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Chapter oneIntroduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness 任意性Productivity 多产性（创造性）Duality 双重性Displacement 移位性Cultural transmission 文化传递5.语言能力Competence （抽象）Competence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performance （具体）Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的具体体现。
7.历时语言学Diachronic linguisticsThe study of language change through time. A diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time.8.共时语言学Synchronical linguisticsThe study of a given language at a given time.9.语言langue （抽象）The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.10.言语parole （具体）The realization of langue in actual use.11.规定性PrescriptiveIt aims to lay down rules for correct behavior, to tell people what they should say and what should not say.12.描述性DescriptiveA linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.二、知识点1. Language is not an isolated phenomenon, it’s a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings.语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。
Chapter 8 Language in Use1. 语义学与语用学的区别1.1 语用学（Pragmatics）Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used.（语用学是研究语言实际运用的学科，集中研究说话人意义、话语意义或语境意义。
）1.2 区别Pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with semantics, which deals with meaning without reference to the users and communicative functions of sentences.（语用学主要研究在特定的语境中说话人所想要表达的意义，语义学研究的句子的字面意义，通常不考虑语境。
）2. 合作原则及其准则（Herbert Paul Grice）2.1. 合作原则(Cooperative Principle)说话人经常在话语中传达着比话语表层更多的信息，听话人也能够明白说话人所要表达的意思。
格莱斯认为一定存在一些管理这些话语产生和理解的机制。
他把这种机制称作合作原则。
2.2. 准则(maxims)数量准则(quantity)①使你的话语如（交谈的当前目的）所要求的那样信息充分。
②不要使你的话语比要求的信息更充分。
质量准则(quality)设法使你的话语真实①不要讲明知是虚假的话②不要说没证据的话关系准则(relation)所谈内容要密切相关方式准则(manner)要清晰。
①避免含糊不清②避免歧义③要简练（避免冗长）④要有序3. 言语行为理论（Speech Act Theory）---John Austin3.1. 施为句&叙事句(Performatives & Constatives)施为句是用来做事的，既不陈述事实，也不描述情况，且不能验证真假；叙事句要么用于陈述，要么用于验证，可以验证真假。
第8章语言的使用I. Fill in the blanks.1. There has been a maxim in ______ which claims that “You are what you say”. 【答案】quantity【解析】格莱斯的数量准则指1.使你的话语如(交谈的当前目的)所要求的那样信息充分；2.不要使你的话语比要求的信息更充分。
即说你该说的。
2. The theory of conversational implicature was proposed by ______.【答案】Grice【解析】格赖斯认为一定存在一些管理话语产生和理解的机制。
他把这种机制称为合作原则，在这个大原则下有四条准则，它们分别为数量、质量、关系和方式准则。
3. ______ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable.【答案】Performatives【解析】施为句是用来做事的，既不陈述事实，也不描述情况，且不能验证其真假。
4. In making conversation, the general principle that all participants are expected to observe is called the ______ principle proposed by J. Grice.【答案】Cooperative【解析】通常在对话中，所有的参与者都被希望能够遵守由格莱斯提出的合作原则，这样就不会有会话含义的产生。
5. In the light of the ______ principle, four maxims are specified．They are the maxim of quantity, maxim of ______, maxim of ______ and the maxim of _____.【答案】cooperative; quality; relation; manner【解析】考查合作原则及四条次则：数量准则、质量准则、关联准则、方式准则。
Chapter 8 Language in Use一、Some basic notions in pragmatics(1) Context:a basic concept in the study of pragmatics. It is generally considered as constituted knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer, such as cultural background, situation, and the relationship between the speaker and the hearer, etc. The relevant constraints of the communicative situation that influence language use. For example, my bag is heavy.(2) Pragmatics vs. semanticsSemantics studies the literal meaning of a sentence. (without taking context into consideration) Pragmatics studies the intended meaning of a speaker. (taking context into consideration)(3) Sentence meaning and utterance meaning 句子意义和话语意义二、Speech act theoryThe first major theory in pragmatics, proposed by Austin. It is a theory which analyzes the role of utterances about the behavior of the speaker and the hearer in interpersonal communication. It aims to answer the question “What do we do when using language?” According to this theory, we are performing different kinds of acts when we are speaking.(1) Two types of utterances:① Performatives: sentences that don’t state a fact or describe a state and are not verifiable. It performs an act, including non-conventional acts such as promising, requesting and suggesting. E.g.:“I name this ship Elizabeth.”“I bet you six pounds it will rain tomorrow.”① Constatives: statements that either state or describe and are verifiable.Felicity conditions for performatives to be appropriate:A. (i) there must be a relevant conventional procedure,(①) the relevant participants and circumstances must be appropriate.B. The procedure must be executed(①) correctly and(①) completely.C. The relevant participants must(①) have the requisite thoughts, feelings and intentions, and(①) follow it up with actions as specified.(2) Austin’s new model of speech acts:Austin suggests that a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking:①The first one is locutionary act: an act of saying something, that is, an act of making a meaningful utterance. It is an act of making the sentence and it is a description. For example, when someone says”It is cold here”, its locutionary act is the saying of it with its literal meaning the weather is cold here.①The second one is illocutionary act: an act performed in saying something, that is, in saying X, I was doing Y. And it indicates the speakers’ intention. For example, when we say”It is cold here”, its illocutionary act can be a request of the hearer to shut the window.①The third one is perlocutionary act: an act performed as a result of saying something, and the act is not related with the speaker’s intention. For example, “The weather is cold here.” Its perlocutionary act can be the hearer’s shutting the window or his refusal to comply with the request.Of the three acts, what speech act theory most concerned with is the illocutionary act. It trys to explain the ways by which speakers can mean more than what they say.Analyze the illocutionary acts of the following conversation between a couple:——— (the telephone rings)——— H: That’ the phone. (1)——— W: I’ m in the bathroom. (2)——— H: Okay. (3)This seemingly incoherent conversation goes on successfully because the speakers understand each other’s illocutionary acts:1) Asking his wife to go and answer the phone.2) A refusal to comply with the request; asking her husband to answer the phone instead.3) Accepting the wife’s refusal and accepting her request, meaning “all right, I’ll answer it.”(3) Searle’s classification of illocutionary acts:Searle has made great contribution to the development of the speech act theory. According to Searle, speech act are divided into five general categories. That is, five general types of things we do with language. Each type has a common, general purpose. They are representatives, directives, commsives, expressives, declarations. (阐述类、指令类、承诺类、表达类、宣告类）三､The theory of conversational implicature 会话含义理论The second major theory in pragmatics. Proposed by Grice.In daily communication, people are observing a set of basic rules of cooperating with each other so as to communicate effectively through conversation. He calls this set of rules the cooperative principle elaborated in four maxims.(1) Cooperative principle (CP)In making a conversation, all participants are expected to observe a general principle: Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.Four maxims of CP:1) The maxim of quantity1) Make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purposes of the exchange).2) Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.2) The maxim of qualityTry to make your contribution one that is true.1) Do not say what you believe to be false.2) Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.3) The maxim of relationBe relevant.4) The maxim of mannerBe perspicuous.1) Avoid obscurity of expression.2) Avoid ambiguity.3) Be brief.4) Be orderly.(2) Conversational implicatureAccording to Grice, it refers to the extra meaning not contained in the utterance, but understandable to the listener. Only when he shares the speakers’ knowledge or he knows why and how, he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of CP.The following provides different circumstances of the violation of CP and its maxims.1) Violation of the maxim of quantityA:When is Lucy’s birthday party?B:Sometimes next month.A:Where is X?B:He’s gone to the library. He said so when he left.2) Violation of the Maxim of qualityHe is made of iron. (Metaphor)Every nice girl loves a sailor.3) Violation of the maxim of relationA: How do you like my painting?B: I’m afraid I don’t have any eye for beauty. A: What time is it?B: The postman has just arrived.4) Violation of the maxim of mannerA: Shall we get something for the kids?B: Yes. But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.A:Where is your mother?B: She is either in the room or at the market. (3) Characteristics of implicature(4) Politeness Principle (PP)Leech suggests that CP can’t explain why people are often so indirect in conveying what they mean. Conversational interaction is a social behaviour. Choice of linguistic codes is central in language use. There are social and psychological factors that determined the choice.Besides being cooperative, participants try to be polite. And the speakers consider the matter of face for themself and others. Based on this observation, Leech proposed PP, which contains six maxims.1.Tact 策略Minimize cost to other.Maximize benefit to other.2.Generosity 宽宏Minimize benefit to self.Maximize cost to self.3.Approbation 赞扬Minimize dispraise of other.Maximize praise of other.4.Modesty 谦虚Minimize praise of self.Maximize dispraise of self.5.Agreement 赞同Minimize disagreement between self and other.Maximize agreement between self and other.6.Sympathy 同情Minimize antipathy between self and other.Maximize sympathy between self and other.四、Post-Gricean Developments3.Levinson’s Q- , I- and M- principles。
（完整）语⾔学知识点（语⾔学简明教程胡壮麟版）,推荐⽂档ⅠDefinitionA卷①Phonetics 语⾔学(P17)Phonetics is the field of language study concerning the physical properties of sounds and speech sounds.②Minimal pairs 最⼩辨⽴对(P42)They are made up of similar sound sequence except for the difference of one sound in the corresponding position.③Open-class 开放类词(P66)They are indefinitely extendable. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class words.④Invariable words 可变化词(P67)Invariable words refer to those words such as conjunctions, prepositions, interjections, etc. . T hey do not have inflective endings.⑤Morpheme 语素(P68)In linguistics, the minimal unit of meaning is called morpheme.⑥Compounds 复合词(P69)Compounds consist wholly of free morphemes.⑦Derivation 派⽣(P72)Derivation is the process in which new words are created from already existing words through affixation.⑧Pragmatics 语⽤学(P150)Pragmatics is a study of the intended meaning of speakers in a particular context.⑨Blending 缩合(P187)Blending here means to form a new word by joining the initial part of a word and the initial or final part of another word together.⑩Dissimilation 异化(P189)This occurs when one of two similar or identical sounds in a word change in such a way that it becomes less similar to the other.B卷①Articulatory phonetics 发声语⾳学(P18)It studies the sound units from the angle of how each sound segment is articulated.②Diphthongs (P)There are vowels which may be described as a sequence of two sounds, or the glide from one vowel position to another.③Minimal pairs最⼩辨⽴对(P42)They are made up of similar sound sequence except for the difference of one sound in the corresponding position.④Closed-class 封闭类词(P66)Words in this class cannot normally be extended by the reation of additional members.⑤Stem 词⼲(P70)A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectionalaffix can be added.⑥Conversion 转化(P75)Conversion is actually the derivational process whereby a word is adapted or converted to a new word-class without the addition of an affix.⑦Text 语篇(P112)A text is a chunk of language spoken or written for communication in actual circumstances.⑧Theme 主位(P113)Theme is the point of departure in a sentence. The rest of the clause is called the Rheme（述位）.⑨Assimilation 同化(P189)Assimilation is a sound becomes more similar to its adjacent sound.⑩Idiolect 个⼈⽅⾔(P202)Idiolect refers to the characteristics of an individual’s speech.ⅡWrite the sources of the following Latin abbreviation and translate them into Chinese P85cf. ：confer 参看etc.：et cetera 等等et al.：et alii 以及其他等等vs. ：versus 对 e.g.：exemmpli gratia 例如id.：idem 同上a.m.：ante meridiem 午前p.m.：post meridiem 午后l.c.：loco citato 在上述引⽂中sec.：secundum 根据ⅢDisambiguate the following sentences by providing two unambiguous interpretations.P110 P157⑴We have greater interest in our environment than the younger generation.①We have greater interest in our environment than the younger generation do.②We have greater interest in our environment than in the younger generation.⑵There were more wealthy farmers than you young industrialists.①There were farmers more wealthy than you young industrialists.②There were more wealthy farmers than there were you young industrialists.⑶They need more highly trained teachers.①They need teachers who are more highly trained.②They need more teachers who are highly trained.⑷The long drill was boring.①The long drill was making a hole.②The drill that lasted for a long time was boring.⑸It takes a good ruler to make a straight line.①Only a good leader can make a proper policy.②Only with a good rule can we draw a straight line.⑹The Congressman is a dirty street fighter.①The Congressman is fighting to make the streets cleaner.②The Congressman is like a dishonest guy who fights in the street.⑺The piglet is too hot to eat.①The piglet is so hot that it is unable to eat anything.②The piglet is served so hot that we cannot eat it.⑻Old men and women will be served first.①Old men will be served first and so will be women.②Old men and old women will be served first.⑼They are moving machines.①The workers are moving machines.②These are the machines that can move.⑽John loves Bill more than Emma.①John loves Bill more than Emma does.②John loves Bill more than he loves Emma.⑾They laughed at the colorful ball.①They laughed in the colorful dancing party.②They showed open scorn for the colorful ball.⑿He said he would file it on Monday.①He said he would file the document on Monday.②He said he would smooth it with a file on Monday.ⅣSemantic triangle(语义三⾓)P135Reference (e.g. thought, concept, mental image)指称意义（即，想法、概念和⼤脑中的意象）指代代表Symbol (e.g. word) referent (e.g. object in the word) 符号（即，词）stands for 指称物（即，世界上的事物）代表In the triangle, we have three components: ①the symbol as the word, the referent as the object in the world and the reference as the thought or concept or mental image.②What is symbolized by the word is not the object in the real world but the concepts and mental images the speaker have at the moment of utterance or can recall from memory. ③The dotted line at the bottom of the triangle indicates that there is no one-to one relationship between word and referent.。
Chapter 8 Language in UseI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning _________ is considered.A. referenceB. speech actC. practical usageD. context2. A sentence is a _________ concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied in isolation.A. pragmaticB. grammaticalC. mentalD. conceptual3. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes a (n) _________.A. constativeB. directiveC. utteranceD. expressive4. Which of the following is true?A. Utterances usually do not take the form of sentences.B. Some utterances cannot be restored to complete sentences.C. No utterances can take the form of sentences.D. All utterances can be restored to complete sentences.5. Speech act theory did not come into being until __________.A. in the late 50’s of the 20the centuryB. in the early 1950’sC. in the late 1960’sD. in the early 21st century6. __________ is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.A. A locutionary actB. An illocutionary actC. A perlocutionary actD. A performative act7. According to Searle, the illocutionary point of the representative is ______.A. to get the hearer to do somethingB. to commit the speaker to something’s being the caseC. to commit the speaker to some future course of actionD. to express the feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs8. All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose, but they differ __________.A. in their illocutionary actsB. in their intentions expressedC. in their strength or forceD. in their effect brought about9. __________ is advanced by Paul GriceA. Cooperative PrincipleB. Politeness PrincipleC. The General Principle of Universal GrammarD. Adjacency Principle10. When any of the maxims under the cooperative principle is flouted, _______ might arise.A. impolitenessB. contradictionsC. mutual understandingD. conversational implicaturesII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent.12. It would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the context oflanguage use was left unconsidered.13. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.14. The major difference between a sentence and an utterance is that a sentence is not uttered while an utterance is.15. The meaning of a sentence is abstract, but context-dependent.16. The meaning of an utterance is decontexualized, therefore stable.17. Utterances always take the form of complete sentences18. Speech act theory was originated with the British philosopher John Searle.19. Speech act theory started in the late 50’s of the 20th century.20. Austin made the distinction between a constative and a performative.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. The notion of __________ is essential to the pragmatic study of language.22. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes an __________.23. The meaning of a sentence is __________, and decontexualized.24. __________ were statements that either state or describe, and were thus verifiable.25. __________ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable.26. A(n) __________ act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.27. A(n) __________ act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.28. A(n) _________ is commit the speaker himself to some future course of action.29. A(n) ________ is to express feelings or attitude towards an existing state.30. There are four maxims under the cooperative principle: the maxim of __________, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the maxim of manner.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Conversational implicature32. Performative33. Locutionary act34. Q-principle (Horn)V. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. Explain the following remarks with examples or make some comments.“Both semantics and pragmatics are concerned with meaning, but the difference between them can be traced to two different uses of the verb mean: (a) What does X mean? (b) What did you mean by X?”（东北师范大学，2006）36. Do you think B is cooperative in the following dialogue? Support your argument with Cooperative Principle. （南开大学，2004）A: When is the bus coming?B: There has been an accident further up the road.VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. What is the function of context in communication? Try to explain the following utterances rather than just state facts.(1) The room is messy.(2) It would be good if she had a green skirt on.Key:I.1~5 DBCBA 6~10 CBCADII.11~15 FTTFF 16~20 FFFTTIII.21. context 22. utterance23. abstract 24. Constatives25. Performatives 26. locutionary27. illocutionary 28. commissive29. expressive 30. quantityIV.31. Conversational implicature: In our daily life, speakers and listeners involved in conversation are generally cooperating with each other. In other words, when people are talking with each other, they must try to converse smoothly and successfully. In accepting speakers’ presuppositions, listeners have to assume that a speaker is not trying to mislead them. This sense of cooperation is simply one in which people having a conversation are not normally assumed to be trying to confuse, trick, or withhold relevant information from one another. However, in real communication, the intention of the speaker is often not the literal meaning of what he or she says. The real intention implied in the words is called conversational implicature.32. Performative: In speech act theory an utterance which performs an act, such as Watch out (= a warning).33. Locutionary act: A locutionary act is the saying of something which is meaningful and can be understood.34. Horn’s Q-principle: (1) Make your contribution sufficient (cf. quantity); (2) Say as much as you can (given R).V.35.Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used. Pragmatics includes the study of(1) How the interpretation and use of utterances depends on knowledge of the real world;(2) How speakers use and understand speech acts;(3) How the structure of sentences is influenced by the relationship between the speaker and the hearer.Pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with semantics, which deals with meaning without reference to the users and communicative functions of sentences.36.Yes, B is cooperative. On the face of it, B’s statement is not an answer to A’s question. B doesn’t say “when.” However, A will immediately interpret the statement as meaning “I don’t know” or “I am not sure.” Just assume that B is being “relevant” and “informative.” Given that B’s answer contains relevant information, A can work out that “an accident further up the road”conventionally involves “traffic jam,” and “traffic jam” preludes “bus coming.” Thus, B’s answer is not simply a statement of “when the bus comes”; it contains an implicature concerning “when the bus comes.”VI.37.It occurs before and / or after a word, a phrase or even a longer utterance or a text. The context often helps in understanding the particular meaning of the word, phrase, etc.The context may also be the broader social situation in which a linguistic item is used.(1)a. A mild criticism of someone who should have cleaned the room.b. In a language class where a student made a mistake, for he intended to say “tidy.”c. The room was wanted for a meeting.(2)a. A mild way to express disagreement with someone who has complimented on a lady’s appearance.b. A regret that the customer had not taken the dress.c. That she wore a red shirt was not in agreement with the custom on the occasion.。
第8章语言的使用8.1 复习笔记本章要点：1. Speech act theory言语行为理论2. Cooperative principle and its maxims合作原则及其准则3. Gricean theory of conversational implicature格莱斯会话含义理论4. Politeness principle礼貌原则5. Post-Gricean developments后格莱斯时期的发展常考考点：语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论(发话行为、行事行为和取效行为)；合作原则。
实例分析言语行为、合作原则的违反和会话含义。
“话语意义”和“句子意义”的区别。
本章内容索引：I. Pragmatics1. Definition2. Difference between pragmatics and semantics II. Speech Act Theory1. Performatives and Constatives(1) Definition(2) Felicity Conditions2. A Theory of the Illocutionary Act3. Searle’s Classification of Speech Acts(1) Representatives:(2) Directives(3) Commsives(4) Expressives(5) DeclarationsIII. Cooperative Principle (CP)1. Cooperative Principle and Its Maxims2. Violation of the MaximsIV. Conversational Implicature1. Definition2. Characteristics of Conversational Implicature(1) Calculability.(2) Cancellability(3) Non-detachability(4) Non-conventionality.V. Politeness Principle (PP)VI. Post-Gricean Developments1. Relevance Theory2. The Q- and R-principles3. Levinson’s Q-, I-and M-principles▼4. A socio-cognitive approachI. Pragmatics (语用学)【考点：Pragmatics与Semantics的异同】1. Definition (定义)Pragmatics is the study of language in use, focusing on the study of speaker’s meaning, utterance meaning or contextual meaning.语用学是研究语言实际运用的学科，集中研究说话人意义、话语意义或语境意义。
