÈ1s2(n[3)and H-like npÈ1s line emissions are identiÐed as well as the n\2He-like satellites to the H-like2pÈ1s line. The free-bound continuum and the detectable series limit are drawn on each line-out.Considerable He-like2p1sÈ1s2emission at40.268was seenAin each spectrum but is not included here,in order to emphasis better the spectral region between25and37The three line-outs are o†set verti-A.cally for better viewing.This detectable He-like series limit is measured to move from35.2(352.5eV)at0ps to33.1(374.3eV)at50psA Aand to32.6(380.9eV)at225ps.The separation between Athe vacuum IP and the observed edge for each spectrum indicates the combined e†ect on the spectrum of pressure ionization and line merging,which can move the observable series limit by as much as40eV or past the He-like3pÈ1s resonance line.No unmerged resonance lines from the He-like series are detected at0ps save the strong2pÈ1s transitions(not shown in Fig.3for better viewing of the wavelength range near the series limit),and all the readily identiÐable satellites to the H-like2pÈ1s line originate from n\2doubly excited states.As the plasma evolves with time,the densityÈand hence the plasmaÐeld e†ectsÈgradually decreases and the ionic potential is less and less perturbed:identiÐable line emissions from higher n states reappear gradually,as is observed at50ps(an He-like1s3pÈ1s2line is clearly present,and an1s4pÈ1s2line is visible in the H-like2pÈ1s low-wavelength shoulder)and at225ps (He-like1s4pÈ1s2and1s5pÈ1s2lines are now clearly identiÐable).A similar trend is observed in the higher n H-like emission lines,with the strengthening of the3pÈ1s and4pÈ1s lines and the appearance of the5pÈ1s and6pÈ1s lines in the later line-outs,despite the falling temperature evident from the steepening of the continuum slope.In our analysis of the last experiment in°3,electron temperature and density diagnostics were obtained from the experimental spectra.WeÐrst established the electron tem-perature by the slope of the He-like continuum.We then generated artiÐcial spectra using steady state non-LTE FLY simulations(Lee&Larsen1996)and found matches for the experimental spectra by varying the density in the simulation.This was done for eight line-outs at times0,14, 25,50,75,125,175,and225ps after the start of the emis-sion.The artiÐcial spectra include instrumental broadening, pressure ionization,Stark broadening,and opacity.The dif-ferent models of pressure ionization that were used for the generation of the excited-state populations and artiÐcial spectra were the Stewart-Pyatt model(already included inNo.2,2000DENSE AND RELATIVISTIC PLASMAS 517FLY)and the ion-cell and Debye-Huckel models (implemented in FLY for this occasion);the Stark broaden-ing took care of the line merging naturally.The positions of the He-like satellites to the H-like 2pÈ1s line were deÐned originally in FLY for carbon through interpolation from similar lines in other elements,and they appeared at wave-lengths about 0.35lower than in the experimental spectra A or the Kelly tables.We corrected this in the code in order to permit a better comparison with the experimental data.Figure 4gives an example of a match for the line-out at t \225ps and a comparison of artiÐcial spectra obtained with the di†erent pressure ionization models.While the ion-cell (IC,dashed curve )and Stewart-Pyatt (SP;solid curve )models give almost undistinguishable Ðts for similar den-sities,we found it impossible to match properly the artiÐcial spectra generated with Debye-Huckel (DH)pressure ioniza-tion (dotted curve ),regardless of the choice of density.This should not come as much of a surprise since the DH model should only be valid in the case of low-density plasmas.Not only can these laser-produced X-rays be used in emission spectroscopy,they can also be used for absorption spectroscopy.In this way,recombination edge shifts,again characteristic of continuum lowering (pressure ionization),are observed at high plasma density and during shock for-mation (Workman et al.1997).Besides the Coulomb Ðelds of unscreened adjacent ions,high Ðelds can also be generated by strong electromagnetic radiation.Like the former,these latter Ðelds can also perturb the energy-level structure of ions.As an example,we have shown that X-ray lines that are normally forbidden (by parity rules)are observed to appear,but only during theF IG .4.ÈComparison of a line-out at t \225ps with non-LTE FLY simulations at 48eV (determined from the slope of the continuum)and 1.5]1021cm ~3.Three di†erent artiÐcial spectra are shown,correspond-ing to the cases in which the continuum lowering is calculated with the IC (dashed curve ),SP (solid curve ),and DH (dotted curve )models.Note the conspicuous ““dip ÏÏin the DH spectra near the He-like series limit.The line-outs are o†set vertically for better viewing.F IG .5.ÈRadiation spectra from a magnesium plasma,during the laser (curve 1)and immediately after the pulse (curve 2).Curve 3is the result of theoretical modeling.Note that the satellites are present only during the pulse.laser pulse,because of the e†ects of the large laser electro-magnetic Ðeld (100TeV m ~1;Pikuz et al.1997),as shown in Figure 5.These Raman satellites are the result of dressing the ion Coulomb Ðeld with the electric Ðeld of the laser.The obser-vation of such satellites may someday prove to be a useful diagnostic of the presence of strong Ðelds in astrophysical bodies.For the work on dense plasmas,we gratefully acknow-ledge the support of the Division of Chemical Sciences,Office of Basic Energy Sciences,Office of Science,US Department of Energy.For the work on relativistic plasmas and the laser facilities,we gratefully acknowledge the support of the National Science Foundation.REFERENCESBarnes,D.C.,Kurki-Suonio,&Tajima,T.T.1987,IEEE Trans.Plasma Sci.,PS-15,154Chen,S.-Y.,Sarkisov,G.S.,Maksimchuk,A.,Wagner,R.,&Umstadter,D.1998,Phys.Rev.Lett.,80,2610DaSilva,L.,et al.1989,Phys.Rev.Lett.,62,1623Ichimaru,S.1982,Rev.Mod.Phys.,54,1017Leboucher-Dalimier,E.,et 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