What use is ‘what is said’ Utterance Interpretation and Cognitive Models, Brussels,

Linguistics 语言学Chapter 7 Discourse Analysis7.1 Discourse and Discourse Analysis1. Discourse: language above the sentence or above the clause.2. Discourse analysis 以前也叫text linguistics and discourse analysis3. Discourse analysis (discourse linguistic/discourse studies/text analysis/DA):the study of how sentences in spoken and written language form larger meaningful units such as paragraph, conversations and interviews.4. Primary task: explore the linguistic features which characterize discourses5. Goals: examine how the reader or user of a discourse recognizes that the words/phrases/sentences in a discourse must be co-interpreted----that parts of a discourse are dependent on others.6. One of the most important features of discourse is that they have cohesion.Definitions:1. Discourse (话语):a general term for examples of language use, i.e. language which has been produced as the result of an act of communication. It refers to the larger units of language such as paragraphs, conversations and interviews7.2 Information Structure7.2.1 Given and new information1. Given information (已知信息):the information that the addresser believes is known to the addressee (often coded in condensed form)2. New information (新信息):the information that the addresser believes it not known to the addressee7.2.2 Topic and comment1. The topic represents what the utterance is about; the comment is what is said aboutit2. Topics are less central to the grammar of English than to the grammar of certain languages.3. Marking the topic is considerably more important in certain other languages. Languages such as Japanese and Korean have function words whose sole purpose is to mark a noun phrase as the topic. In Chinese, no special function words attach to topic noun phrases, but they are marked by word order. In these three languages, noun phrases marked in one way or another as the topic occur very frequently. Thus, despite the difficulty in defining it, the notion of topic is important and needs to be distinguished from other categories of information structure.Definition:1. Topic (话题): the main center of attention in a sentence2. Comment (述题): what is said about it.7.2.3 Contrast1. In the following example, Mary could be marked contrastively if the sentence were part of a conversation about how the interlocutors dislike going to Maine during the winter.Mary likes going to Maine during the winter.2. In English contrastive noun phrase can be marked in various ways, the most common of which is by pronouncing the contrastive noun phrase with strong stress.7.3 Cohesion and Coherence7.3.1 Cohesion1. Cohesive devices include reference, substitution, ellipsis conjunction and lexical cohesionDefinition:1. Cohesion (衔接): the grammatical and/or lexical relationship between the different elements of a text. This may be the relationship between different sentences or between different parts of a sentence.e.g. You can lead a horse to water but you can’t make him drink.7.3.1.1 Reference1. Reference words: pronounces (e.g. it, they, he, she, them, etc.)demonstratives (this, that, these, those)the article the, and items like such as2. Reference consists of two types:(1) endophoric reference (endophora): where the interpretive source lies in theco-text①anaphoric reference (anaphora): where the referent lies in the prior text.②cataphoric reference (cataphora): where the referent lies in the text to come(2) exophoric reference (exophora): where the interpretive source lies in thecontext.E.g. (1) Respect a man, he will do the more (anaphoric)(2) When I met her, Mary looked ill. (cataphoric)(3) (Mary is standing there) I like her. (exophoric)7.3.1.2 SubstitutionDefinitionSubstitution (替代):The process or result of replacing one word by anther at a particular position in a structure7.3.1.3 EllipsisDefinitionEllipsis (省略)(substitution by zero):The leaving out of words or phrases from sentences where they are unnecessary because they have already been referred to or mentioned. For example, when the subject of the verb in two coordinate clauses is the same, it may be omitted in the second clause to avoid.7.3.1.5 Lexical cohension1. Example:(1) RepetitionThere was a cat on the table. The cat was smiling.(2) SynonymHe got a lot of presents from his friends and family. All the gifts were wrapped in colored paper.(3) SuperordinateYesterday, a pigeon carried the first message from Pinhurst to Silbury. The bird covered the distance in three minutes.7.3.2 Coherence1. Cohenrence: the relationships which link the meanings of utterances in a discoursee.g. A: Could you give me a lift home?B: Sorry, I’m visiting my sister.There is no grammatical or lexical link (meaning link).(是指没有意义上的连接，不包括词汇上的连接)7.4 Discourse Markers1. Discourse Markers (DM):expressions that are commonly used in the initial position of an utterance and are syntactically detachable from a sentence.7.5 Conversational AnalysisDefinition:Conversational Analysis (CA) (会话分析)The analysis of natural conversation in order to discover what the linguistic characteristics of conversation are and how conversation is used in ordinary life.7.5.1 Adjacency pairs1. Adjacency pairs (相邻语对): a set of two consecutive, ordered turns that “go together” in a conversation, such as question/answer sequences and greeting/greeting exchange.2. Properties of Adjacency pairs(1) Adjacency pairs consist of two utterances, a first part and a second part(2) The two parts are spoken by different speakers.(3) The first and second parts belong to specific types, for examples, question and answer, or greeting and greeting(4) The form and content of the second part depends on the type of the first part.(5) Given that a speaker has produced a first part, the second part is relevant and expectable as the next utterance.Definition:Insertion sequence (插入语列)It often happens that a question-answer (Q-A) sequence will be delayed while another question-answer sequence intervenes.( can be infinite，但人类记忆有限，所以不行)Form: Q1---Q2---A2---A17.5.2 Preference structure7.5.3 Presequences1. Presequences (前序列): the opening sequences that are used to set up some specificpotential actions2. Greetings: Some situations do not require a greeting, as with a stanger approaching in the street to ask for the time: “Excuse me, sir, do you know what time it is?”. The expression ”Excuse me,sir” serves as a presequence appropriate to the context.3. The following is a pre-invitationA: What are you doing this Sunday?B: Nothing special. Why?A: Why don’t you come out with us then?Here the pre-invitation is treated as transparent by B who suspects by “why” that something is forthcoming.4. The example below is a pre-request:A: Are you going out tomorrow?B: No, not really.A: Are you using your car then?B: No. Do you want to borrow it?A: Yes, if you’re not using it.7.6 Critical Discourse Analysis1. Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA):the analysis of language use directed at, and committed to, discovering its concealed ideological bias.Chapter 8 Sociolinguistics8.1 IntroductionDefinition:Sociolinguistics (社会语言学):the study of language and society: how social factors influence the structure and use of language8.2 Language Varieties8.2.1 Standard languageDefinition:Standard variety (Standard language/Standard dialects):the variety of a language which has the highest status in a community or nation, and which is usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language8.2.2 Dialects1. Dialect: A variety of a language used recognizably in a specific region or by a specific social class2. Dialectology: the study of dialects3. Types: (1) Regional/geographical dialects.(2) Temporal dialects(3) Social dialects or sociolects①speech community: a group of people using a given language or dialect(4) Idiolects8.2.3 Registers1. Register is determined by 3 factors: field, mode, tenor of discourse(1) the field of discourse: refers to what is happening, including what is being talked about, e.g. the fields of linguistics, religion, and advertising(2) the mode of discourse: refers to the medium of language activity which determines the role played by the language in a situation. e.g. speech vs. writing (3) the tenor of discourse: refers to the relations among the participants in a language activity, especially the level of formality they adopt. e.g. colloquial or formal English 2. Example: a lecture on linguistcs in a school of foreign languages can be analyzed as follows:Field: linguistics Mode: oral (academic lecturing)Tenor: participants (teacher-students)Definition:Register (语域): a language variety associated with a particular situation of use8.2.4 Pidgins and creoles1. Creoles have large numbers of native speakers. A French-based creole is spoken by the majority of the population in Haiti, and English-based creoles are used in Jamaica and Sierra Leone.Definition:1. Pidgin (皮钦语): a variety of language that is not a native language of anyone, but is learned in contact situations2. Pidginization: the process by which a pidgin develops3. Creole (克里奥尔语): a language that begins as a pidgin and eventually becomes the first language of a speech community through its being learned by children4. Creolization: the process by which a pidgin becomes a creole8.2.5 Language planning1. Status planning: changes the function of a language or a variety of a language and the right of those who use it.2. Corpus planning: develop a variety of language or a language, usually to standardize it.Definition:Language planning (语言规划): planning, usually by a government or government agency, concerning choice of national or official language(s), ways of spreading the use of a language, spelling reforms, the addition of new words to be language and other language problems.8.3 Choosing a Code8.3.1 Diglossia1. Diglossia (双语): a situation that with a handful of languages, two very different varieties of the same language are used, side by side, for two different sets of functions8.3.2 Bilingualism and multilingualism1. Bilingualism: a situation where two languages are used by an individual or by a group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation Definition:1. Horizontal bilingualism (横向性双语现象):the situation of the languages spoken in a bilingual society have equal status in the official cultural, and family life of the society.2. Diagonal bilingualism (倾斜性双语现象)the use of three or more languages by an individual or by a group of speakers such as the inhabitants of a particular region or nation8.3.3 Code-switching1. Code-switching: bilinguals often switch between their two languages or language varieties in the middle of a conversation.8.4 Linguistic Taboos and Euphemisms1. Taboo word: a word that we are reluctant to useDefinition:1. Taboo: words or activities that are considered inappropriate for “polite society”2. Euphemism: a word or phrase that replaces a taboo word or is used to avoid reference to certain acts or subjects.8.5 Language and Gender1. Men and women speak differently; men and women are spoken about differently2. Language reflects sexism in society. Language itself is not sexist, but it can encode sexist attitudes.Chapter 9 Psycholinguistics9.1 Introduction1. Psycholinguistics: the study of the language-processing mechanismsDefinition:1. Psycholinguistics (心理语言学):the study of language and mind, the mental structures and processes which are involved in the acquisition comprehension and production of language,2. Developmental pscholinguistics (发展心理语言学)the examination of how infants and children acquire the ability to comprehend and speak their mother tongue9.2 Language Acquisition1. Children’s use of language is rule-governed. For example, children frequently say tooths and mouses instead of teeth and mice, and holded and finded, instead of held and found. These are examples of overgeneralization or overextensionDefinition:1. Language acquisition (语言习得):the learning and development of a person’s language.2. Overgeneralization (过度概括):children’s treatment of irregular verbs and nouns as if they were regular. This shows that the child has acquired the regular rules but has not yet learned that there are exceptions.3. Undergeneralization: a child uses a word in a more limited way than adults do. (e.g. refusing to call a taxi a car)4. Universal grammar (UG): the innateness or properties that pertain to the grammars of all human language.9.3 Language ProductionDefinition:Language production (语言产生): the process involved in creating and expressing meaning through language.9.3.1 Conceptualization1. Psycholinguists agree that some form of mentalese existMentalese: a representation system which is different from language.9.3.2 FormulationDefinition:1. Slips of the tongue (口误): mistakes in speech which provide psycholinguistic evidence for the way we formulate words and phrases2. Spoonerism (斯本内现象): a slip of the tongue in which the position of sounds, syllables, or words is reversed. For example: Le t’s have chish and fips instead of Let’s have fish and chips.9.3.3 Articulation9.3.4 Self-regulation9.4 Language Comprehension1. Language Comprehension: comprehension seems to be nothing more than recognition of a sequential string of linguistic symbols, although at a very rapid pace2. People do not process linguistic information in a neat, linear fashiond3. Listeners and readers use a great deal of information other than the actual language being produced to help them find the meaning of the linguistic symbols they hear or see9.4.1 Sound comprehension9.4.2 Word comprehension1. Bathtub effect: we knew the word, but could not access the whole word. For many time we could only get part of the words vaguely, such as the beginning or the ending of the words.Definition1. Parallel distributed processing (PDP) (平行分布处理):a model of cognition that attempts to account for complex behaviors such as the processing and production of speech by positing the existence of completely separate but concurrent and parallel cognitive systems operating at the same time.9.4.3 Sentence comprehension1. Garden path sentence (花园路径句): a sentence in which the comprehender assumes a particular meaning of a word or phrase but discovers later that the assumption was incorrect, forcing the comprehender to backtrack and reinterpret the sentenceFor example: The horse reaced past the barn fella.S?The horse raced past the barn fellb.SNPVP The horse raced past the barn fell9.4.4 Text comprehension9.5 Language and Thought9.5.1 Language determines thought1. Proposer: E. Sapir and B. Lee Whorf2. Theory: Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis or Whorfian HypothesisThe theory has two parts: the first is called linguistic determinism, which says that linguistic structure determines cognitive structure; the second part is called linguistic relativity, which says that the resulting cognitive systems are different in speakers of different languages.3. Evidence: Eskimo have separate words for different types of snow. A child who grows up speaking such a language will develop more cognitive categories for snow than will an English-speaking child. When the former looks out at a snowy environment, he will, in some sense, see it differently from a child who has but one word snow.4. Modern view: the Whorfian Hypothesis----language determines though----cannot be supported. However, it is equally clear that a weak version of the hypothesis----language influence thought----is reasonable and supportable9.5.2 Thought determines language1. Proposer: B. Berlin and P. Kay2. Evidence: The result of their experiment which was concerned with how speakers of different languages divide up the color spectrum showed that there appear to be some basic constraints that limit the way in which this aspect of our experience is coded in the language.Chapter 10 Cognitive Linguistics10.1 IntroductionDefinition:Cognitive linguistics (认知语言学): a new approach to the study of language and mind. According to this approach, language and language use are based on our bodily experience and the way we conceptualize it.10.2 Categorization and CategoriesCategorization: the mental process of classificationDefinition:Category: the products of categorization10.2.1 The classical theory1. Assumptions of the classical theory:(1) the first assumption: Categories are defined by a limited set of necessary and sufficient conditions/features. In other words, a thing can not both be and not be, it cannot both have a feature and not have it, it cannot both belong to a category and notbelong to it.E.g. in the BIRD category, if a creature has two wings , two legs, a beak, feathers and lays eggs, then it is a bird; on the other hand, if a creature has all these features, this is also sufficient for classifying it as a bird.(2) the second assumption: A feature is either in the definition of a category, or it is not; an entity has this feature, or it does notE.g. the BIRD category has the feature [+two legs], but[-four legs](3) the third assumption: Categories have clear boundariesE.g. BIRD and BEAST have clear boundaries(4) the fourth assumption: all members of a category have equal statusE.g. we cannot say that the sparrow is a better member than the ostrich in the BIRD category2. Problem: some members have fuzzy boundariesE.g: do ostriches and penguins belong to the BIRD category?10.2.2 The prototype thery.1. Prototypes (典型): what members of a particular community think of as the best example of a lexical category. E.g. for some English speakers “cabbage” (rather than, say, “carrot”) might be the prototypical vegitable2. Members of a category therefore differ in their prototypicality3. Proposer: E. Rosch4. Advantages: (1) It can explain how people deal with damaged examplesE.g. people would still categorize a one-winged robin who couldn’tfly as a bird, or a three-legged lion as a lion.(2) The prototype theory can work for actions as well as objectsE.g. people can judge that murder is a better example of killingthan execute or suicide(3) It is useful for explaining how people deal with atypical examplesof a categoryE.g. unbirdly birds such as penguins and pelicans can still beregarded as birds10.2.3 Levels of categorization1. Superordinate levels2. Basic-level categories* three respects: (1) Perception: overall perceived shape; single mental image; lastidentification(2) Communication: shortest, most commonly used andcontextually neutral words, first learned bychildren and first to enter the lexicon(3) Knowledge organization: most attributes of category membersare stored at this level.* Basic-level categories take primacy over categories at other levels. This is mostly because it is at this level that we perceive the evident differences between objectsand organisms of the world3. Subordinate levels10.3 Conceptual Metaphor and Metonymy10.3.1 Conceptual metaphor1. Example: LOVE IS A JOURNEYLook how far we’ve comeWe’ll just have to go our separate waysWe can’t turn back nowOur marriage is on the rocksWe’ve gotten off the trackThis relationship is founderingDefinition1. Metaphor: understanding one conceptual/cognitive domain in terms of anotherconceptual domain2. Source domain (始发域): the conceptual domain from which we draw metaphorical expressions to understand another conceptual domain3. Target domain (目标域): the conceptual domain that is understand this way Diagram: Conceptual Domain (A) Conceptual Domain (B)Target domain Source domainHe is a tiger10.3.2 Conceptual metonymy1. We have a general metonymic principle:THE BODILY SYMPTOMS OF AN EMOTION STAND FOR THE EMOTION E.g. drop in temperature for FEAR “I was chilled to the bone”erect posture for PRIDE “He swelled with pride”drooping posture for SADNESS “My heart sank”jumping up and down for JOY “He was jumping for joy2. The main difference between them is that metaphor involves a mapping across different conceptual or cognitive domains while metonymy is a mapping within one conceptual domain3. Metonymy is a cognitive process in which one cognitive category, the source, provides mental access to another cognitive category, the target, within the same10.4 IconicityDefinitionIconicity (象似性): a feature of language which means that the structure of language reflects in some way the structure of experience, that is, the structure of the word, including the perspective of imposed on the world by the speaker10.4.1 Iconicity of orderDefinitionIconicity of order: the similarity between temporal events and the linear arrangement of element in a linguistic constructione.g. I came, I saw, I conquered10.4.2 Iconicity of distance1. Iconicity of distance accounts for the fact that things which belong together conceptually tend to be put together linguistically, and things that do not belong together are put at a distance10.4.3 Iconicity of complexity1. the positive, comparative, and superlative degrees of adjective show a gradual increase in the number of phonemes, such as long, longer and longest in English2. Iconicity of complexity accounts for our tendency to associate more form with more meaning and, conversely, less form with less meaning10.5 Grammaticalization1. Grammaticalization: the process whereby an independent word is shifted to the status of a grammatical element2. Full words, with their own lexical content, thus become form words; and this categorical change tends to be accompanied by a reduction in phonological form anda “bleaching” of meaning3. Example: the transition of the lexical verb “go” into an auxiliary used to express the future tensea. Susan’s going to London next month.b. She’s going to London to work at our officec. Sh e’s going to work at our officed. You’re going to like here. You’re gonna like herf. You gonna like her. (non-standard)Chapter 11 Language Acquisition11.1 First Language Acquisition11.1.1 The behaviorist approach1. Best-known advocator: B.F.Skinner11.1.2 The innateness approach1. Under the influence of Noam Chomsky’s linguistic theories and cognitive psychology, the behaviorist hypothesis of first language acquisition has been challenged2. The innateness hypothesis says that the ability to acquire a human language is part of the biologically innate equipment of the human being, and that an infant is born with this ability just as it is born with two arms, two legs, and a beating heart. It also claims that this built-in ability is linked in some manner to physiological maturation, that it is strongest in the very small child, and that some degree of decay in its function begins around the time of puberty.11.1.3 Stages of acquiring the first language1. Pre-language stages (3~10m)2. The one-word or holophrastic stage (single-unit or single-form) (12~18m)3. The two-word stage (18~20m)4. Telegraphic speech (2~3y)(1) the child begins producing a large number of utterances which could be categorized as multiple-word utterances, but these utterances usually leave out certain word that adults omit in telegrams, such as articles, auxiliary, verbs and prepositions (2) e.g. Andrew want ball; cat drink, this shoe all wet11.2 Second Language Acquisition1. The differences between second language and foreign language(1) Second language plays an institutional and social role in the community, that is, it functions as a recognized way of communication among members who speak some other language as their mother tongueExamples: English as a second language is learned in the United States, the United Kingdom, and countries in Africa such as Zambia and Nigeria by those whose first language is not English.(2) Foreign language learning takes place in situations where the language plays no major role in the community and is primarily learned in the classroom.Examples: English learned in Japan and FranceDefinition:Second Language Acquisition (L2 acquisition/SLA) (第二语习得):the acquisition of another language or languages after first language acquisition is under way or completed11.2.1 Contrastive analysis1. Where two languages were similar, positive transfer would occur; where they were different, negative transfer, or interference, would result. That is:(1) The main difficulties in learning a new language are caused by interference from the first language(2) These difficulties can be predicted by contrastive analysis(3) Teaching materials can make use of contrastive analysis to reduce the effects ofmother tongue interference.Definition:Contrastive analysis (CA) (对比分析):systematically comparing the first language and the target language11.2.2 Error analysis1. Error analysis (EA) refers to the study and analysis of the errors made by second and foreign language learnersDefinition:1. Intralingual errors: result from faulty or partial learning of the target language, rather than from language transfer.e.g. “He is comes”→correct: He is coming or He comes2. Interlingual errors: caused by the learner’s native languagee.g. He comes from China, Beijing →correct: He comes from Beijing, China11.2.3 Interlanguage1. There is some in-between system while acquiring L2 which certainly contains aspects of both L1 and L2, but which is an inherently variable system with rules of its own. This system is called an interlanguage2. The process of fossilization in L2 pronunciation is one obvious cause of a foreign accentDefinitionFossilization (僵化现象): (in second or foreign language learning) a process which sometimes occurs in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes the target language. Aspects of pronunciation, vocabulary usage, and grammar may become fixed or fossilized in second or foreign language learning.11.3 Individual Differences in Second Language Acquisition11.3.1 Language aptitude1. According to Carroll, the components of language aptitude are:(1) Phonemic coding ability (音位编码能力)(2) Grammatical sensitivity (语法的感性)(3) Inductive language learning ability (语言学习归纳能力)(4) Rote learning ability (机械学习能力)Definition:Language aptitude: the natural ability to learn a language, not including intelligence, motivation and interest, etc.11.3.2 Cognitive style: field dependence and field independence1. Field dependence: measured by asking learners to look at complex patterns and identify a number of simple geometric figures that are hidden within them(1) Characteristic:①they accept the L2 information exactly as it is presented to them by the teacher.②They do not try to analyze or think about it themselves③They are very reliant on what other people think of them and depend a great deal on positive feedback in their L2 learning④They tend to be seen as outgoing and interested in others and so would be expected to develop good interpersonal communication skills in the L22. Field independent:(1) Characteristic:①do not assume that the L2 information that they are given is necessarily correct②They tend to analyze it and think about it themselves to determine whether it is correct or not③They have a strong sense of personal identity④They often seem insensitive to and distant from other people.⑤They might, therefore, be expected to be less interested in developing communication skills in the L2(2) Examples:①they think about the input that they get.②In a formal learning context they are more likely to consciously think about and analyze the structure items that are presented to them, and consider how they fit into the grammar system as a whole③In a natural acquisition context they may more actively process the input they receive to build up hypotheses about how the language works.④They would develop a broader and deeper understanding of the structure of the language.Definition1. Cognitive style (认知风格): the particular way in which a learner tries to learn something. In second or foreign language learning, different learners may prefer different solutions to learning problems. For example, some people may want explanations for grammatical rules; others may not need any explanation2. Field dependence (场依存): a learning style in which a learner tends to look at the whole of a learning task which contains many items. The learner has difficulty in studying a particular item when it occurs within a field of other items.3. Field independence (场独立): a learning style in which a learner is able to identify or focus on particular items and is not distracted by other items in the back ground or context.11.3.3 Personality traits。

Self-relianceType Work and Year of Publication......."Self-Reliance" is an essay that urges readers to trust their own intuition and common sense rather than automatically following popular opinion and conforming to the will of the majority. "Self-Reliance" was published in 1841 in a collection entitled Essays. In 1844, Emerson published a second collection, Essays: Second Series. Consequently, in 1847, he changed the title of the first collection to Essays: First Series.ThemesTrust Your Own Inner Voice.......Emerson urges his readers to retain the outspokenness of a small child who freely speaks his mind. A child he has not yet been corrupted by adults who tell him to do otherwise. He also urges readers to avoid envying or imitating others viewed as models of perfection; instead, he says, readersshould take pride in their own individuality and never be afraid to express their own original ideas. In addition, he says, they should refuse to conform to the ways of the popular culture and its shallow ideals; rather they should live up to their own ideals, even if doing so reaps themcriticism and denunciation.Avoid Consistency as an End in ItselfBeing consistent is not always wise. An idea or regimen to which you stubbornly cling can become outmoded tomorrow.Point of ViewEmerson uses first-, second-, and third-person point of view. In the opening paragraph of the essay, he first writes in the first person, telling readers about an experience of his. Then, after only three sentences, he switches to second person, as if he is advising a listener sitting acrossthe table from him. Later, in the paragraph, he switches to third person as he presents an exhortation about humankind in general. Following is the first part of the essay, in which Emerson uses all three points of view–first person in black, second person in red, and third person in blue:I read the other day some verses written by an eminent painter which were original and not conventional. The soul always hears an admonition in such lines, let the subject be what it may. The sentiment they instil[Emerson's spelling of instill] is of more value than any thought they may contain. To believe your own thought, to believe that what is true for you in your private heart is true for all men,—that is genius. Speak your latent conviction, and it shall be the universal sense; for the inmost in due time becomes the outmost,—and our first thought is rendered back to us by the trumpets of the Last Judgment.Familiar as the voice of the mind is to each, the highest merit we ascribe to Moses, Plato, and Milton is, that they set at naught books and traditions, and spoke not what men but what they thought.A man should learn to detect and watch that gleam of light which flashes across his mind from within, more than the lustre of the firmament of bards and sages. Yet he dismisses without notice his thought, because it is his.Style Among the most notable characteristics of Emerson’s writing style are these: (1) thorough development of his thesis through examples, repetition, and reinforcement; (2) coinage of memorable statements of principle, or aphorisms; (3) frequent references (allusions) to historical and literaryfigures, such as Socrates, Galileo, Copernicus, Napoleon, Shakespeare, Franklin, Dante, and Scipio (ancient Roman general who defeated Hannibal), who embody qualities Emerson discusses; (4) frequent use of figurative language to make a point, such as “An institution is the lengthened shadow ofone man” (metaphor) and “They who made England, Italy, or Greece ve nerable in the imagination did so by sticking fast where they were, like an axis of the earth” (simile).Promotion of American CreativityBecause Emerson eschewed imitation (as noted under Theme), he urged Americans to avoid mimicking art and ideas from abroad.He writes: Our houses are built with foreign taste; our shelves are garnished with foreign ornaments; our opinions, our tastes, our faculties, lean, and follow the Past and the Distant....Why need we copy the Doric or the Gothic model? Beauty, convenience, grandeur of thought,and quaint expression are as near to us as to any, and if the American artist will study with hope and love the precise thing to be done by him, considering the climate, the soil, the length of the day, the wants of the people, the habit and form of the government, he will create a house inwhich all these will find themselves fitted, and taste and sentiment will be satisfied also.Emerson and Transcendentalism.......Emerson believed every human being has inborn knowledge that enables him to recognize and understand moral truth without benefit of knowledge obtained through the physical senses. Using this inborn knowledge, a gift of God, an individual can make a moral decision without relying on informationgained through everyday living, education, and experimentation. One may liken this inborn knowledge to conscience or intuition........Emerson and others who believed that this inborn knowledge served as a moral guiding force were known as transcendentalists—that is, they believed that this inner knowledge was a higher, transcendent form of knowledge than that which came through the senses. Because Emerson and his fellow transcendentalists trusted their own inner light as a moral guiding force, they were possessed of a fierce spiritofself-reliance. They were individualists; they liked to make decisions for themselves. If the government adopted a policy or a law that offended their consciences, they generally reacted strongly........Transcendentalism, as Emerson’s moral philosophy was called, did not originate with him or his fellow transcendentalis ts in New England but with the German philosopher Emanuel Kant. He used the German word for transcendental to refer to intuitive or innate knowledge—knowledge that is a priori rather than a posteriori.Epigraph An ancient Latin quotation precedes the essay: Ne te quaesiveris extra(Do not look outside of yourself for the truth.) The Roman satirist and poet Aulus Persius Flaccus (AD 34-63)—usually referred to simply as Persius—wrote those words in Book 1, line 7, of his Satires. The quotation is an apt introductory aphorism for Emerson's essay, for it sums up the central idea of "Self-Reliance" and the transcendental philosophy behind it: that one should rely on his own inner voice—his own intuition and instinct—to make important decisions and put his life on a righteous path. In other words, the quotation says, rely on yourself. Emerson follows the Latin quotation with an English quotation from the epilogue of a verse drama by playwrights Franics Beaumont and John Fletcher, contemporaries of Shakespeare. That quotation, which begins with the words Man is his own star, reinforces the view expressed in the Latin quotation.Summary of the EssayPlease be aware that the following summary condenses the content of “Self-Reliance.” It retains first-person point of view to make the summary more readable and easier to understand. Quotations marks surround the exact wording of Emerson.A man should believe in himself. When he has an original thought, he should embrace it and make it known to others rather than reject it simply because it is his own and therefore unworthy. "Else, to-morrow a stranger will say with masterly good sense precisely what we have thought and felt all the time, and we shall be forced to take with shame our own opinion from another."It is better to exercise the power within yourself than to envy and imitate others. When you are young, you are bold and independent; you assert yourself. You listen to the voice within and express yourself without bias and fear. But as you grow older, yousurrender your liberty to society. You want to be like others, act like others. And so you suppress yourself.However, if you want to be a man, you must be a nonconformist. Unfortunately, though, we let others have too much influence over us. These may be men of vanity and malice who take up philanthropic or noble causes–a bigot, for example, who says he supportsabolition but keeps black people at a distance. He loves from afar.Many men think virtue is the exception rather than the rule. They perform acts of charity as if they were paying a fine or doing a penance."I do not wish to expiate, but to live. My life is for itself and not for a spectacle. I much prefer that it should be ofa lower strain, so it be genuine and equal, than that it should be glittering and unsteady."I do not need or want the approval of other men. What I believe I should do is what concerns me, not what other people think I should do. Of course, it is not easy to follow your own inner voice, for there are always those who will try to make you conform tothe public will. It is easy in the world to live after the world’s opinion; it is easy in solitude to live after our own; but the great "man is he who in the midst of the crowd keeps with perfect sweetness the independence of solitude."Conformity turns your life into a lie because in living according to the will of others you are not being true to yourself. To conform, to please others, you put on a false face, smiling when in the presence of people with whom you feel uncomfortable orpretending to be interested in dull conversation.Consistency can also a problem. If you strive to be consistent in all things, you live according to a pattern—a pattern you are afraid to break out of because you are afraid that people will look down on you. Bosh! "A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds, adored by little statesmen and philosophers and divines. With consistency a great soul has simply nothing to do. He may aswell concern himself with his shadow on the wall." What if what you said today is not consistent with what you said yesterday? Why, then, people will misunderstand you. But is that so bad? Socrates and Jesus were misunderstood. So were Galileo and Newton and other wisemen.I wish we could do away with consistency and conformity. Men who listen to themselves rather than to the common herd are true men. Andit is true men who leave their mark on history.If all men became self-reliant, then all of their activities and institutions would be better: religion, education, the way they live, the way they think.Notable Quotations From "Self-Reliance"•Trust thyself: every heart vibrates to that iron string.•Whoso would be a man must be a nonconformist.•What I must do is all that concerns me, not what thepeople think.• A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds,adored by little statesmen and philosophers and divines. Withconsistency a great soul has simply nothing to do.•Travelling is a fool's paradise.•Insist on yourself; never imitate.•Society never advances. It recedes as fast on one side asit gains on the other.•The civilized man has built a coach, but has lost the useof his feet.•An institution is the lengthened shadow of one man.•Discontent is the want of self-reliance: it is infirmity ofwill.•Nothing can bring you peace but yourself. Nothing canbring you peace but the triumph of principles.。

语言学Chapter 6 PRAGMATICS1. What does pragmatics study? How does it differ from traditional semantics?答：Generally speaking, pragmatics is the study of meaning in the context. It studies meaning in a dynamic way and as a process. In order to have a successful communication, the speaker and hearer must take the context into their consideration so as to effect the right meaning and intention. The development and establishment pragmatics in 1960s and 1970s resulted mainly from the expansion of the study semantics. However, it is different from the traditional semantics. The major difference between them lies in that pragmatics studies meaning in a dynamic way, while semantics studies meaning in a static way. Pragmatics takes context into consideration while semantics does not. Pragmatics takes care of the aspect of meaning that is not accounted for by semantics.2. Why is the notion of context essential in the pragmatic study of linguistic communication? 答：The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. Various continents of shared knowledge have been identified, e.g. knowledge of the language they use, knowledge of what has been said before, knowledge about the world in general, knowledge about the specific situation in which linguistic communication is taking place, and knowledge about each other. Context determines the speaker's use of language and also the heater's interpretation of what is said to him. Without such knowledge, linguistic communication would not be possible, and without considering such knowledge, linguistic communication cannot be satisfactorily accounted for in a pragmatic sense. Look at the following sentences:(1) How did it go?(2) It is cold in hem.(3) It was a hot Christmas day so we went down to the beach in the afternoon and had agood time swimming and surfing.Sentence (1) might be used in a conversation between two students talking about an examination, or two surgeons talking about an operation, or in some other contexts; (2) might be said by the speaker to ask the hearer to turn on the heater, or leave the place, or to put on more clothes, or to apologize for the poor condition of the room, depending on the situation of context; (3) makes sense only ii the hearer has the knowledge that Christmas falls in summer in the southern hemisphere.3. How are sentence meaning and utterance meaning related, and how do they differ?答： A sentence is a grammatical concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication. But if we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes an utterance, and it should be considered in the situation in which it is actually uttered (or used). So it is impossible to tell if “The dog is barking” is a sentence or an utterance. It can be either. It all depends on how we look at it and how we are going to analyze it. If we take it as a grammatical unit and consider it as a self-contained unit in isolation from context, then we are treating it as asentence. If we take it as something a speaker utters in a certain situation with a certain purpose, then we are treating it as an utterance.Therefore, while the meaning of a sentence is abstract, and decontextualized, that of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. The meaning of an utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. Now, take the sentence "My bag is heavy" as an example. Semantic analysis of the meaning of the sentence results in the one-place predication BAG (BEING HEA VY). Then a pragmatic analysis of the utterance meaning of the .sentence varies with the context in which it is uttered. For example, it could be uttered by a speaker as a straightforward statement, telling the hearer that his bag is heavy. It could also be intended by the speaker as an indirect, polite request, asking the hearer to help him carry the bag. Another possibility is that the speaker is declining someone's request for help. All these are possible interpretations of the same utterance “M y bag is heavy”. How it is to be underst ood depends on the context in which it is uttered and the purpose for which the speaker utters it.While most utterances take the form of grammatically complete sentences, some utterances do not, and some cannot even be restored to complete sentences.4. Try to think of contexts in which the following sentences can be used for other purposes than just stating facts:a) The room is messy.b) Oh, it is raining!c) The music of the movie is good.d) You have been keeping my notes for a whole week now.答：a) A father entered his son’s room and found it is very messy. Then when he said, “The room is messy,” he was blaming his son for not tidying it up.b) A son asked his father to play with him outside. So when the father said, “Oh, it’s raining”,he meant they couldn’t play outside.c) Two persons just watched a movie and had a discussion of it. One person sai d, “The story ofthe movie is very moving”, so wh en the other person sai d, “The music of the movie is good”, he me ant he didn't think the story of the movie was good.d) A person wanted his notes bac k, so when he said, “you ha ve been keeping my notes for awhole wee k now”, he was demanding the return of his notes.5. According to Austin, what are the three acts a person is possibly performing while making an utterance. Give an example.答：According to Austin's new model, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act.A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something. A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something. Let's look at an example:You have left the door wide open.The locutionary act performed by the speaker is his utterance of the wo rds “you”, “have”,“door”, “open”, etc. thus expressing what the words literally mean.The illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance he has expressed his intention of speaking, i.e. asking someone to close the door, or making a complaint, depending on the context.The perlocutionary act refers to the effect of the utterance. If the hearer gets the speaker's message and sees that the speaker means to tell him to close the door, the speaker has successfully brought about the change in the real world he has intended to; then the perlocutionary act is successfully performed.6. What are the five types of illocutionary speech acts Searle has specified? What is theillocutionary point of each type?答：(1) representatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true(2) directives: trying to get the hearer to do something(3) commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action(4) expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing(5) declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying somethingThe illocutionary point of the representatives is to commit the speaker to something's being the case, to the truth of what has been said, in other words, when performing an illocutionary act of representative, the speaker is making a statement or giving a description which he himself believes to be true. Stating, believing, sweating, hypothesizing are among the most typical of the representatives.Directives ate attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do some- thing. Inviting, suggesting, requesting, advising, wanting, threatening and ordering are all specific instances of this class.Commissives are those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action, i.e. when speaking the speaker puts himself under a certain obligation. Promising, undertaking, vowing are the most typical ones.The illocutionary point of expressives is to express the psychological state specified in the utterance. The speaker is expressing his feelings or attitudes towards an existing state of affairs, e.g. apologizing, thanking, congratulating.The last class “declarations” has the characteristic that the successful performance of an act of this type brings about the correspondence between what is said and reality.7. What is indirect language use? How is it explained in the light of speech act theory?答：When someone is not saying I an explicit and straightforward manner what he means to say, rather he is trying to put across his message in an implicit, roundabout way, we can say he is using indirect language.Explanation (略) (见教材p.84-85)8. What are the four maxims of the CP? Try to give your own examples to show how floutingthese maxims gives rise to conversational implicature?答：Cooperative Principle, abbreviated as CP. It goes as follows:Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.To be more specific, there are four maxims under this general principle:(1) The maxim of quantity①Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of theexchange).②Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.(2) The maxim of quality①Do not say what you believe to be false.②Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.(3) The maxim of relationBe relevant.(4) The maxim of manner①Avoid obscurity of expression.②Avoid ambiguity.③Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity).④Be orderly.9. What is pragmatic failure? Try to find instances of pragmatic failure in the English usedby Chinese learners of English.答：The technical term for breakdowns in the course of communication is pragmatic failure.Pragmatic failure occurs when the speaker fails to use language effectively to achieve a specific communication purpose, or when the hearer fails to recognize the intention or the illocutionary force of the speaker’s utterance in the context of communication.Instances (略) (见教材p.89)。