references for sentence rewriting

Unit 4 Describing MethodologyObjectives─ Be clear about t he significance of this section─ Try to understand the importance of pa ssive voice in academic writing─ Learn to be skilled in using sequential markers in writing a pro cess─ Be fam iliar with proof-reading skills─ Learn to design a questionnaireContents─ Brief introduction to this section─ Reading & Discussion: What information elements are usually involved in writing a methodology section?─ Language Focus: Passive voice and sequential markers─ Writing Practice: Understanding the sentence patterns and sent ence order in writing a process─ Writing Project: How to design a questionnaire1.Reading ActivityIn natural sciences the method section is often called Materials and Methods. In social sciences it is common to introduce a section called Theory and Methods. Sometimes it is divided in two sections: Theoretical Framework and Methods.Research methodology is mainly concerned with the answers to the following questions:1) Why is a particular research study undertaken?2) How has one formulated a research problem?3) What types of data have been collected?4) What particular methods have been used?5) Why is a particular technique of analysis of data used?1.1Pre-reading TaskThe following is the method section of a research article in the field of applied linguistics. Think about the following questions before reading the text and then havea discussion with your classmates:1) What is the function of the method section?2) What information elements does a method section include?3) What verb tenses are mainly used in the text? What is the proportion of activevoice verbs to passive voice verbs in this method section?1.2 Reading PassageEnglish for College Students in Taiwan:A Study of perceptions of English Needs in a Medical ContextThe experiment was initiated to investigate perceptions of English needs in a medical context among college students in Taiwan.The subjects were 341 medical students in the Department of Medicine, including 97 freshmen, 74 sophomores, 90 juniors, and 80 seniors, and 20 faculty members in the medical program at Chung Shan Medical College in Taichung, Taiwan, China.Two questionnaires were developed for the survey, based on two earlier survey instruments by Taylor & Hussein (1985) and Guo (1989). The questionnaires were translated into Chinese, piloted, and modified according to the feedback from l0 respondents: six medical students and four faculty members from Chung Shan Medical College. The questionnaire given to the medical students consisted of five sections of 23 questions, the topics of which were the importance of English incollege and professional careers, perceived language skill needs and problems, the activities needed in a freshman language course, and suggestions for development of course content and materials as well as demographic information. The faculty questionnaire consisted of four sections of l6 questions, which were parallel to those in the version given to the students except no demographic information was gathered (see Appendix).One of the authors, a faculty member at Chung Shan Medical College, selected one required class for each group of students (freshmen sophomores, juniors and seniors). Copies of the student questionnaire for administration to the students were then sent to cooperating instructors teaching these courses; copies of the faculty questionnaire were given to 20 teachers who were willing to complete the survey.The data were computer-analyzed using an SPSS program: in the questionnaire, percentages were determined for all questions except 8 and 13 for which means were computed. Chi-square, t-tests, and ANOV A analyses (方差分析) were conducted in order to determine the perceptions of English language needs of medical college students and their faculty and to compare the perceptions held by the various groups.( Pang, 2008)1.3 Reading Comprehension1.3.1 Fill in the following table with relevant details from the passage.1.3.2 Understand more about the method section of this research. Whatdo you know about the questionnaires used in the survey?2. Language Focus2.1 Passive voiceThe passive voice is usually used in academic writing, because passive structures have less subjective coloring in most cases than active ones. When describing a process or a scientific experiment, it is important to write in a neutral style, as an observer. To do this, you can use passive voice. There are three instances in which the passive voice is recommended: 1) when we do not know or do not care about who has performed the action; 2) when we focus on the receiver instead of the performer of the action; and 3) when we would like to remain in a neutral or objective position in writing. More examples from the methodology section are as follows:1) The study was conducted at the beginning of the semester and the final one was given at the end of the semester. ( procedure )2) In summer, the greenhouse was cooled by pulling in air through water saturated pads on the south end of the building. ( specially designed material )3) The quartz reactors tested for this work are fabricated by the A&B Sales Company of Wheeling, Leeds, UK. ( instrument )4) In order to provide a broad sampling of college students, respondents were recruited from diverse fields of study. ( sampling )5) The final scores were computed into mean averages (X) and standard deviations (SD). ( statistical analysis)2.1.1 Go over the Reading Passage and mark verbs inthe passive voiceand then complete the following table:2.1.2 Rewrite the following text with passive voice.Some people consider a poison ivy infection to be humorous. But it is not funny at all. Contact with the plant causes a rash that has the intensity of a fresh mosquito bite and lasts for several days. Scientists have studied poison ivy infection for centuries, but they have found no preventive pill or inoculation. The poisonous substance in the plant is called urushiol. After urushiol has touched the skin, blisters and weeping sores will soon cover the exposed area.2.2 Sequential markersA process paragraph explains how to do something or how something works. Process paragraphs are usually developed step-by-step in a chronological or logical sequence. The following sequencing expressions are more frequently used to link steps in a description of a process or to divide a process into steps:● Firstly … To begin with … First of all … etc.● Secondly … Next … After that … In addition … etc.● Finally … Lastly …The following sentences describe a process of making paper. Use sequential words and rewrite them into a cohesive paragraph.1) The logs are placed in the shredder.2) They are cut into small chips and mixed with water and acid.3) They are heated and crushed to a heavy pulp which is cleaned.4) It is chemically bleached to whiten it.5) It is passed through rollers to flatten it.6). Sheets of wet paper are produced.7) The water is removed from the sheets which are pressed, dried and refined and the finished paper is produced.3. Writing PracticeA well organized, logically ordered and easily understandable chapter on methodology makes the thesis a really outstanding work. Normally, a method section includes:1) Overview of the experiment: one sentence briefly tells what was done (like a topicsentence);2) Population: state the people/subjects studied, or the things tested;3) Location : where the study took place;4) Restriction/Limiting conditions: precautions taken to make sure that the data are valid;5) Sampling Techniques : describe how the subject are selected for the study;6) Materials : describe the materials used to conduct the study or experiment;7) Procedures : State the steps of the experiment in a chronological order;8) Statistical Treatment: describe how the statistics are examined.Of all the items on this list, the only items that are always included in the method section are the materials and procedures.3.1 Read the following sentences. They are all taken from method sections from different research articles. In each case, determine which information element is represented.(1) A total of 369 participants of European origins (52.7% female) with a mean age of27.2 years were recruited by research assistants in public places in the Montrealregion.(2) The data used for the current analysis consists of 60 texts taken from 20engineering journals.(3) Experimenters approached potential participants by introducing themselves asstudents from the University of Quebec in Montreal and then asked if they would accept to participate in a short study on facial expressions.(4) The study aims to examine the use of SEF as a tool for providing evidence ofteaching effectiveness in tertiary education.(5) The results of the two questionnaires were subjected to statistical tests ofreliability and significance using SPSS.(6) Envelopes containing the survey materials were sent to the local business managerof each union. In the envelopes, there was a cover letter explaining the project, the questionnaire itself, and a pre-paid return envelope. The union business manager was contacted and asked to select workers from his union and to send the envelopes to the chosen workers.(7) The participants were 90 first-year students from the School of Foreign Languagesat a major university in Nanjing. Their average age was 18 years old. They constituted a convenience sample.(8) The investigation was performed in a national laboratory affiliated to a researchcenter for industrial automation in Nanjing, Jiangsu Province.3.2 Completing sentencesThe following words and phrasal verbs are more commonly used in Method SectionComplete the following paragraph by translating Chinese into English.A group of MBA students from a major metropolitan state university were recruited as participants for the investigation. （1）（问卷调查实施）after the topic of the BSC had been discussed in the course. 136 students enrolled in a managerial accounting course ( 2 ) （完成了此次问卷. _( 3 )_（表2给出了这些参与者的背景信息）. As is shown, the majority of participants are male. _( 4 )_（参与者的平均年龄约29岁）, _( 5 )_（平均工作经历约6年）, and the mean number of accounting classes was approximately four.(Liu, 2008)1)_________________________________________________________________2)_________________________________________________________________3)_________________________________________________________________4)_________________________________________________________________5)_________________________________________________________________3.3 Reordering sentencesThe following is the method section of a research article from the field of engineering with sentences in a scrambled order. Please rearrange them in a more conventional order. Write the sequential number in the box on the right side of the table below.3.4 Rewriting sentencesThe following sentences are taken from method sections of different published articles. Rewrite each sentence to make it more acceptable.(1) Table 5 shows the number of students per level and their L1 language backgroundswhich are represented.__________________________________________________________________ (2) Two questionnaires which were administered respectively to the personnel officersand business employees show a similar result in terms of their perception of the use of English in their firm.__________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ (3) The scores of the two raters were averaged and all the data were entered forstatistical analysis._________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ (4) The model which was used in the experiment was a modified version of the 2006Test package, which was originally developed by the Morrison Research Institute._________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ (5) Gray (1998) studied the effectiveness of the new schedule. He used scores on theStanford Achievement Test as the measure.__________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ (6) Having explained the directions, the students began to write.__________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ (7) The schedule was in effect only 1 year, with students achieving better results.__________________________________________________________________ (8) The teacher put the assignment on the board, and then she checked the roll andfound that three students were absent.__________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________(9) School administrators who are interested in making changes that are not tooexpensive or too complex for the most part have been overly receptive to simplistic solutions.__________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ (10) One of the obstacles that deter the installation of solar energy systems that aredesigned to achieve the savings that are important to all people is the reluctance of those same individuals to make large capital investments.__________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________3.5 Turning notes into a passageYou are required to write the method section of a research paper about the experiment to investigate into students’ preferences and attitudes towards sugar-sweetened and artificially-sweetened beverages. Pay particular attention to the choice of tense and voice.4. Writing Project4.1 Gathering information for a method section.You are required to write the method section of a research paper in the field of English language class attendance with the information elements given below. Gather information for your research.4.2 Designing a questionnaireThe design of a questionnaire will depend on whether the researcher wishes to collect exploratory information (i.e. qualitative information for the purposes of better understanding or the generation of hypotheses on a subject) or quantitative information (to test specific hypotheses that have previously been generated).A good questionnaire is one that: 1) enables collection of accurate data in a timely manner; 2) facilitates the work of data collection, data processing and the tabulation of data; 3) ensures that there is no collection of non-essential information; and 4) permits comprehensive and meaningful analysis as well as purposeful utilization of the data collected to ensure that the technical task of the questionnaire receives the various input that it requires.Types of questionsThere are many different types of questions you can use to get the information that you need. In the main, these fall into open and closed questions. An open question allows the respondents to use their own words to answer, e. g., “What do you think are the main causes of racism?” A closed question gives them pre-defined options, e.g., “Which of the following do you think are the main causes of racism: a, b, c, d”.The pros and cons of each are given in the following table.Rating design in a questionnaire: Look closely at the following example of a rating design.Please rate the quality of the medical insurance of this company.□Poor □Fair □GoodThere are nine steps involved in the development of a questionnaire:1. Decide the information required;2. Define the target respondents;3. Choose the method(s) of reaching your target respondents;4. Decide on question content;5. Develop the question wording;6. Put questions into a meaningful order and format;7. Check the length of the questionnaire;8. Pre-test the questionnaire;9. Develop the final survey form.Now work in groups of four, and design a questionnaire to obtain information about students’ attendance and causes for their absence.4.3 Drafting your method sectionBegin your writing now with the information you have just obtained from your survey.5. Final ChecklistRevision gives you an opportunity to take another look at what you have written. Therefore, you have to do some extra work to revise your draft. Here are some general rules for your check.。

学士论文写作要求(Thesis Writing)论文写作要求：1. 题目选择学生须在网院学士论文选题单中选择论文题目，学生的选题不得超出选题单所列选题范围，但可在选题框架内深入和细化题目。

选题单请见附录一。

2.语言要求学士论文一律使用英文完成，论文摘要用中英文完成。

英文须使用正式文体，语言清晰流畅准确，用词恰当，段落分明。

避免使用的主观性语言（如使用“I think”、“I believe”之类），避免使用性别歧视性语言（如使用“he”代表整体等）。

3.长度要求学士论文长度为5000词（不包括论文摘要、目录、书目和附录）。

4.格式要求论文封面、论文摘要（中文）、论文摘要（英文）、目录、书目和附录都必须采用平台上发布的模板。

全文以A4纸打印，并在左侧用抽杆文件夹装订（请见第9页图示）。

1)字体和字号：大标题采用Arial 12号黑体，次标题采用Arial 10号黑体，小标题采用Times New Roman 12号黑体，正文采用Times New Roman12号字。

2) 1.5 行距：一律1.5行距。

3)标题序号：各层次标题序号分别为：a.第一层：I、II、III、IV …b.第二层：1、2、3、4 …c.第三层：1.1、1.2 …；2.1、2.2 …d.第四层：1.1.1、1.1.2…；1.2.1, 1.2.2 …4)文中序号：文中信息列表采用1）→ a→ a) → i5.结构组成学士论文须包括以下部分：1) A standard cover: name of the institution, thesis title, writer’sinformation, submission date, etc.2)Acknowledgement (optional)3)An abstract (in Chinese): a summary of the whole thesis in 500-800Chinese characters, through which a readercould have a brief but complete understanding of the thesis byreading the abstract and not reading the rest of the thesis.4)An abstract (in English): a compact version of the Chinese abstract,using 200 words.5) A table of contents: a list of titles for each section and theircorresponding page numbers.6) A body (See 6 for detailed information below)7) A bibliography: a list of books and articles that have been referredto in the body. (Y ou need to refer to at least 5 sources.)8)Appendices (Optional)6.内容要求论文的内容要求强调论点、论据和结论的清晰性、逻辑性和科学性。

William Zinsser, “Simplicity”This selection is a chapter from one of the most successful books about writing, titled On Writing Well . The New York Times has compared William Zinsser’s book, first published in 1976, with the classics in the field, saying it “belongs on any shelf of serious reference works for writers.” From 1959 to 1987 Zinsser, the author of fifteen books, was general editor ofthe Book-of-the-Month Club. He now teaches in New York City at the New School and the Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism. In this selection, Zinsser begins with a fairly pessimistic analysis of the clutter that pervades and degrades American writing, and he offers many examples to prove his point. Zinsser deals with almost all major aspects of the writing process—thinking, composing, awareness of the reader, self-discipline, rewriting,and editing—and concludes that simplicity is the key to them all.PREREADING: THINKING ABOUT THE ESSAY IN ADVANCEDo you find writing difficult or easy? Why? What is there about the act of writing that annoys, frustrates, or satisfies you?Words to Watchdecipher (par. 2) to make out the meaning of something obscureadulterants (par. 3) added substances that make something impure or inferiormollify (par. 4) to appease; to soothespell (par. 4) a short period of timeassailed (par. 8) attacked with words or physical violencetenacious (par. 10) stubborn; persistentrune (par. 10) character in an ancient alphabetbearded (par. 12) approached or confronted boldly“Simplicity”Clutter is the disease of American writing. We are a society strangling in unnecessary words, circular constructions, pompous frills and meaningless jargon.Who can understand the clotted language of everyday American commerce: the memo, the corporation report, the business letter, the notice from the bank explaining its latest “simplified” statement? What member of an insurance or medical plan can decipherthe brochure explaining his costs and benefits? What father or mother can put together a child’s toy from the instructions on the box? Our national tendency is to inflate and thereby sound important. The airline pilot who announces that he is presently anticipating experiencing considerable precipitation wouldn’t think of saying it may rain. The sentence is too simple—there must be something wrong with it.But the secret of good writing is to strip every sentence to its cleanest components. Every word that serves no function, every long word that could be a short word, every adverb that carries the same meaning that’s already in the verb, every passive construction that leaves the reader unsure of who is doing what—these are the thousand and one adulterants that weaken the strength of a sentence. And they usually occur in proportion to education and rank.During the 1960s the president of my university wrote a letter to mollify the alumni after a spell of campus unrest. “You are probably aware,” he began, “that we have been experiencing very considerable potentially explosive expressions of dissatisfaction on issues only partially related.” He meant the students had been hassling them about different things. I was far more upset by the president’s English than by the students’ potentially explosive expressionsof dissatisfaction. I would have preferred the presidential approach taken by Franklin D. Roosevelt when he tried to convert into English his own government’s memos, such as this blackout order of 1942:Such preparations shall be made as will completely obscure all Federal buildings andnon-Federal buildings occupied by the Federal government during an air raid for anyperiod of time from visibility by reason of internal or external illumination.“Tell them,” Roosevelt said, “that in buildings where they have to keep the work going to put something across the windows.”Simplify, simplify. Thoreau said it, as we are so often reminded, and no American writer more consistently practiced what he preached. Open Walden to any page and you will find a man saying in a plain and orderly way what is on his mind:I went to the woods because I wished to live deliberately, to front only the essentialfacts of life, and see if I could not learn what it had to teach, and not, when I came todie, discover that I had not lived.How can the rest of us achieve such enviable freedom from clutter? The answer is to clear our heads of clutter. Clear thinking becomes clear writing; one can’t exist without the other.It’s impossible for a muddy thinker to write good English. He may get away with it for a paragraph or two, but soon the reader will be lost, and there’s no sin so grave, for the reader will not easily be lured back.Who is this elusive creature, the reader? The reader is someone with an attention span of about 30 seconds—a person assailed by many forces competing for attention. At one time those forces were relatively few: newspapers, magazines, radio, spouse, children, pets. Today they also include a “home entertainment center” (television, VCR, tapes, CDs), e-mail, the Internet, the cellular phone, the fax machine, a fitness program, a pool, a lawn, and that most potent of competitors, sleep. The man or woman snoozing in a chair with a magazine or a book is a person who was being given too much unnecessary trouble by the writer.It won’t do to say that the reader is too dumb or too lazy to keep pace with the train of thought. If the reader is lost, it’s usually because the writer hasn’t been careful enough. The carelessness can take any number of forms. Perhaps a sentence is so excessively cluttered that the reader, hacking through the verbiage, simply doesn’t know what it means. Perhaps a sentence has been so shoddily constructed that the reader could read it in severalways. Perhaps the writer has switched pronouns in midsentence, or has switched tenses, so the reader loses track of who is talking or when the action took place. Perhaps Sentence B is not a logical sequel to Sentence A; the writer, in whose head the connection is clear, hasn’t bothered to provide the missing link. Perhaps the writer has used a word incorrectly by not taking the trouble to look it up. He or she may think “sanguine” and “sanguinary” mean the samething, but the difference is a bloody big one. The reader can only infer (speaking of big differences) what the writer is trying to imply.Faced with such obstacles, readers are at first tenacious. They blame themselves—they obviously missed something, and they go back over the mystifying sentence, or over the whole paragraph, piecing it out like an ancient rune, making guesses and moving on. But they won’t do this for long. The writer is making them work too hard, and they will look for one who is better at the craft.Writers must therefore constantly ask: What am I trying to say? Surprisingly often they don’t know. Then they must look at what they have written and ask: have I said it? Is it clear to someone encountering the subject for the first time? If it’s not, some fuzz has worked its way into the machinery. The clear writer is someone clearheaded enough to see this stuff for what it is: fuzz.I don’t mean that some people are born clearheaded and are therefore natural writers, whereas others are naturally fuzzy and will never write well. Thinking clearly is a conscious act that writers must force upon themselves, as if they were working on any other project that requires logic: making a shopping list or doing an algebra problem. Good writing doesn’t come naturally, though most people seem to think it does. Professional writers are constantly bearded by strangers who say they’d like to “try a little writing sometime”—meaning when they retire from their real profession, like insurance or real estate, which is hard. Or they say, “I could write a book about that.” I doubt it.Writing is hard work. A clear sentence is no accident. Very few sentences come out right the first time, or even the third time. Remember this in moments of despair. If you find that writing is hard, it’s because it is hard.BUILDING VOCABULARY1. Zinsser uses a number of words and expressions drawn from areas other than writing; he uses them to make interesting combinations or comparisons in such expressions as“elusive creature” (par. 8) and “hacking through the verbiage” (par. 9). Find other such expressions in this essay. Write simple explanations for the two above and the others that youfind.2. List words or phrases in this essay that pertain to writing—the process, the results, the faults, the successes. Explain any with which you are unfamiliar.THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT THE ESSAYUnderstanding the Writer’s Ideas1. State simply Zinsser’s meaning in the opening paragraph. What faults of “bad writing” does he mention in this paragraph?2. To what is Zinsser objecting in paragraph 2?3. What, according to the author, is the “secret of good writing” (par. 3)? Explain this “secret”in a few simple words of your own. What does Zinsser say detracts from good writing? Why does Zinsser write that these writing faults “usually occur, in proportion to education and rank”?4. What was the “message” in the letter from the university president to the alumni (par.4)? Why does the writer object to it? Was it more objectionable in form or in content?5. Who was Thoreau? What is Walden? Why are references to the two especially appropriate to Zinsser’s essay?6. What, according to Zinsser, is the relation between clear thinking and good writing? Can you have one without the other? What is meant by a “muddy thinker” (par. 7)? Why isit “impossible for a muddy thinker to write good English”?7. Why does the author think most people fall asleep while reading? What is his attitude toward such people?8. Look up and explain the “big differences” between the words sanguine and sanguinary; infer and imply. What is the writer’s point in calling attention to these differences?9. In paragraph 11, Zinsser calls attention to a writer’s necessary awareness of the composing process. What elements of the process of writing does the author include in that paragraph? In that discussion, Zinsser speaks of fuzz in writing. What does he mean by the word as it relates to the writing process? To what does Zinsser compare the writer’s thinking process? Why does he use such simple comparisons?10. Explain the meaning of the last sentence. What does it indicate about the writer’s attitude toward his work?Understanding the Writer’s Techniques1. What is the writer’s thesis? Is it stated or implied?2. Explain the use of the words disease and strangling in paragraph 1. Why does Zinsser use these words in an essay about writing?3. For what purpose does Zinsser use a series of questions in paragraph 2?4. Throughout this essay, the writer makes extensive use of examples to support general opinions and attitudes. What attitude or opinion is he supporting in paragraphs 2, 4, 5, 6,and 9? How does he use examples in each of those paragraphs?5. Analyze the specific structure and organization of paragraph 3:a. What general ideas about writing does Zinsser propose?b. Where does he place that idea in the paragraph?c. What examples does he offer to support his general idea?d. With what new idea does he conclude the paragraph?How is it related to the beginning idea?6. Why does Zinsser reproduce exactly portions of the writings of a past president of a major university, President Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Henry David Thoreau? How do thesesections make Zinsser’s writing clearer, more understandable, or more important?7. What is the effect on the reader of the words “Simplify, simplify,” which beginparagraph6? Why does the writer use them at that particular point in the essay? What do they indicate about his attitude toward his subject? Explain.8. Why does the author begin so many sentences in paragraph 9 with the word “Perhaps”? How does that technique help to unify the paragraph?9. Overall, how would you describe the writer’s attitude toward the process and craft of writing? What would you say is his overall attitude toward the future of American writing? Is he generally optimistic or pessimistic? On what does his attitude depend? Refer to specifics in the essay to support your answer.11. Do you think Zinsser expected other writers, or budding writers, to be the main readers of this essay? Why or why not? If so, with what main ideas do you think he would like themto come away from the essay? Do you think readers who were not somehow involved in the writing process would benefit equally from this essay? Why?Exploring the Writer’s Ideas1. Do you think that Zinsser is ever guilty in this essay of the very “sins” against writing about which he is upset? Could he have simplified any of his points? Select one ofZinsser’s paragraphs in the finished essay and explain how you might rewrite it more simply. 2. In the reading that you do most often, have you noticed overly cluttered writing? Or, do you feel that the writing is at its clearest level of presentation and understanding for its audience? Bring to class some examples of this writing, and be prepared to discuss it. In general, what do you consider the relation between the simplicity or complexity of a piece of writing and its intended readership?3. In the note to the two rough manuscript pages included with this essay, the writer implies that the process of rewriting and simplifying may be endless. How do you know when to stop trying to rewrite an essay, story, or poem? Do you ever really feel satisfied that you’ve reached the end of the rewriting process?IDEAS FOR WRITINGPrewritingFor the most part, teachers have called upon you to put your thoughts in writing from your elementary school days onward. Make a list of your writing “problems”—the elements of writing or the elements of your personality that create problems for you whenever you try to produce something on paper.Guided WritingIn a 500- to 750-word essay, write about what you feel are some of the problems that you face as a writer.1. In the first paragraph, identify the problems that you plan to discuss.2. In the course of your essay, relate your problems more generally to society at large.3. Identify what, in your opinion, is the “secret” of good writing. Give specific examples of what measures to take to achieve that secret process and thereby to eliminate some of your problems.4. Try to include one or two accurate reproductions of your writing to illustrate your composing techniques.5. Point out what you believe are the major causes of your difficulties as a writer.6. Toward the end of your essay, explain the type of writer that you would like to be in order to succeed in college.Thinking and Writing CollaborativelyForm groups of two and exchange drafts of your Guided Writing essay. Do for yourpartner’s draft what Zinsser did for his own: edit it in an effort to make it “stronger and more precise, eliminating every element that is not doing useful work.” Return the papers and discuss whether or not your partner made useful recommendations for cutting clutter.Writing About the TextTeachers of writing tend to stress two, apparently contradictory, philosophies aboutwriting. The first is that clear thinking makes for clear writing. This point of view assumesthat thinking precedes writing, that you need to get your thoughts in order before you can write. The second is that you don’t really know what you think until you write it down. This point of view assumes that writing is a process of discovery and that thinking and writing occur more or less simultaneously. Write an essay to explain which position you think Zinsser would take. What evidence does he present to support this position? Then explain your position on the matter. Draw on your own experience as a writer.More Writing Projects1. Over the next few days, listen to the same news reporter or talk-show host on television or radio. Record in your journal at least ten examples that indicate the use of “unnecessary words, circular constructions, pompous frills, and meaning-less jargon.” Or compile such a list from an article in a newspaper or magazine you read regularly. Then write an essay presenting and commenting on these examples.2. Respond in a paragraph to Zinsser’s observation, “Good writing doesn’t come naturally.”3. In preparation for a writing assignment, collect with other class members various samples of junk mail and business correspondence that confirm Zinsser’s statement that these tend to be poorly written. Write an essay describing your findings. Be certain to provide specific examples from the documents you have assembled。

语言学C h a p t e r-4--E x e r c i s e s-含答案(总10页)--本页仅作为文档封面，使用时请直接删除即可----内页可以根据需求调整合适字体及大小--Chapter 4 From Word to TextI. Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false:1. Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.2. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, butthere is no limit to the number of sentences nativespeakers of that language are able to produce andcomprehend.3. An endocentric construction is also known as headedconstruction because it has just one head4. Constituents that can be substituted for one another withoutloss of grammaticality belong to the same syntacticcategory.5. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories arecommonly recognized and discussed, namely, nounphrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliaryphrase.6. Number and gender are categories of noun and pronoun.7. Word order plays an important role in the organization ofEnglish sentences.8. Like English, modern Chinese is a SVO language.9. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.10. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.( 1-5 TTFTF 6-10 TTTTT )II.Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:1 A s________ is a structurally in dependent unit that usuallycomprises a number of words to form a completestatement, question or command2. A clause that takes a subject and a finite verb, and at thesame time structurally alone is known as an f__________clause3. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or averb phrase and which says something about the subjectis grammatically called p_________.4. A c_________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, oneof which is incorporated into the other.5. In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinateclause is normally called an e_______ clause.6. Major lexical categories are o___ categories in the sensethat new words are constantly added.7. G_________ relations refer to the structural and logicalfunctional relations between every noun phrase andsentence8. A a__________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.9. A s__________ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.10. A s__________ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.Answers:1. sentence2. finite3. predicate4. complex5. embedded6. open7. grammatical8. simple9. sentence 10. subjectIII. There are four given choices for each statement below.Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:1 The head of the phrase “the city Rome”is__________A the cityB RomeC cityD the city and Rome 2. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause.A. coordinatorB. particleC. PrepositionD. subordinator3 Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.A. recursiveB. grammaticalC. socialD. functional4. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand_____________.A. how words and phrases form sentences.B. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC. how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD. All of the above.5 The phrase “on the half” belongs to ________constructionA endocentricB exocentricC subordinateD coordinate6 . The theory of case condition accounts for the fact that__________.A. noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.B. noun phrases can be used to modify another noun phraseC. noun phrase can be used in adverbial positionsD. noun phrase can be moved to any place if necessary.7 The sentence structure is ________.A. only linearB. Only hierarchicalC. compelD. both linear and hierarchical8. The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite9. The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrasesto form grammatical sentences.A. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational10 The sentence “They were wan ted to remain quiet and notto expose themselves” is a ____________sentenceA simpleB coordinateC compoundD complex Answers:1 D2 D 3. A 4 D 5 B 6 A 7 D 8 C 9 D 10 AIV. Explain the following terms, using examples.1. Syntax2. IC analysis3. Hierarchical structureAnswers :1.Syntax: Syntax refers to the rules governing the way wordsare combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.2. IC analysis: Immediate constituent analysis, IC analysis forshort, refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of itsimmediate constituents – word groups (phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate sake ofconvenience.3. Hierarchical structure: It is the sentence structure thatgroups words into structural constituents and shows thesyntactic category of each structural constituent, such as NP, VP and PP.V. Answer the following questions:1. What are the major types of sentences Illustrate them with examples.2. What are endocentric construction and exocentric construction?3. Draw a tree diagram according to the PS rules to show the deep structure of the sentence:The child asked for a new book4. What are the major types of sentences according to traditional approach Illustrate them with examplesAnswers :1. Traditionally, there are three major types of sentences.They are simple sentence, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complex sentence. A simple sentence consists of asingle clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence, for example: John readsextensively. A coordinate sentence contains two clausesjoined by a linking word that is called coordinatingconjunction, such as "and", "but", "or". For example: John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for herhistory exam. A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence do not have equal status, one is subordinate to the other. For example: Before John gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in linguistics.2. An endocentric construction is one whose distribution isfunctionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to oneof its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole. A typical example is the three small childrenwith children as its head. The exocentric construction,opposite to the first type, is defined negatively as aconstruction whose distribution is not functionallyequivalent to any of its constituents. Prepositional phrasal like on the shelf are typical examples of this type.3.略4. Traditionally, there are three major types of sentences. Theyare simple sentence, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complex sentence. A simple sentence consists of a singleclause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence, for example: John readsextensively. A coordinate sentence contains two clausesjoined by a linking word that is called coordinatingconjunction, such as "and", "but", "or". For example: John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for her history exam. A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. Thetwo clauses in a complex sentence do not have equalstatus, one is subordinate to the other. For exam­ple:Before John gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in lin­guistics.。

Unit 7Rewriting American HistoryFrances FitzGeraldTeaching Tips“Rewriting American History” is an exposition. Fitzgerald is making an argument, so it is important for the students to find out 1) what the author’s arguments are; 2) on what evidence the author bases her arguments; 3) how the author makes these arguments. After understanding the author’s arguments, the students can then evaluate these arguments: 1) are they convincing? and 2) how can I connect these arguments to what I already know about the subject matter? The essay is taken from FitzGerald’s journal articles/book America Revised: History Schoolbooks in the Twentieth Century, so draw your students’ attention to techniques of comparison and contrast and the ways in which FitzGerald assesses current (i.e. 1970s)history textbooks. As FitzGerald is writing about the rewriting of American history, the text contains quite a number of references to U.S. history. Give the students just enough information to enable them to understand the text, but ask them to focus more on how FitzGerald makes her argument.Here are a few suggestions for handling the essay. Ask your students to keep these in mind while scanning the essay: 1) state what the essay is about in one or two sentences; 2) enumerate its major parts in their order and relation and outline these parts; and 3) define the problem or problems the author is trying to solve. In class, you can ask your students to 1) identify and interpret the author’s key words, for example, “rewriting”, “change”, “problems”, “patchwork”, “diversity”, etc.; 2) grasp the author’s leading propositions by dealing with her most important sentences; 3) know the author’s arguments, by constructing them out of sequences of sentences; and 4) determine which of the problems she presents the author has solved, and which she has not. At the end of the week, you can ask your students to assess FitzGerald’s writing and present good reasons for any critical judgments they make.Structure of the TextPart I Introduction(1) It is hard to imagine history textbooks as being subject to change.Part II American History Schoolbooks RewrittenSection I: changing history textbooks(2-4 )Examples of changes that have taken place(5) It is not surprising that textbooks reflect changing scholarly research, but the changes remain shocking.Section II: three types of changes that have taken place(6-9) political change: patchwork replacing unity, problems replacing progress(10-11) pedagogical change(12-13) physical changePart III Conclusion(14-15) There is no perfect objectivity, but the problem with constantly changing school history textbooks is that each generation of children reads only its own generation’s textbooks and therefore learns only one particular and transient version of America, which remains their version of American history forever.Outline and Topic Sentences:Part IPara. 1Topic sentence: Those of us who grew up in the fifties believed in the permanence of our American-history textbooks.Transitional sentence: But now the textbook histories have changed, some of them to such an extent that an adult would find them unrecognizable.Part IIPara. 2Topic sentence: One current junior-high-school American history begins with a story about a Negro cowboy called George McJunkin.Example: George McJunkin, Negro cowboy, discovery of remains of an Indian civilization in 1925 →civilizations before European explorersPara. 3Topic sentence: Another history text—this one for the fifth grade—begins with the story of how Henry B. Gonzalez, who is a member of Congress from Texas, learned about his own nationality. Example: Henry B. Gonzalez, question of nationality: birthright or cultural heritage, melting pot vs. salad bowlPara. 4Topic sentence: Poor Columbus! He is a minor character now, a walk-on in the middle of American history.Example: Columbus, prominence in U.S. history fading with time and revision, along with other self-promoting figures in U.S. history.Para. 5Topic sentence: Of course, when one thinks about it, it is hardly surprising that modern scholarship and modern perspectives have found their way into children’s books. Yet the changes remain shocking.Para. 6Topic sentence: The history texts now hint at a certain level of unpleasantness in American history. Examples: the last “wild” Indian captured and displayed, child coal miners of Pennsylvania, cruelty in the American-Filipino War, cruelty of patriots against royalists in the American Revolution, and Japanese internment.Para. 7Topic sentence: Ideologically speaking, the histories of the fifties were implacable, seamless.Para. 8Topic sentence: But now the texts have changed, and with them the country that American children are growing up into.A radical way of reconceptualizing past and future:Society: uniform → a patchwork of wealth, ages, gender, and racesSmooth-running system → a rattletrap affairPast future relationship: progress → changeThe present: a haven of scientific advances → a tangle of problemso Examples: problems of consumer society; problems of the poor and aged who depend on social security.o Science and technology still deemed to be the magic bullet for social problems Para. 9Transitional sentence: Even more surprising than the emergence of problems is the discovery that the great unity of the texts has broken.Topic sentence: Whereas in the fifties all texts represented the same political view, current texts follow no pattern of orthodoxy.Examples:Portrayal of civil rights: as a series of actions taken by a wise, paternal government vs. the involvement of social upheavalPortrayal of the Cold War: having ended vs. continuingPara. 10Topic sentence: The political diversity in the books is matched by a diversity of pedagogical approach. Types:Traditional narrative historiesFocusing on particular topics with “discovery” or “inquiry” texts and chapters like case studies (with background information, explanatory notes and questions) (questions are at the heart of the matter; they force students to think much as historians think, to define the point of view of the speaker, analyze the ideas presented, question the relationship between events, and so on.)o Example: Washington, Jefferson, and John Adams on the question of foreign alliancesPara. 11Topic sentence: What is common to the current texts—and makes all of them different from those of the fifties—is their engagement with the social sciences.Transitional sentence: In matters of pedagogy, as in matters of politics, there are not two sharply differentiated categories of books; rather, there is a spectrum.Political and pedagogical spectrum:o politically, from moderate left to moderate right;o pedagogically, from the traditional history sermon, through a middle ground of narrative texts with inquiry-style questions and of inquiry texts with long stretches ofnarrative, to the most rigorous of case-study booksEngagement with the social scienceso“Concepts” as foundation stones for various elementary-school social-studies series ▪Example: the 1970 Harcourt Brace Jovanovich series, “a horizontal base or ordering of conceptual schemes” to match its “vertical arm of behavioralthemes,” from easy questions to hardo History textbooks almost always include discussions of “role,” “status,” and “culture;” some include debates between eminent social scientists, essays oneconomics or sociology, or pictures and short biographies of social scientists of bothsexes and of diverse racesPara. 12Topic sentence: Quite as striking as these political and pedagogical alterations is the change in the physical appearance of the texts.Comparison and ContrastThe 1950s Current (1970s)Overall Showing some effort in thematter of design: they hadmaps, charts, cartoons,photography, and an occasionalfour-color picture to break upthe columns of print;Looking as naïve as Sovietfashion magazines beside thecurrent texts Paragons of sophisticated modern designPrint Heavy and far too black, thecolors muddyPhotographs and illustrations Photographs: conventional newsshots;Illustrations: Socialist-realist-Far greater space given to illustrations;The pictures far outweighingstyle drawings or incredibly vulgar made-for-children paintings of patriotic events the text in importance in certain “slow-learner” books;The illustrations having a much greater historical value: cartoons, photographs, and paintings drawn from the periods being treatedPara. 13Topic sentence: The use of all this art and high-quality design contains some irony.Example of how art transcends the subject matter: child laborers, urban slum apartments, the Triangle shirtwaist-factory fire, junk yards, nuclear testingParagraph summary: Whereas in the nineteenth-fifties the texts were childish in the sense that they were naïve and clumsy, they are now childish in the sense that they are polymorphous-perverse. American history is not dull any longer; it is a sensuous experience.Part IIIPara. 14Topic sentence: The surprise that adults feel in seeing the changes in history texts must come from the lingering hope that there is somewhere out there, an objective truth.Question: why is it disturbing to see the changes in history textbooks?Paragraph summary: The texts, with their impersonal voices, encourage this hope that there is an objective truth, and therefore it is particularly disturbing to see how they change, and how fast. Para. 15Topic sentence: In history, the system is reasonable—except that each generation of children reads only one generation of schoolbooks. The transient history is those children’s history forever—their particular version of America.Detailed Analysis of the Text1.Those of us who grew up in the fifties believed in the permanence of our American-history textbooks. (Para. 1)This is the topic sentence of Para. 1. FitzGerald starts her article by talking about how people generally believed that history textbooks would never change. She presents a few reasons why American history textbooks of that era gave the impression that they would never change: they were heavy, solemn, authoritative, imperturbable, and distant. The last sentence of the paragraph is a transitional sentence leading to a discussion of how history textbooks in the 1970s differ from those a generation earlier.2.To us as children, those texts were the truth of things: they were American history.(Para. 1)Translation: 对于儿时的我们来说，历史书就代表了事实真相，因为它们是美国历史。

Ms. Ref. No.: VIRUS-D-13-00547Title: The three-dimensional structure of foot-and-mouth disease virus and its biological functionsVirus ResearchDear Dr. Sun,Your manuscript has now been evaluated by three independent reviewers whose comments are appended below. The reviewers recognized the value of reviewing structural aspects of FMDV, but considered that the amount of new insight provided by your study is insufficient to warrant publication. In addition, they list several problems in your manuscript, including a deficit of references to previous work. From my reading of the manuscript, I agree with the reviewers and therefore regret that I cannot proceed with this submission.Although this decision will come as a disappointment to you, I feel that the reviewers' comments have been valuable and will be of help to you in reassessing the paper.Thank you very much for allowing us to consider your work.Yours sincerely,Esteban DomingoEditorVirus ResearchReviewers' comments:Reviewer #1: It is not easy to determine what this paper is about. I assume that it pretends to be is a review article on the structure of Foot and Mouth Disease Virus and the relationship between the structure and function. This is an important issue because the understanding of such structure function relationship might lead to the development of new anti-viral drugs. However, most of sentences throughout the article are incomprehensible.- Introduction does not contain any reference. The lack of references persists throughout the text. e.g. Pag 12. Sec 5 Structural basis for immunogenicity of FMDV, lines 25-262 Analysis of the escaping mutant sites ... confirms that many different epitopes are presence on the FMDV capsid (Refs on the experimental data are needed).P14. Lines 297-299 Previous studies have confirmed ... the VP1 GH loop is the immunodominant epitope ( Refs are needed)P14. Lines 303-305 ..numerous evidences have indicated .. (what evidences ?? Refs are needed). And many others.- The different sections are only superficially treated, contain a large number of errors and lack of sufficient accuracy. In short it is difficult to understand the purpose of this review, even if the writing were better.- A number of articles or book chapters published in the past were much more informative on the same subject. (e.g. Fry et al.. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol. 2005;288:71-101; the chapter on FMDV structure In Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus. BWJ Mahy Ed. Springer; or the chapters on FMDV structure and antigenicity In Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus Current Perspectives. Sobrino and Domingo Eds. Horizon Bioscience).- Recent structural and functional data on capsid stability, vaccine development and the aphthovirus entry mechanism (Porta et al..PLoS Pathog. 2013:e1003255; Tuthill et al., PLoS Pathog. 2009 e1000620 and others) are only mentioned, but a review paper should address more deeply these important issues.-As mentioned above the manuscript contains an important number of errors. Some of them are summarized belowPage 6. L128. The VP1 protein of type O FMDV consist of 213 residues, most of them are close to the five fold axis.In, fact the FMDV VP1 (as well as the all picornavirus VP1 proteins) is located around the five-fold axis. However, this not implies that all 213 residues are located are the 5-fold. Page 7 L135 So far the VP1 GH loops in all native viruses are shown as disordered "up" conformation using the X-ray crystal diffraction technique.What does this sentence means ?. If the loop is in the up conformation, then it is ordered. Perhaps authors mean that the GH loop appears disordered in most of the crystal structures because it cannot be traced in the electron density.Page 28 L592-595 Poliovirus.. In the acidi environment of the endosome, viral capsid protein will undergo the structural changes ..PV is stable at acidic PH (particles remain intact at PH=2) The structural changes in PV that result in RNA uncoating and formation of the 80S particle is induced by receptor binding. The acidic PH of the endosomes triggers uncoating in a group of HRVs but not in PV.- Finally, Figures are also of poor quality, in particular Figure 3Reviewer #2: The authors state that this review "article focuses on the progress and the current status of the studies on three-dimensional structure of FMDV. The purpose is to understand the biological functions of these structures in the viral life cycle and confirm the molecular mechanisms of FMDV infection".Regrettably, not many research articles on FMDV structural biology have been published in the last 10 years. Thus, when I read those sentences by the authors on the purpose of this article, I guessed they intended to provide a review focused on the scarce but interesting research articles published on this subject in the last decade, and perhaps provide some novel interpretations of old results.Unfortunately, by reading this article I found instead that in every section after the Introduction (sections 2 to 7) this review essentially provides a classic description of quite old results (the vast majority of them having been publised about 10 to 25 years ago).For example, about three-fourths of the 66 references provided are over 10 years old. Most (in some cases, nearly all) of what the authors describe in the different sections had already been reviewed in similar terms in review articles and book chapters that were published about ten or more years ago. For example, most of what is described in section 5 on the immunogenicity of the FMD virion and the GH loop had already been thoroughly described in reviews as old as Mateu (1995) Virus Res. 38, 1-24 (in this very journal) or Mateu and Verdaguer (2004), in Domingo and Sobrino (eds), Foot-and-Mouth Disease: Current Perspectives, Horizon Bioscience pp. 223-260. Moreover, in the present manuscript no references tothe seminal work by D. Rowlands, F. Brown and colleagues specifically on the antigenicity and immunogenicity of the GH loop are included. The descriptions in sections 2 and 3 of the structures of the virion and of the capsid proteins are merely repetitions of what was thoroughly described in several reviews and book chapters by D. Stuart and colleagues, including the review by Fry et al cited in this manuscript, and also those by other authors. Reviews on synthetic peptide FMD vaccines based on structural studies, such as those by T. Doel and others, should be also referenced. With very few exceptions, in the present manuscript I found, unfortunately, neither information not covered by those previous reviews, nor alternative interpretations of published results.Only 11 articles published in the last 7 years are referenced, and most of them are not discussed in any depth. Several relevant articles on FMDV structural virology published in the last years are not cited at all. For example, the authors have focused in structural studies dealing with FMDV particles exclusively, but when the authors mention that "the structures of some non-structural proteins have also been known" they should have provided at least a few references to relatively recent and most relevant articles such as those by Ferrer Orta et al. (2004) JBC 279, 47212-47221 and Ferrer-Orta et al. (2006) EMBO J 25, 880-888. Another example, this one well within the restricted field covered by this review: when the authors state that "However, the poor stability of empty capsid becomes a major restriction to the production of empty capsid vaccine (Curry et al., 1997)", and before describing the work carried out by Porta et al. (2013), they should have referenced thestructure-based stabilization of FMDV particles described five years earlier by Mateo et al. (2008) J.Virol. 82, 12232-12240. These are just a couple of examples among others that could be indicated.I fould also some peculiar errors in terminology. For example, in the introduction, the authors write "Its complete virus..." instead of virion (that of FMDV). They write "the 5' terminal of..." instead of the 5´ terminus of. Protomers are repeatedly referred to as promoters. In general, the English of this manuscript should be considerably improved.I consider that this review should be completely rewritten to be useful to researchers working on this or related subjects pertaining to Structural Virology. The rewriting should address the following points:-Old results (over 10 years-old or so) should be described very briefly, but providing many references to those results for the interested reader.-Those references to non-recent results should include the ones the authors have already provided, but also other important references such as those by D. Rowlands, F. Brown and colleagues on the GH loop immunogenicity, and those on synthetic peptide vaccines including the articles by DiMarchi et al (1986) Science 232, 639-641 and by Taboga et al. (1997) J. Virol. 71, 2606-2614. Most importantly, references to a fair number of previous review articles and book chapters on the different subjects treated in sections 2 to 7 should be included in the appropriate sections.-Most of the text in each section of this review should be devoted to describe in enough depth the (relatively) recent work done on FMDV structural virology (last ten years or so). References to most relatively recent structure-function studies on FMDV not included in the present manuscript should be provided, and most of these studies should be described in some detail. All references I have specifically mentioned in the above paragraphs should definitely be included and the results of these studies described in some detail.-Correct scientific terms should be used throughout the text, and English should be improved.Reviewer #3: The authors have reviewed the structural data available for foot-and-mouth disease virus. They cover the basic structure of the virus particle, the location of the antigenic sites and antibody complexes, virus receptors and finally some speculation on the mode of cell entry. The available literature has been well covered but I'm afraid that I do not think that it has been presented in an easily understood and useful way. A review should compile and condense available information to provide a clear and succinct analysis of the field. I do not feel that this review achieves this goal. A lot of the article would be confusing for a reader not 'au fait' with the virus. There is insufficient introduction of the basic features of the virus. For example there are seven serotypes and many variants of the virus but although this important characteristic is alluded to it is never explicitly described. The properties of the major receptor binding site, the VP1 G-H loop are covered but in a rather confusing way. Similarly, the roles of the different receptors that have been described in the literature are not clearly discussed; heparin binding is essentially a laboratory selected artefact but this is not made clear.Most of the material presented in the review is described and discussed more clearly in the original articles and I get the impression that this article is largely a 'copy and paste' job compiled from the original literature. I'm afraid that I cannot see the 'added value' provided by this assembly from articles in the literature.The text needs to be revised by a native English speaker to improve its readability. In addition, attention needs to be paid to the references quoted in the text - in several cases authors are referred to by given names.SOME of the specific points that need attention are as follows:-L 69 'Its complete virus' = The virion ----L 77 not all non-structural proteins are enzymesL 79 'The 3' UTR plays an important role in the synthesis of negative strand RNA.' - This is very uninformativeL86 'known' = solvedL 102 protomers not promotersL 134 'the integrins of the cell' - what does this mean?L 145-153 This section would be very difficult to follow for a reader who does not know the details of FMDV structureL 143 Azuma & Yaneda not Hiriko AzumaL 154 ' the residue fragment' what does this mean?L172 'a tight c' - what does this mean?L 174 The Ca binding site has not been introduced beforeL 187 'multiple disulphide bonds between the cysteines' it is not clear what is meant here. L 188 (and elsewhere) conserved not conservative.L189 hydrophobicL 190 '-identified in the crystal structure'mall RNA virusesL 204 ' other picornaviruses' not other small RNA viruses.L220 '-the cleavage site of VP0 was also changed' what does this mean?L 231 'Porta et al' not Claudine Porta (who is a woman)L 231 - 233 - this is difficult to understand as writtenL 241 - 248 - this is very difficult to follow as writtenL 303 there are much earlier reports of the antigenicity of G-H loop peptidesL 307 delete 'the body'L 313 How?L 326 'Ochoa et al' not Wendy F. Ochoa.L 329-330 'The spectroscopy evidences of GH loop -' what does this mean?L 330-335 This would be difficult to understand without background knowledge.L 348-355 this section is very difficult to followL373 'monovalently binds to -' what does this mean?L 378 'almost the same orientation' - as what?L 477 'different from the two strains' - presumably the O1BFS and A10 referred to earlier? Not clear.L559 pH not PHL 560 '-may affect the affinity, pathogenicity and transmission --@ How?L 561-564 This is not clearly described.L 566 Was not the role of histidines in the acid sensitivity of the virus proposed earlier? L 569 The capsid dissociates. It is nor cleaved.L 595 sedimentation not deposition.L 597 ejected, not deleted。

王蔷英语教学法教程第⼆版Unit15Unit 15 Assessment in language Teaching 重要⼀、Understanding assessmentThe differences between testing, assessment and evaluation:1. Testing:It often takes the ‘pencil and paper’ form and it is usually done at the end of a learning period, such as unit-test, mid-term-test, semester-test etc.2. Assessment:It involves the collecting of information or evidence of a learner’s learning progress and achievement over a period of time for the purposes of improving teaching and learning.3. Evaluation:It involves making an overall judgment about one’s work or a whole school’s work. According to Cameron, it can be concerned with ‘a whole range of issues in and beyond language education: lessons, courses, programs, and skills can all be evaluated.’Evaluation is the most general of the three concepts, for decision-making purpose. Assessment focuses on the learning progress and process-oriented, for the purpose of improving teaching and learning. Test is one instrument of assessment, focusing on the result of learning.⼆、Assessment purposesAssessment in ELT means to discover what the learners know and can do at certain stage of the learning process.A close study of the assessment purposes will make it clear that all the people involved in education have some reasons to consider assessment necessary. They are administrators, teachers, parents and students.1. for administrators:They need to know whether the programs they have planned are working well. The only way to do this is to discover how well the students are doing with their courses.2. for teachers:Teachers put the administrators’ plans into practice. They need to know what has been done and what needs to be done next; what the students already know or can do and what they don’t know or can’t do yet.3. for parents:They are anxious to know what their children are doing in school. Unable to watch their kids in the class, parents value the feedback about their children’s performance from the teachers and the school.4. for students:They need to know what they’ve accomplished, be aware of what they need to work on next, and build up confidence and satisfaction from what they have achieved.三、Methods for assessmentAssessment includes testing but definitely not only testing. Assessment is often divided into summative assessment and formative assessment.1. Summative assessment:Summative assessment is mainly based on testing. It is done mostly at the end of a learning period or the end ofa school year.2. Formative assessment:Formative assessment is based on information collected in the classroom during the teaching process for the purposes of improving teaching and learning, therefore, it is sometimes termed as classroom assessment as well.3. The ways to gather students’ learning information:（1）Teacher’s observationsTeacher’s observations of the learners’ overall performance or achievement can be quite accurate and fair.（2）Continuous assessmentThe final grade given to the student is some kind of combination of the grades the student has received for various assignments during the course.（3）Self-assessment and peer assessmentStudents are able to make quite accurate assessment of their own achievements. With peer-assessment students are involved in assessing each other’s work.（4）Project workProject work requires students to complete a set of tasks designed to explore a certain idea or concept.（5）PortfoliosA portfolio is a purposeful collection of materials assembled over a period of time by a learner to provide evidence of skills, abilities and attitudes related to their study.四、Criteria for assessmentAssessment means to discover how well learners know things or can do things. Depending on different assessment purposes and the stage at which the assessment is made, assessment should be made according to different criteria or references. 1. Different criteria or references of assessment:（1）Criterion-referenced assessmentCriterion-referenced language assessment is based on a fixed standard or a set criterion. The national or local educational authority may have this standard or criterion. A school or several schools in a district may have their standard or set criterion for whatever purposes they might have. A fixed standard is usually the ultimate goal which the students are expected to achieve at the end of the course.（2）Norm-referenced assessmentNorm-referenced assessment is designed to measure how the performance of a particular student or group of students compares with the performance of another student or group of students whose scores are given as the norm. A student’s achievement is therefore interpreted with reference to the achievement of other students or groups of students, rather than to an agreed criterion.（3）Individual-referenced assessmentIndividual-referenced assessment is based on how well the learner is performing relative to his or her own previous performance, or relative to an estimate of his or her individual ability. For example, if a student could only say a few words inEnglish after a few months of the course, and now after another month’s study, he is able to speak with some fluency (although there is some inaccuracy), we can surely say he has made great progress.2. Criteria to assess portfolios:Setting up clear criteria for assessment is very important when introducing the use of portfolios.The criteria for assessing pupil’s portfolio:·Inclusion of all the required entries;·Quality of final products;·Seriousness of revisions;·Depth of reflections;·Layout and design;·Keeping to the time schedule.五、Assessment principlesAssessment should be based on the following principles:①assess authentic use of language in reading, writing, speaking, and listening;②assess literacy and language in a variety of contexts;③assess the environment, the instruction, and the students;④assess processes as well as products;⑤analyze patterns of errors in language and literacy;⑥base assessment on normal developmental patterns and behavior in language and literacy acquisition;⑦clarify and use standards when assessing reading, writing, and content knowledge;⑧involve students and parents, as well as other personnel in the assessment process;⑨make assessment an ongoing part of every day.It is ideal if assessors can follow all these principles. But in reality, it is very difficult to achieve this.六、Tests in assessment1. Drawbacks of using tests for assessment:①A test is often a one-off event which may not necessarily give a fair sample of the learner’s overall proficiency; They are not always valid or reliable;②Tests tend to fragment skills. Most tests test only lower-order thinking skills;③When assessment is solely dependent on test results, teachers tend to begin teaching to the test (washback effect).2. Types of test items:Test items can be designed in various formats. A test whose items are designed in different formats tends to have more validity and reliability than a test that is designed in a single format, for example, multiple-choice format. Below are the most frequently used test formats.（1）Questions & answersStudents are asked to answer questions according to information provided in reading texts or recorded materials. （2）True or false questionsStudents are provided with a set of statements related to the read or heard texts and required to decide whetherthey are true or false according to the texts.（3）Multiple-choice questionsThis form can be used virtually for all language areas, such as reading, listening, vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation. Usually there are 3—5 choices, one of which is the correct answer, and the rest are distracters. （4）Gap-filling or completionStudents are asked to complete paragraphs or sentences by either filling in words they think are appropriate or choosing the best from the given choices. The test goals can be of grammar, vocabulary or reading comprehension.（5）Matching questionsTraditionally matching is only used for vocabulary tests, i.e. students are asked to match words with their definitions or their synonyms or antonyms. Now matching is used in a great variety of ways.（6）DictationStudents write down exactly what is read to them. The dictated materials can be sentences or short paragraphs.（7）TransformationUsually students are asked to transfer sentences from one pattern to another but keep the original meaning. A similar term for this form is rewriting.（8）TranslationStudents are asked to translate sentences or paragraphs from or into the target language.（9）Essay writingStudents are asked to write an essay on a certain given topic. Usually a set of instructions are given regarding the length, format and topic of the expected essay. Evaluation is based on both the language and the contents of the essay.（10）InterviewInterviews are often used to evaluate oral skills. The testers ask the students questions or ask them to perform some tasks. 3. The role of testing in the classroom:Classroom testing is the topic of this handbook. Although the teacher is primarily concerned with teaching rather than testing, classroom tests play three important roles in the second-language program: they define course objectives, they stimulate student progress, and they evaluate class achievement.（1）Defining course objectives（2）Stimulating student progress（3）Evaluating class achievement4. Types of test: 学硕语⾔学真题⾥考过四种测试类型There are four basic types of language tests: aptitude tests, progress tests, achievement tests, and proficiency tests.(1) The aptitude test (能⼒倾向测试)The aptitude test is conceived as a prognostic measure that indicates whether a student is likely to learn a second language readily. It is generally given before the student begins language study, and may be used to select students for a language course or to place students in sections appropriate to their ability.(2) The progress test（进步测试）The progress test measures how much the student has learned in a specific course of instruction. The tests that the classroom teacher prepares for administration at the end of a unit or end of a semester are progress tests. Their format reflects thevarious components of the curriculum. This hand-book is written specifically to help teachers improve their progress tests and evaluate those which commercial publishers distribute to accompanytheir materials.(3) The achievement test（成绩测试）The achievement test is similar to the progress test in that it measures how much the student has learned in the course of second-language instruction. However, achievement tests are usually not built around one set of teaching materials hut are designed for use with students from a variety of different schools and programs. For example, the afternoon tests of the College Board battery are achievement tests. Dictations given over unfamiliar material may also he considered achievement tests when they are used to compare students across different programs.(4) The proficiency test（⽔平测试）The proficiency test also measures what students have learned, but the aim of the proficiency test is to determine whether this language ability corresponds to specific language requirements. The proficiency tests, in fact, usually report student language ability on a continuum that reflects a predetermined set of categories.(5) Diagnostic test (诊断测试)5. Testing items:When we design a test question, we should focus on the followings:validity(有效性)，reliability（可靠性）, discrimination（区别性）, difficulty（难度）, 具体掌握这⼏个的含义。

Unit 3 Reviewing LiteratureObjectives:- Learn how to formulate a research problem- learn how to cite other people’s previous work- Try to be critical and related in your reviewing- Avoid plagiarismContents- Reading and discussion: sample introduction and elements in literature review.- Language focus: tense in citation and citing verbs- Writing practice: information prominent citation, author prominent citation, and weak author prominent citation- Literature reviews related to your research- No plagiarism- Classroom extension: literature review of the social effects of tourism on developing countries1.Reading Activity1.1 Pre-reading TaskA literature review is not just a summary of what you have read. It focuses on a specific topic of interest to you and includes a critical analysis of relationship among different opinions and then relates this review to the work of your own. It may be written as a stand-alone paper or to provide a theoretical framework and rationale for a research study to become a part of the introduction section, especially in term papers or journal articles. However, in a thesis or dissertation it will be an entire chapter.Read the sample introduction below and think about the following questions:What is the purpose of writing a literature view?What elements does an introduction include?How do we relate other people’s previous work to our present research?How do we cite other people’s previous work?1.2 Reading PassageIntroductionThe poor have traditionally t aken the brunt of the blame for causing society’s many problems including, more recently, environmental degradation. There is a general consensus that poverty is a major cause of environmental degradation. For example, in one of the conclusions of the Bruntland Commission Report, which incidentally has been accepted as the blue print for environmental conservation, it was explicitly stated that poverty is a major cause of environmental problems and amelioration of poverty is a necessary and central condition of any effective programs addressing the environment. Following similar lines, Jalal (2010), the Asian Development Bank's chief of the environment department says, "It is generally accepted that environmental degradation, rapid population growth and stagnant production are closely linked with the fast spread of acute poverty in many countries of Asia". The World Bank joined the consensus when in the 2011 World Development Report, the Bank explicitly stated that, “poor families who have to meet short term needs mine the natural capital by excessive cutting of trees for firewood and failure to replace soil nutrients ” (World Bank 2011).However, there has been a rising trend in the economic literature which disputes the conventional theory and argues that simple generalizations of this multi-dimensional problem are erroneous and that a more complex set of variables are in play (Leach and Mearns, 2012). These studies point to demographic, cultural, and institutional factors as important variables in the poverty-environmental degradation nexus. An intricate web of factors plus the existence of feedback loops from environmental degradation to poverty makes the process of identifying causality links,if any, between environmental degradation and poverty a difficult exercise. However, these studies have been few and isolated and it is interesting to note that until recently, there has been very little in-depth coordinated empirical research in the economics of environmental degradation-poverty causality relationships.This brings to the purpose of this study. Both poverty and environmental degradation have been increasing in many developing countries; hence there is a pressing need first to evaluate and analyze the poverty-environmental degradation nexus, and second, to prescribe policy options to mitigate or eradicate these two problems.The primary objective of the paper is to analyze critically the existing literature on the poverty-environmental degradation nexus and try to make "some order out of the chaos" inherent in this complex and difficult subject. For this paper, our analysis is limited to the following four main natural resources which are under serious threat of degradation in many developing countries: i) forests; ii) land; iii) water; and iv) air. Biodiversity is excluded at this point because the preliminary literature search found only scattered and inconclusive information. However, it should not be inferred that biodiversity is less important than the four resources chosen; indeed it is an area which needs particular attention in the future.Once the natural resource sectors have been identified, a cause, impact and feedback analysis is carried out. In this manner, we hope first to identify the main agents and the degree of their contribution towards the destruction of the environment and second, the incentives or motivating factors encouraging their unsustainable activities. The impact and feedback analysis should highlight the main impacts arising from the degradation activities and the socio-economic effect these impacts have across the various income groups in the economy.1.3 Reading Comprehension1.3.1 List different opinions on poverty and environmental degradationnguage Focus2.1Tense in citationPresent tense - Authors mostly use the present tense verbs to show their opinion on another person's research, relate what other authors say or discuss the literature, theoretical concepts, methods, etc. However, the simple past and present perfect are also possible verb forms in this case. Look at these examples in the present tense: ∙Nelson (1995) remarks∙Jones (2005) stresses∙Morison (2000) advocates∙Zhang (2007) claims∙Zhambhi (2008) arguesPast tense - When you use the past tense, the reporting verb often occurs as an integral citation. In other words, citations with past tense verbs and named researchers as subject seem to have the discourse role of providing particulars for recounting events, results found or a preceding generalization or the basis for a claim, etc. In the example below, the citation reports the results of a single study.Carlson and Benton (2007) found that as they increased the participants’stress levels, the results of their performance deteriorated.Common verbs in the past tense are: investigated, studied, compared, analyzed, found, and examined.Present perfect - The present perfect tense can be used to state that the research results are recent, expressing what has been found over an extended period in the past and up to the present to highlight the direct relevance of previous studies to the writer's own research. Look at the following example:Although the results of pervious studies showed that further research was warranted in this area, recent studies have demonstrated that educational methodology is now moving in a new direction (Jones, 2007; Karstal, 2008).2.1.1 Check the sample introduction and complete the following table.2.2Citing verbsIt is important that you learn how to cite information in a correct way. There are certain conventions to follow when citing someone’s work. Words like “say”,“tell”, and “ask” are normally used in oral conversation s but are not appropriate in formal academic writing. The following table illustrates some appropriate words to use for reporting the work of others.Verbs for sayingJalal (1993) claimsbelievesthinksassumesindicatesnotesremarksstatesshowspoints outthat …More Verbs for sayingJalal’s (1993) study suggestsconsidershypothesizesconcludescommentsemphasizesillustratesproposesestablishesmaintainsthat…Verbs responding to others’opinionsThe analysis of the Jalal’s report acceptsadmitsagreesdoubtsthat …deniesarguescomments Verbs for saying a second timeJalal (1993) further/additionally assertsexplainsconfirmsmaintainsadvocatesthat …Poor patterns show that the writer has a mere grasp of the literature:Jalal (1993) says that …The Asian Development Bank (1992) states that … Leach and Mearns (1995) argue that …Better sample shows some critical thinking and sentence variety:Jalal (1993) reports that his study of … shows … The findings are supported by the Asian Development Bank (1992) replication of … Although both these studies focus on …. They have ignored … According to Leach and Mearns (1995), …2.2.2 Read three extracts on the issue of poverty and crime. Use the verbs above to cite opinions on poverty and crime.3. Writing Practice3.1 Using referencesUse citation to develop your own argument.Below are examples of parts of paragraphs using three different citation methods (The references cited have been invented for demonstration purposes only). Thesemethods can be called information prominent, where the focus of the sentence is only on the information being presented; author prominent, where the name of the author of the information is given prominence in the sentence; and weak author prominent, where the ideas of author(s) are given prominence, but authors’ names do not appear in the main part of the sentence. Observe how the different methods contribute to the way in which the writer’s argument is developed.Information prominent citationShrinking markets are also evident in other areas. The wool industry is experiencing difficulties related to falling demand worldwide since the development of high-quality synthetic fibers (Smith, 2000).This is the default style in many areas of science. However, there are two other options, which should also be part of a writer’s repertoire, for use when appropriate. Author prominent citationShrinking markets are also evident in other areas. Smith (2000) argued that the wool industry was experiencing difficulties related to falling demand worldwide since the development of high-quality synthetic fibers. However, Jones et al. (2004) found that industry difficulties were more related to quality of supply than to demand issues. It is clear that considerable disagreement exists about the underlying sources of these problems.Weak author prominent citationShrinking markets are also evident in other areas. As Smith (2000) pointed out, the wool industry is experiencing difficulties related to falling demand worldwide since the development of high-quality synthetic fibers.3.1.1 The following is a chart describing people living on less than 1.25 dollars.Look at the following chart and practice citing these figures by using three different types of citation.Figure: Poverty headcount ratio at $1.25 a day (% of population)Created By Swati Revankar from World Bank, 2012 Information prominent citationAuthor prominent citationWeak author prominent citation3.2 Relating literature to your researchIt is easy to write a bad literature review and difficult to write a good one. The main mistake that a lot of people make is to write a literature review that looks like this:LITERATURE REVIEWUntil recently many researchers have shown interest in the field of coastal erosion and the resulting beach profiles. They have carried out numerous laboratory experiments and field observations to illuminate the darkness of this field. Their findings and suggestions are reviewed here.JACHOWSKI (2008) developed a model investigation conducted on the interlocking precast concrete block seawall. After a result of a survey of damages caused by the severe storm at the coast of USA, a new and specially shaped concrete block was developed for use in shore protection. This block was designed to be used in a revetment type seawall that would be both durable and economical as well as reduce wave run-up and overtopping, and scour at its base or toe. It was proved that effective shore protection could be designed utilizing these units.HOM-MA and HORIKAWA (2008) studied waves forces acting on the seawall which was located inside the surf zone. On the basis of the experimental results conducted to measure waves forces against a vertical wall, the authors proposed an empirical formula of wave pressure distribution on a seawall. The computed results obtained by using the above formula were compared well with the field data of wave pressure on a vertical wall.SELEZOV and ZHELEZNYAK (2009) conducted experiments on scour of sea bottom in front of harbor seawalls, on the basis of the theoretical investigation of solitary wave interaction with a vertical wall using Boussinesque type equation. It showed that the numerical results were in reasonable agreement with laboratory experimental data.3.2.1 Consider again the purposes of writing a literature review. See if you can answer the following questions about the literature review above:1. What questions does this literature review answer?2. What questions doesn't it answer?3. Which method has the writer used to organize the literature review?4. Is it a good literature review? Why?3.3 Avoiding plagiarism3.2.1 Below are two versions of the same information, adapted from the Introduction by McNeill et al. (2007). Decide which version has the problem of plagiarism and identify where the writer has plagiarizedVersion 1:Russell and Fillery (2006), using a stem-feeding technique, have shown that in situ 15N-labelling of lupin plants growing in soil cores enabled total belowground N to be estimated under relatively undisturbed conditions, but they indicated that the technique was not adaptable to all plants, particularly pasture species.Version 2:Russell and Fillery (2006), using a stem-feeding technique, have shown that insitu 15N-labelling of lupin plants growing in soil cores enabled total belowground N to be estimated under relatively undisturbed conditions. However, this technique is not adaptable to all plants, particularly pasture species.4. Writing ProjectWrite a literature review for your research by the following steps:1. Problem formulation—which topic or field is being examined and what are its component issues?2. Literature search—finding materials relevant to the subject being explored3. Data evaluation—determining which literature makes a significant contribution to the understanding of the topic4. Analysis and interpretation—discussing the findings and conclusions of pertinent literature5. Relate the review to your research topicYou are preparing to write an essay entit led “The social effects of tourism on developing countries”. Read the following abstract and then try to write a literature review relating to the topic according to the above mentioned steps:AbstractTourism is the fastest growing industry internationally. Popular areas of study are the economic, environmental and sociocultural impacts of tourism in developing countries. Very few studies have been conducted on the impact of tourism on the hosts’ health status. Nowadays, the emergence of new infectious diseases or there-emergence of diseases are causing concern and travel is a major contributor to their spread. The objectives of this study were: to review literature related to the topic as a background for future research; to explore if findings from a field trip to Easter Island/Chile and Peru support the hypotheses derived from the analysis of publications; to recommend a range of research topics based on the outcome of this study; and to propose elements of a framework for the assessment of health impacts of tourism. The findings suggest that there are considerable gaps in the current knowledge on tourism’s health impacts. Potential indirect and direct health impacts have been identified. Workplace health and safety concerns in relation to local tourism employees have been raised. A wide range of research topics has been suggested based on these findings. Finally, elements of a possible framework for understanding tourism’s health impacts and their interrelationships have been identified.Sources from: Irmgard Bauer, THE JOURNAL OF TOURISM STUDIES Vol. 10, No. 1, MAY ‘99 115. Final ChecklistHere is a final checklist for writing Introduction (including literature review). Use it to check what you have written in the previous task.。