工程造价专业外文文献翻译(中英文对照教学内容

FoundationsAll structures designed to be supported by the earth，including buindings，bridges，earth fills，earth and rock and concrete dams，consist of two parts. These are the superstructure, or upper part, and the substructure element which interfaces the superstructure and supporting ground。

In the case of earth fills and dams，there is often not a clear line of demarcation between the superstructure and substructure. The foundation can be defined as the substructure and that adjacent zone of soil and rock which will be affected by both the substructure element and its loads.The foundation engineer is that person who by reason of experience and training can be produce solutions for design problems involving this part of the engineered system. In this context,foundation engineering can be defined as the science and art of applying the principles of soil and structural mechanics together with engineering judgement to solve the interfacing problem。

《工程造价专业英语》课程教学大纲课程名称：《工程造价专业英语》课程编码：暂空英文名称：Special English in construction cost总学时：30 学分：2适应层次：本科、专科专业英语学习开课学期：第四学期适用专业：工程造价（半脱产）课程类别：理论课程性质：专业拓展课先修课程：计价与控制建筑工程招投标与合同管理工程建设法规与案例学习形式：课堂多媒体教学一、课程性质及目的（一）课程性质本课程为工程造价文科专业拓展课。

本课程主要讲述工程造价专业相关理论的英语表述方法，并结合新的科技文献开拓学生视野，从而使学生掌握专业文献的特点及常用词汇以及相关的工程造价知识在专业英语中如何描述，使学生基本能够阅读和翻译本专业各种体裁的英文文献，具备初步的英文文献写作能力。

（二）课程目的通过对本课程的学习，目的是使使学生掌握专业文献的特点及常用词汇以及相关的工程造价知识在专业英语中如何描述，使学生基本能够阅读和翻译本专业各种体裁的英文文献，具备初步的英文文献写作能力。

教学目标：1.基础知识目标了解工程造价专业英语的特点；掌握工程造价专业英语的学习方法和翻译技巧；熟悉工程造价专业英语单词、句子成分、词类转化、词序转变、被动语态、后置定语、长句的翻译法及握撰写英文摘要的方法和技巧。

2.能力训练目标能运用所学习知识顺利阅读专业英语文章，初步具备阅读和翻译专业外文文献的能力。

3.个性品质目标培养学生专业外语的兴趣，积极了解专业知识的最新国外动态，主动拓展所学专业学科知识的能力。

二、课程内容及学习方法（一）课程内容序号教学内容内容要点教学标准一绪论1 工程造价专业英语的特点；2工程造价专业英语的学习方法和翻译技巧概述；3学习工程造价专业英语的目的和要求。

1.了解工程造价专业英语的特点；2.掌握工程造价专业英语的学习方法和翻译技巧。

二专业英语翻译法1 单词的翻译法2 词类转化的翻译法3 句子成分转化的翻译法4 词序转变的翻译法5 被动语态的翻译法6 后置定语的翻译法7 长句的翻译法1.了解词类转化、词序转变、被动语态、后置定语、长句的翻译法；2.熟悉并掌握工程造价专业英语单词、句子成分。

附录1How to improve construction project cost controlA construction project the importance of cost control of construction project cost control of projects through the entire process, that is, decision-making phase of the project, the project design stage, project implementation and completion stages of phase related to the construction project cost control. Statistics show that the decision-making stage in the project and design stage, the impact of the possibility of project cost 30% -75%, and in the implementation phase of the impact of the possibility of project cost is only 5% -25%. It is obvious that the key to cost control is the implementation of the project prior to decision-making and the design phase of the project, the project is the deciding factor in decision-making, and is a key factor in design. Control project cost not only to prevent breakthrough investment limit, meaning a more active is to promote the construction, engineering, and design units to strengthen the management of human, material and financial resources with limited resources can be fully utilized to obtain the best economic and social benefits . So do a good job in project cost control, to ensure and accelerate the economic development thinking has a certain significance.Second, construction project cost control measures for construction project cost control is effective decision-making in the investment phase, design phase, construction phase contract, the contract implementation phase of the construction project cost control in the amount of the approved project cost limit, occur at any time to correct deviations, and ensure the realization of investment objectives of the project to various construction projects in a reasonable manner to the use of human, material and financial resources to obtain better investment returns, and ultimately to enable the completion of audited accounts to control the amount of the budget to avoid the "three super - "phenomenon, in order to effectively control the project cost should be doing the work of the following aspects: (a) decision-making phase of the project cost to determine the cost of control engineering and control projects through the entire process, but the technical and economic decision-making stages of policy-making, project cost of the project very much affected by something, especially to determine the level of construction standards, building site selection, technology selection, equipment selection, etc., is directly related to the level of project cost. According to the data in various stages of construction projects, investment decision-making phase of the impact of the highest degree of project cost, for a total of 80-90%. Therefore, the decision-making phase of the project is to determine the content of the decision-making project cost basis, a direct impact on decision-making phase of the various construction phases of the project cost to determine and control whether or not scientific, reasonable question. First, the preparation of estimates of the need for investment. Preliminary estimates of capital investment is an important part in the work of one. Decision-making document, it is research, analysis of the construction project an important basis for economic effects. Work in the economy should be reflected in the design of practical content, reflecting the building of the region's economic situation, started from the estimates reflected the accuracy and completeness of the construction investment project. Second, the investment must be designed to estimate a true reflection of the investment estimates should be realistic and reflect the design of content, which requires designers and project from the engineering content of the size of a true reflection of design intent. The maintechnology to be relatively more programs, programs to optimize the design of the program is not only technically feasible but also economically more reasonable. Therefore, the project economy-building programs from the beginning of the optimization, it should penetrate into the whole process designed to, in accordance with the principles of project cost management, a reasonable estimate of projected changes in a variety of dynamic factors, as far as possible, do not play enough to stay investment gap This is the preparation of estimates of key investment is also an important basis for the next stage. (B) the design phase of project cost control project engineering design was to conduct a comprehensive planning and specific intent to describe the process of implementation is the soul of the construction, dealing with technology and the critical link in economic relations, is to determine and control the focus of project cost stage. First, optimized design, the design of effective control of project cost if the quality and try to meet the national requirements, functions are used to meet requirements related to construction projects only a one-time investment to meet the application requirements, not only construction projects related to the number of one-time investment, but also in the completion After delivery of the impact of the economic benefits of the project. Foreign experts pointed out that although the design of the project costs represent a small proportion of total investment, less than 1%, but the impact of its project cost to achieve the level of 75%. It is clear that the project design stage to do a good job of cost control is cost effective control of the key, re-construction, light design concept must be overcome to control the cost of the project design should start. Therefore, the construction units and design units in the review of the design, attention should be paid to design optimization, the use of various indicators of the overall plan of the factory, industrial building design analysis of space compared to the design of these two aspects of the project cost, not only have a significant impact, and after the construction and operation of the production, management has a significant impact. Second, the implementation of projects designed to control project cost limit, in the design process used in the design limit. The so-called limit is in accordance with the approved design of the investment feasibility study to estimate the preliminary design of the control, in accordance with the approved budget for the preliminary design of the total control of the technical design and construction design, at the same time ensure that the goals of the profession under the premise of the use of function, according to the allocation of investment limit control design, and strictly control unreasonable change to ensure that the total amount of investment will not be a breakthrough. The preliminary design stage should be in accordance with the approved feasibility study stage of the investment estimate for the limit design, control of budget estimates do not exceed the investment, mainly in engineering and equipment is, the control material. To this end, the preliminary design phase of the limit amount of design engineering phase of the feasibility study should be validated and equipment design engineering, material standards as the basis, the feasibility study stage of certain types of projects is not easy to determine the amount of light design and universal design or Similar projects have been built to determine the amount of physical works. Quota at the preliminary design, the design of the professional staff to enhance awareness of project cost, in strict accordance with the decomposition of the limit design and control of investment projects, as well as to ensure that under the conditions of the use of functional design, sought to project cost control and engineering in the limit .(C) the implementation phase of project cost control project is the implementation phase of the formative stages of building physical, human, material and financial resources of the main stage ofconsumption. Large projects involving a wide range of influencing factors, and construction cycles, policy changes, materials and equipment prices, large fluctuations in market supply and demand and so on. . To improve the quality of the construction, control project cost, investment returns to play, it is necessary to the implementation phase of the project to strengthen project management and oversight functions in order to enhance the full range of construction projects, the whole process of cost control. Due to the complexity of construction projects, the impact of factors of variability of the characteristics of the implementation phase of projects often have some unexpected costs. First, the effective control of engineering change and economic access at the project site construction projects, engineering and on-site visa change is inevitable, but there is capacity to control. During the construction plans in order to prevent loopholes in the design, with the exception of the audit checks should Party B in a joint hearing of the drawings, the technical advice and design to eliminate, in a word, should be started prior to the eradication of the. Design changes should be advanced as far as possible, change occurred earlier, the smaller the loss, the greater the contrast. To this end, the design of change management must be strengthened as much as possible the design change control early in the design phase, in particular the impact of the project cost for major design changes, but also to use accounts after the first solution to change, so that the effective control of project cost. Second, a rigorous examination of the budget in accordance with construction plan the progress of the construction design plans and the actual progress of the construction site, construction plans approved budget in time.third, in-depth at the scene to collect the relevant information and master the construction of the project construction process, pre-trial and the cost of price control officers often go to the construction site, see construction of the control drawings, sometimes with the supervision, the general contractor and construction personnel in an informal discussion, understanding, the collection of project information, timely information on developments on site; to assist owners in a timely manner due to design changes to audit, on-site cost of visas, etc., and adjust the control objectives, and for the eventual settlement of the project to provide a basis and make the necessary preparations.Third, at the end of the construction project cost control and investment in the determination of the substance of the principle is the use of science and technology and economic and legal means to address the construction activities of technical and economic, business and management of practical problems, only in the various phases of project construction, the use of scientific methods and realistic valuation of the valuation basis, a reasonable estimate of investment, the preliminary design of the budget estimates and working drawings in order to improve investment returns. References:Joel Dean《Capital budget》;Fama Miller《Financial Management》;Harry Markowitz《Modern Portfolio Theory》附录2如何搞好建设项目的工程造价控制一、建设项目工程造价控制的重要意义建设项目的造价控制贯穿于项目的全过程，即项目决策阶段、项目设计阶段、项目实施阶段和竣工阶段都关系到建设项目的造价控制。

外文文献：Project Cost Control: The Way it WorksBy R. Max WidemanIn a recent consulting assignment we realized that there was some lack of understanding of the whole system of project cost control, how it is setup and applied. So we decided to write up a description of how it works. Project cost control is not that difficult to follow in theory.First you establish a set of reference baselines. Then, as work progresses, you monitor the work, analyze the findings, forecast the end results and compare those with the reference baselines. If the end results are not satisfactory then you make adjustments as necessary to the work in progress, and repeat the cycle at suitable intervals. If the end results get really out of line with the baseline plan, you may have to change the plan. More likely, there will be (or have been) scope changes that change the reference baselines which means that every time that happens you have to change the baseline plan anyway.But project cost control is a lot more difficult to do in practice, as is evidenced by the number of projects that fail to contain costs. It also involves a significant amount of work, as we shall see, and we might as well start at the beginning. So let us follow the thread of project cost control through the entire project life span.And, while we are at it, we will take the opportunity to point out the proper places for several significant documents. These include theBusiness Case, the Request for (a capital) Appropriation (for execution), Work Packages and the Work Breakdown Structure, the Project Charter (or Brief), the Project Budget or Cost Plan, Earned Value and the Cost Baseline. All of these contribute to the organization's ability to effectively control project costs.FootnoteI am indebted to my friend Quentin Fleming, the guru of Earned Value, for checking and correcting my work on this topic.The Business Case and Application for (execution) FundingIt is important to note that project cost control is most effective when the executive management responsible has a good understanding of how projects should unfold through the project life span. This means that they exercise their responsibilities at the key decision points between the major phases. They must also recognize the importance of project risk management for identifying and planning to head off at least the most obvious potential risk events.In the project's Concept Phase• EvEry projEct starts with somEonE idEntifying an opportunity or need. That is usually someone of importance or influence, if the project is to proceed, and that person often becomes the project's sponsor.• to dEtErminE thE suitability of thE potEntial projEct, most organizations call for the preparation of a "Business Case" and its"Order of Magnitude" cost to justify the value of the project so that it can be compared with all the other competing projects. This effort is conducted in the Concept Phase of the project and is done as a part of the organization's management of the entire project portfolio.• thE cost of thE work of preparing the Business Case is usually covered by corporate management overhead, but it may be carried forward as an accounting cost to the eventual project. No doubt because this will provide a tax benefit to the organization. The problem is, how do you then account for all the projects that are not so carried forward?• if thE businEss casE has sufficiEnt mErit, approval will bE givEn to proceed to a Development and Definition phase.In the project's Development or Definition Phase• thE objEctivE of t he Development Phase is to establish a good understanding of the work involved to produce the required product, estimate the cost and seek capital funding for the actual execution of the project.• in a formalizEd sEtting, EspEcially whErE big projEcts arE involved, this application for funding is often referred to as a Request for (a capital) Appropriation (RFA) or Capital Appropriation Request (CAR).• this rEquirEs thE collEction of morE dEtailEd rEquirEmEnts and data to establish what work needsto be done to produce the required product or "deliverable". From this information, a plan is prepared in sufficient detail to give adequate confidence in a dollar figure to be included in the request.• in a lEss formalizEd sEtting, EvEryonE just triEs to muddlE through.Work Packages and the WBSThe Project Management Plan, Project Brief or Project Charter• if thE dElivErablE consists of a numbEr of diffErEnt ElEmEnts, thEsE are identified and assembled into Work Packages (WPs) and presented in the form of a Work Breakdown Structure (WBS).• Each wp involvEs a sEt of activitiEs, thE "work" that is plannEd and scheduled as a part of the Project Management Plan. Note, however, that the planning will still be at a relatively high level,and more detailed planning will be necessary during execution if the project is given the go ahead.• this projEct managEmEnt plan, by thE way, should bEcomE thE "bible" for the execution phase of the project and is sometimes referred to as the "Project Brief" or the "Project Charter".• thE cost of doing thE various activitiEs is thEn EstimatEd and thEsE estimated costs are aggregated to determine the estimated cost of the WP. This approach is known as "detailed estimating" or "bottom up estimating". There are other approaches to estimating that we'll come to in a minute. Either way, the result is an estimated cost of the totalwork of the project.Note: that project risk management planning is an important part of this exercise. This should examine the project's assumptions and environmental conditions to identify any weaknesses in the plan thus far, and identify those potential risk events that warrant attention for mitigation. This might take the form of specific contingency planning, and/or the setting aside of prudent funding reserves.Request for capitalConverting the estimate• howEvEr, an EstimatE of thE work alonE is not sufficiEnt for a capital request. To arrive at a capital request some conversion is necessary, for example, by adding prudent allowances such as overheads, a contingency allowance to cover normal project risks and management reserves to cover unknowns and possible scope changes.• in addition, it may bE nEcEssary to convErt thE Estimating data into a financial accounting formatthat satisfies the corporate or sponsor's format for purposes of comparison with other projects and consequent funding approval.• in practicE all thE data for thE typE of "bottom up" approach just described may not be available.In this case alternative estimating approaches are adopted that provide various degrees of reliability in a "top down" fashion. Forexample:Order of Magnitude estimate – a "ball park" estimate, usually reserved for the concept phase onlyAnalogous estimate – an estimate based on previous similar projects Parametric estimate –an estimate based on statistical relationships in historical data• whichEvEr approach is adoptEd, hopEfully thE sum thus arrivEd at will be approved in full and proves to be satisfactory! This is the trigger to start the Execution Phase of the projectNote: Some managements will approve some lesser sum in the mistaken belief that this will help everyone to "sharpen their pencils" and "work smarter" for the benefit of the organization. This is a mistaken belief because management has failed to understand the nature of uncertainty and risk in project work. Consequently, the effect is more likely to result in "corner cutting" with an adverse effect on product quality, or reduced product scope or functionality. This often leads to a "game" in which estimates are inflated so that management can adjust them downwards. But to be fair, management is also well aware that if money is over allocated, it will get spent anyway. The smart thing for managements to do is to set aside contingent reserve funds, varying with the riskiness of the project, and keep that money under careful control.Ownership of approved capital• if sEnior managEmEnt approvEs thE rfa as prEsEntEd, thE sum in question becomes the responsibility of the designated project sponsor. However, if the approved capital request includes allowances such as a "Management Reserve", this may or may not be passed on to the project's sponsor, depending on the policies of the organization.• for thE approvEd rfa, thE projEct sponsor will, in turn, further delegate expenditure authority to the project's project manager and will likely not include any of the allowances. An exception might be the contingency allowances to cover the normal variations in work performance.• thE nEt sum thus arrivEd at constitutes the project manager's Approved Project Budget.Note: If management does not approve the RFA, you should not consider this a project failure. Either the goals, objectives, justification and planning need rethinking to increase the value of the project's deliverables, or senior management simply has higher priorities elsewhere for the available resources and funding.The Project's Execution PhaseThe project manager's Project Budget responsibility• oncE this approvEd projEct budgEt is rElEas ed to the project manager, a reverse process must take place to convert it into a working control document. That is, the money available must be divided amongstthe various WBS WPs that, by the way, have probably by now been upgraded! This results in a project execution Control Budget or Project Baseline Budget, or simply, the Project Budget. In some areas of project management application it is referred to as a Project Cost Plan.• on a largE projEct whErE diffErEnt corporatE production divisions are involved, there may be a further intermediate step of creating "Control Accounts" for the separate divisions, so that each division subdivides their allocated money into their own WBS WPs.• obsErvE that, sincE thE total projEct budgEt rEcEivEd formal approval from Executive Management, you, as project manager, must likewise seek and obtain from Executive Management, via the project's sponsor, formal approval for any changes to the total project budget. Often this is only justified and accepted on the basis of a requested Product Scope Change.• in such a casE thE projEct's sponsor will EithEr draw down on thE management reserve in his or her possession, or submit a supplementary RFA to upper management.• now that wE havE thE projEct budgEt monEy allocatEd to Work Packages we can further distribute it amongst the various activities of each WP so that we know how much money we have as a "Baseline" cost for each activity.• this providEs us with thE basE of rEfErEncE for thE cost controlfunction. Of course, depending on the circumstances the same thing may be done at the WP level but the ability to control is then at a higher and coarser level.Use of the Earned Value technique• if wE havE thE nEcEssary dEtails anothEr control tool that wE can adopt for monitoring ongoing work is the "Earned Value" (EV) technique. This is a considerable art and science that you must learn about from texts dedicated to the subject.• but EssEntially, you takE thE costs of thE schEdulE activitiEs and plot them as a cumulative total on the appropriate time base. Again you can do this at the activity level, WP level or the whole project level. The lower the level the more control information you have available but the more work you get involved in.The Cost Baseline• this plannEd reference S-curve is sometimes referred to as the "Cost Baseline", typically in EVparlance. That is, it is the "Budgeted Cost of Work Scheduled" (BCWS), or more simply the "Planned Value" (PV).• Observe that you need to modify this Cost Baseline every time there is an approved scope change that has cost and/or schedule implications and consequently changes the project's Approved Project Budget.• now, as thE work progrEssEs, you can plot thE "actual cost of workPerformed" (ACWP or simply "Actual Cost" - AC).• you can plot othEr things as wEll, sEE diagram rEfErrEd to abovE, and if you don't like what you see then you need to take "Corrective Action".CommentaryThis whole process is a cyclic, situational operation and is probably the source of the term "cycle" in the popularly misnamed "project life cycle".As an aside, the Earned Value pundits offer various other techniques within the EV process designed to aid in forecasting the final result, that is, the "Estimate At Completion" (EAC). EAC is what you should really be interested in because it is the only constant in a moving project. Therefore, these extended EV techniques must be considered in the same realm of accuracy as top-down estimating. They are useful, but only if you recognize the limitations and know what you are doing!But, as we said at the beginning, it is a lot more difficult to do in practice –and involves a significant amount of work. But, let's face it, that's what project managers are hired for, right?中文译文：项目成本控制：它的工作方式R.马克斯怀德曼我们在最近的咨询任务中意识到，对于整个项目成本控制体系是如何设置和应用的这个问题，我们仍有一些缺乏了解。

the stage of the project cost managementAbstract：Project cost management is the basic contents to determine reasonable and effective control of the project cost. Described the current stage of the project cost management situation on the strengthening of the various stages of construction cost management of the importance of and raised a number of key initiatives.Keywords：project cost；the current stage of the project；project cost management；Even under the WTO and China's accession to the world community，China's construction industry how to effectively control construction cost of the construction and management of an important component part. However，the current budget for the construction projects - estimate，budget，Super budget accounts for the "super three" is still widespread and that eventually led to a serious loss of control of project investment. Project cost management is the basic contents to determine reasonable and effective control of the project cost.As the project cost to the project runs through the entire process，stage by stage can be divided into Investment Decision stage，the design and implementation phases. The so-called Project Cost effective control is the optimization of the construction plans and design programs on the basis of in the building process at all stages，use of certain methods and measures to reduce the cost of the projects have a reasonable control on the scope and cost of the approved limits.Engineering and cost management work of the current status of project cost management system was formed in the 1950s，1980s perfect together. Performance of the country and directly involved in the management of economic activities. Provisions in the design stage to different estimates or budget preparation as well as government; Nothing relevant departments to formulate a budget，content，methods and approval，the budget will provide the fixed cost of equipment and materials and fixed price of the budget preparation，approval，management authority，and so on.With the historical process，after recovery，reform and development，formed a relatively complete budget estimate of quota management system. However，as the socialist market economic development，the system's many problems have also exposed. Generally speaking，the budget estimate is based on direct participation in the management of national economic activity as a precondition. Enterprise is not the actual economic entities. Due to the characteristics of the planned economy，and，at the time under the conditions of productivity，will inevitably become a shortage in the economy.In severe shortage of commodities under the conditions，as long as a certain level of investment，will be certain outputs. In this environment，the project planning and technical argumentation there can be no economic analysis. State control of the project cost constitute key factors equipment and materials prices，wages and taxes of artificial distribution. In this relatively stable economic environment，the budget estimate for the system approved project cost，help the government to carry out investment plans to play a major role.As the socialist market economic system established，requires us to predict project investment and control. In recent years，international investment project developed to the requirements of prior pre-control and in the middle of control. China，the traditional practice in an objective light onthe cause decision-making，implementation heavy，light the economy and technology，First，the consequences of victimization，Due to the technical personnel of the project technical and economic concepts and a weak awareness of cost control，cost management makes the quality difficult to raise. Project Cost control is difficult to achieve long-term goals.Second，the various stages of the project management view of the above circumstances，My first academia in the 1980s made the whole process of cost management and control concept，building departments will study the feasibility of projects and the budgets and final accounts to two extended at the request of the corresponding regulations put our cost management concepts and methods referred to a new height.Our task now is to be modern and cost management in line with China's national conditions of the market economy system goal，learn from the advanced experience of the developed countries，and establish sound market economic laws of project cost management system，efforts to increase the project cost levels. An investment decision-making phase of the project cost management construction project investment decision-making stage is proposed project proposals; conduct a feasibility study to determine investment estimation and the final preparation of design task. At this stage，the project's technical and economic decision-making，of the construction project cost of the project after the completion of the economic benefits have a decisive influence，The construction cost is an important stage control.China's current stage of the project cost for the project management for the purpose of clearing price，and focusing only on the construction process of cost control，neglected before the start of the project investment decision-making stage of cost control. Investment decision-making phase of investment projects is estimated an important basis for decision-making. Ithas a direct impact on national economic and financial analysis of the results of the reliability and accuracy. Because of this phase is the preliminary work of projects，the information cannot be fully，comparable works more or less that information accumulated relatively small，estimated inadequate and unscientific. Makes project cost management and cost workers is difficult at this stage do something.The various stages of the project cost control in the decision-making phase project cost control. Right project planning phase of the cost，many owners have the wrong understanding that the lower the cost the better. Cost control is not a unilateral issue，and should be a number of factors，a combination of practical，comprehensive consideration. The construction project investment decision-making stage，the project's technical and economic decision-making，Cost of the project after the completion of the project and the economic benefits，with a decisive role in project cost control is an important stage，rationally define and control the direction of the project cost of accurate positioning and building Optimization guiding role.In the decision-making phase of the most important is to do a good job feasibility study，the work is done well，returns on investment and can form a good proportion. Otherwise，invest more，less effective，resulting in loss of control and waste of investment.At present，some of the projects planned the owners of departure from the subjective desires of a feasibility study on the lack of scientific proof. Feasibility Study untrue，false or engineering functions obtaining the approval of their superiors，actually put into the feasibility study will be awarded in the study for the project after the smooth functioning buried a lot of hidden problems，lead to insufficient follow-up funds for the project andhad to extend the time limit so that the project could not have planned the use of cost-effective，even become hopeless completion of the beard works.Therefore，in order to phase in the investment decision-making effectively control construction costs，we must do the following aspects: Implementationof the construction project and corporate accountability，Construction of the project from planning to implementation of the entire process and the use of the funds to repay responsibilities to the people. in addition to establishing a legal system and the project supervision matching mechanism by the departments in charge of the industry and supervision departments for setting up a monitoring group to oversee the use of funds.A realistic approach to market analysis，to avoid the blindness of the project decision-making，reduces and reduces investment risk. Fully consider building projects in the future market competitiveness，design task more scientific and reliability.Capital financing must have a formal commitment document，the parties must do investment funds in place，and funds must have documents to ensure that the project can be approved after the scheduled implementation. To the various loan conditions should be carefully analyzed to minimize the burden of interest and repayment pressure.To strengthen the engineering geology，hydrology，geology and land，water，electricity，transport，environmental projects such as external conditions for the work of depth to make the investment estimate there are sufficient grounds.Taking extensive investigation and research，comparison of similar projects，seriously functional analysis，multi-program comparison and choice. After full technical appraisal and economic evaluation，and the final technologically advanced，functional and reliable. Reasonable economic projects，thus calculate a more accurate and realistic estimation of theamount of investment，so that the project cost from the start positioning in a more reasonable level.The design phase of the project cost control for a long time，China's building control very effective，- investment projects is not uncommon，this will affect owners of investment returns，it adds to the owners and within budget，as well as difficulties in fund owners，the impact on the future management or the owners make payments in arrears，and so on. Hence，the control of the project cost is of great significance，however the project cost is the primary means of control design，Currently most of the property owners in the design stage seldom works on cost control，and they found that the cost of the design will not have a great impact，it is wrong，on the contrary，Design phase of the project cost control is the most important step. Because it determines engineering design，construction methods，materials and equipment types，models of the project cost is of critical significance，design optimization phase of the program or minor changes，project cost will have a significant impact，Design phase of the project cost control of the total project cost of 70%. Following is how to control the project from design to create the Law: As the owners must design，the design selected on the quality level is a direct impact on the quality of product design level，and the design quality products in the level of direct influence on the pricing of the works. Different design units on the same project design are different. the same item of different design institute works between certain aspects of the project cost on the existence of differences between，We assume that with a design from two different design institute to design，Construction plans after the completion of a requested advisory unit cost to do the budget，certainly different design institute the total cost of the project is absolutely not the same，and most of the difference between the two over 10% even more than30%，and not necessarily high cost than the design of low cost，and good design is often low cost，We all know that different people have different design styles and different levels，the design works naturally，therefore chosen to design units is the control on the first step. Through tender to select the design of the units is a good method，the tender documents to elaborate on this particular aspect of the requirements，cost control targets，and so on.Otherwise，in the subsequent design process design units will put an increase in the cost of the design requirements; through tendering the project design into the market，compared to select the best design units.Promoting the design bidding and design optimization campaign mode design units assessed by experts using scientific group France，in accordance with applicable，economic，aesthetic principles and advanced technology，reasonable structure to meet building energy efficiency and environmental requirements，comprehensive assessment of the merits of the program design，selection of the best determination of the successful program.Successful investment program estimated to be close to the general construction project scope of investment. This means two design contracts will help design the program of choice and competition to ensure that the selected design advanced technology，unique novelty，adaptability，as well as to control the cost of the project. Design units should strive to improve their quality of the project design clever idea，contemporary reducing the project cost on to rack their brains to improve design quality，strive to put the design phase of the project cost control approval of the investment ceiling.Strengthening the design stage of the design phase to strengthen supervision of the Commissioner to determine a reasonable design，maturetechnology，reduction in the construction phase major design changes and changes in the program，in the effective control of the project cost will play a role. 1 to the design of the project if the project supervision to get involved，excluding unfavorable factors may generally is excluded from the 80% errors. In the entire process of building cost control，construction began at best to save and invest 20%，the key lies in the construction phase of the identification and control costs. Supervision of the design phase include : Design Institute under the design drawings and notes help owners deal with different design options for the economy，capital expenditure to develop the preliminary estimates，to ensure that the investment can be most effectively utilized. With the owners of the Commissioner include:According to the Design Institute to provide design drawings and notes to help owners deal with different design options for the economy，capital expenditures to develop the preliminary plan to ensure that investment can be most effectively used; with the owners of different design options，the need to calculate their own materials and equipment to conduct a cost analysis and study，to the design staff costs，to assist them in the investment limit within limits designed to save and invest. To seek a one-time small investment and economic good design program made the most rational economic indicators.Design actively promote the so-called cap limit design，even with the approval of the design task and investment estimates，guarantee the functional requirements of the premise. The preliminary design and control budget，according to the preliminary approval of the total budget for the design and construction design control. Limits，and every one professional，each of whom have a design threshold of a target. In the design process，designers should progress to more programs，design optimization，ensuring that the design is technically advanced and reasonable，innovative，stylish，and do not break the limit investment objectives，thus eliminating theengineering design raise the factor of safety and design standards，or only consider the technical feasibility of the program，rather than economic rationality phenomenon，the project cost to ensure effective control.Also known as the value of value engineering analysis，is a modern scientific management technique，is a new techno-economic analysis，is the product of functional analysis to conserve resources and reduce the cost of the purpose of an effective method. It made up for the traditional cost management simply focus on cost reduction and quality management only emphasizes improving the quality deficiencies，construction is conducive to resolving the long-standing long period，a lot of wastage，poor quality，high-cost problems. Value Engineering laws generally divided into three steps: assessment of the design of object technology and economic Score; Calculation of the target group of technical and economic indicators; calculate the geometric design of the object，on average; From comparison choose the best design.Construction phase of the project implementation unit construction cost management to control the cost of the project is reasonable in the project to meet quality standards premise，in the investment decision-making stage，the design phase and construction phase of the project put the project approval occurred in the control limits，strive in various construction projects rational use of human，material and financial resources to achieve good investment returns and social benefits.The project cost control and management is a dynamic process. The dynamic market economy，to make the investment in the identification and control become more complex，this will require the construction units to the management of project cost to the project runs through the entire process，it is necessary to have a comprehensive focus. The implementation phase of the projects. The implementation phase of the project cost management is theimplementation of the entire process of project management. Project implementation phase of the project cost management can be divided into three parts: the tender management，construction management and settlement management.Bidding for the construction phase of the construction units Bidding system control engineering cost effective means，bid organization can improve the cost-effectiveness of construction projects and ensure the quality of construction projects，shortening the construction cycle return on the investment，construction units can take full advantage of bidding for the effective means of cost control.Construction No. 10 on the 7th ministerial decree issued a "contract with the Construction Contract Pricing Management." clearly pointed out in bidding for projects using inventories. This requires the building of units conducting the tender exercise，in the tender document to include not only the usual content，like tender notes before schedule，tender notes，the conditions of the contract，the contract terms of the agreement，contract format，technical specifications，drawings，tender documents and other reference format，it is also necessary to provide the engineering inventory，Bidding as a reference document of the important components.Construction units in the tender document for the project inventory，in accordance with state or local rules promulgated by the calculation that the reunification of the divided projects，unified measurement units and the reunification of the engineering calculation rules，according to design drawings to be calculated and statistical arranged，obtain the list. Quantities to be followed in the preparation of an objective，impartial，scientific，and rational principle. Compilers must have strong manly budget，and should have certain knowledge of the engineering design and construction experience，and the material and mechanical construction technology forcomprehensive scientific knowledge，in order to calculate the volume of the works without heavy missed. The basis of which must be in accordance with state regulations engineering calculation rules，and the sub-projects division engineering units，and in accordance with design drawings，design essential Love tender documentation requirements are calculated.Quantities of the project should have a testing general，the entries must be simple，while not appear Lousing wrong items Pricing should guarantee the correctness of the project. Should the requirements of the different grades separate engineering division，the situation was different; We may have different prices for the items separately. This requires the preparation of the list compilers，seriously study design drawings，Analysis of the tender documents include the elements of the work and the different technical requirements，all familiar with the process，and to the scene of serious investigation，is forecast to make possible the construction of the case，right will have an impact on the Price of projects to be broken down. In addition，because the project inventories to calculate the amount of the project is not complete engineering and consider the interests of the construction units，clearly paying the price for the same overall price，the quantity list by the number of actual construction is a practical terms.In the evaluation and review of the tender offer should do the units total individual Price quotations and the comprehensive assessment. Price does not meet the requirements of individual shows Price meets the requirements，and the lowest total Price could not explain the single lowest bidder. Bidders often know the total cost to maintain the same circumstances; the project is likely to change smaller projects to lower the price.Changes may be larger projects price increases to achieve the completion of clearing works will be added for the purpose. We would also do price and the corresponding quantity of comprehensive engineeringassessment of the large volume of projects to focus on the price analysis. Price will do with the contents of the work，construction program，a comprehensive technical evaluation process，thereby preferred choice of a construction unit. Construction of the construction phase of the contract cost control basis. Signed tight construction contract，while strengthening the construction contract management can guarantee that the contract price is reasonable，legitimacy and reduce the performance of the contract A，B in disputes and safeguard the interests of both the contract，effective control of the works investment costs.After the signing of the contract，to do the management contract documentation，contract and the supplementary contract agreement until the regular meeting site in minutes. Work contacts such as a single content of a contract extension and explained that the integrity must be preserved，in addition to establishing a technical files，Implementation of the contract for dynamic analysis，results of the analysis to take proactive measures.Construction phase in the construction phase construction plan is based on the budget or Ken works contract price of the target，Ken control the cost of the project. At this stage of conservation has room for a small，but the possibility of waste is great. Thereby to control the cost of the project to give sufficient attention.Construction program to strengthen the comparative technical and economic construction program is construction design of a re - to the contents of the work，a reasonable construction plan，shorten the construction period and ensure the quality of the project，improving economic efficiency，Construction of the program right from the technical and economic evaluation were compared，through qualitative and quantitative analysis，the quality，time，Cost three technical and economic indicators，be rational，and effective use of manpower，material and financial resources，achieve better economic efficiency，good construction management relations，a comprehensive cost management is an important way.Strictly related changes to the project budget control in the proposed budget. Construction of the changes caused by many reasons，including works poorly designed，so that the engineering contract with the drawings provided inconsistent; The current market supply of materials does not meet the standard specifications of the design requirements. These issues have to leave breadwinner project cost factors. Therefore，in the construction process，we must tighten customs change，through no design changes to expand the scale and improve the design standards; increase the construction and contents，the best implementation of the "grade control，visa quota" system. Right to change the design，particularly as it relates to the cost of the design changes must be approved by the design units，construction units scene representatives，supervision engineers common signature，and should be ahead of this type of change，reduce losses，because it has been completed or partially completed project will entail the demolition of the contents，it is bound to cause major changes to the loss. Therefore，the construction units should be assigned to the project cost management professionals Permanent construction site，to grasp at any time. Control project cost of the changes.Works on the scene visa formalities through strict control of the construction project supervision system，the establishment of specialized departments，Professional use of the professional management of projects and to avoid project management personnel just visas，not economic account of the phenomenon. Investment out of control caused serious consequences. To serious change visa procedures to be taken to the building，Supervisor，the construction site together representatives signed the way toensure that change，visa authenticity，legitimacy，economic and avoid fraud and the resulting phenomena arising from the dispute.In the course of construction，the construction units to enhance on-site construction management，supervision and construction side according to the drawings，and strictly control the change of the negotiations，materials substitution，the scene visas，and various additional extra budgetary labor costs for the necessary changes should be done first afterwards，after money，Change event on the timely change in the calculation of the workload and the cost of change occurred to grasp at any time cost of the project level，things to avoid a backlog of work that the true cost of the project.Construction unit representatives to the scene to supervise doing a good job record，particularly concealed records and visas，reduce clearing the passing phenomenon. Many works visa scene is not as serious，works to bring a very large settlement of the trouble，lead to considerable economic losses，the scene strict visa management of the construction phase of the project cost control key.Of project list rigorous review of the project on the review of inventories，Engineers’ monitor list of measures to control the project. BOQ to provide the list of measures is to complete construction projects，occurred in the pre-construction engineering and construction process technology，life and safety aspects of non-engineering projects entities. At this stage because many projects are in construction plans and the construction site of the imperfections on the tender wait until the construction tender of the project design and actual scene have better access. Management Engineer addresses the gathering first-hand information on the original，itemized checking identification，inconsistent make revisions.Control material consumption，rationally define material prices. Cost of the project control materials price control is the main，the cost of materials in engineering often holds substantial proportion，usually accounts for the estimated costs of 70%，representing the direct costs of 80%. It is necessary in the construction phase in strict accordance with the contract amount of material control; material set reasonable prices，so as to effectively control the cost of the project. Market economy material supply a variety of channels，variety and price range materials，construction unit budget management and field personnel should pay close attention to market rates，with the progress of the scene，the market，hand in the construction of the information and materials for the completion of the accounts provide a strong basis.Technology and economic integration，strengthening investment control. Effective control of the investment，from organizational，technical，economic，contracts，and other measures. Therefore，the construction units must strengthen management，engineering and technical personnel of the "economy" concept，the quality of education，Training pragmatic working style，the construction side to help improve construction design，reasonable security，financial，and material resources. Accelerate the pace of work to improve the quality of the projects. Construction should encounter problems in a timely manner with the designer linked to choose both economic and scientific potential solutions，overcome the waste caused by command，to give due attention to the importance of investment in conservation，is responsible for the engineering technician with the combination of economic officers from the tender，contract negotiations，costing the budget，signed paid to the progress of the completion of the accounts，a cost analysis，the whole process management and strictly control the cost of the project.。

英文论文（外文文献）翻译成中文的格式与方法英文论文（外文文献）翻译成中文的格式与方法本文关键词：外文，英文，中文，翻译成，文献英文论文（外文文献）翻译成中文的格式与方法本文简介：在撰写毕业设计（论文）或科研论文时，需要参考一些相关外文文献，了解国外的最新研究进展，这就需要我们找到最新最具代表性的外文文献，进行翻译整理，以备论文写作时参考，外文文献中英文文献占绝大多数，因此英文论文准确的翻译成中文就显得尤为重要！一、外文文献从哪里下载1、从知网国际文献总库中找英文论文（外文文献）翻译成中文的格式与方法本文内容：在撰写毕业设计（论文）或科研论文时，需要参考一些相关外文文献，了解国外的最新研究进展，这就需要我们找到最新最具代表性的外文文献，进行翻译整理，以备论文写作时参考，外文文献中英文文献占绝大多数，因此英文论文准确的翻译成中文就显得尤为重要！一、外文文献从哪里下载1、从知网国际文献总库中找，该数据库中包含14,000多家国外出版社的文献，囊括所有专业的英文文献资料。

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中英文对照外文翻译(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)外文文献：China's Enterprise Cost Management Analysis and CountermeasuresAbstract: With the progress and China's traditional Cost Management model difficult to adapt to an increasingly competitive market environment. This paper exists in our country a number of Cost Management and finally put forward to address these issues a number of measures to strengthen Cost Management.Keywords:: Cost Management measuresIn a market economy conditions, as the global economic integration, the development of increasingly fierce market competition, corporate profit margins shrinking. In this case, the level of high and low business costs directly determines the size of an enterprise profitability and competitive strength. Therefore, strengthen enterprise Cost Management business has become an inevitable choice for the survival and development.First, the reality of China's Enterprise Cost Management AnalysisCost Management in our country after years of development, has made many achievements, but now faces a new environment, China's Cost Management has also exposed some new problems,mainly in the following aspects:(A) Cost Management concept behind theChinese enterprises lag behind the concept of Cost Management in pervasive phenomenon, mainly in Cost Management of the scope, purpose and means from time to biased. Many enterprises will continue to limit the scope of Cost Management within the enterprise or even only the production process at the expense of other related companies and related fields cost behavior management. We supply side, for example. The supply side of the price of the product cost of doing business, one of the most important motives. As the supply side of the price of the product and its cost plus profit, so the supply side of price in the form of its own costs to the enterprise. However, some enterprises to the supply side too much rock bottom price, as their source of high profits, without considering each other's interests, resulting in supply-side to conceal their true costs, price increase in disguise. This increase in procurement costs, thereby increasing commodity costs, making goods less competitive.The purpose of Cost Management from the point of view, many enterprises confined to lower costs, but less from the perspective of cost-effectiveness of the effectiveness of the means of cost reduction mainly rely on savings, can not be cost-effective. In traditional Cost Management, Cost Management purposes has been reduced to cut costs, saving has become the basic means to reduce costs. From the perspective of Cost Management to analyze the Cost Management of this goal, not difficult to find cost-reduction is conditional and limits, and in some cases, control of costs, could lead to product quality and enterprise efficiency decline.In addition, the vast majority of enterprises in the overall concept of lack of Cost Management. Most companies have a common phenomenon, that is, to rely on finance staff to manage costs. In the implementation of Cost Management process, some companies focus only on cost accounting; some business leaders only concerned about the financial and cost statements, using the number of statements to management costs. Although such an approach to reduce the cost to a certain role, but the final analysis, cost accounting, or ex post facto control, failed to do in advance of cost control and occurrence of process control, can not be replaced costing Cost Management.(B) Cost Management obsoleteFirst of all, from a Cost Management in general and ways of looking at, not really formed, the system's Cost Management methodology, from speaking, we have proposed the establishment of including cost projections, the cost of decision-making, cost planning, cost accounting, cost control, cost analysis, etc. In the within the new Cost Management system, but how to make this methodology in a scientific, systematic, forming an organic links there are many problems. Secondly, the specific method of Cost Management perspective, According to the survey, 55.7% of the enterprises use varieties of France, 42.8% of companies use sub-step. The development trend of current world production of many varieties of small batch production mode, this mode of production batches law applies to product cost. Currently, only 6.2% of China's enterprises to adopt this method to calculate, which indicates that the organization of production in China is still relatively extensive, paid insufficient attention to the consumer's personality.Finally, from a Cost Management tool to see, even though some enterprises to enter the computerized stage, but the cost of application management module level is not high, and many enterprises are still the manual accounting, in a modern way of technology, Information, and this is bound to constrain business further enhance the level of Cost Management, it is difficult to meet the modern Cost Management of cost Information provided by the timeliness, comprehensiveness,accuracy requirements.(C) the cost Information, a serious distortion ofIn China, there are a considerable number of enterprises there is the cost of the case Information is untrue, and this situation is getting worse. Cost Information distortion is mainly caused by the following reasons:First, costing only a focus on materials, labor, manufacturing overhead, ignoring the growing increase in the modern enterprise product development, the middle of testing and trial-and after-sales service on a small group of input costs associated with the content of the product was incomplete, does not correctly evaluate the products in the the whole process of life-cycle cost-effectiveness.The second is distortion caused by improper costing methods. A high degree of labor-intensive enterprises in the past years, the accounting of the simple assumption (that is, the number of direct labor hours or production basis for the allocation of indirect costs), usually do not cause serious distortions in product costs. But in a modern manufacturing environment, the proportion of direct labor costs declined significantly, a substantial increase in the proportion of manufacturing costs, and then use the traditional method of cost computation will produce irrational behavior, the use of traditional costing will lead to serious distortions in product cost information to enable enterprises to operate the mistake of choosing the direction of products.Third, to achieve the purpose of artificially adjust the cost of a number of hidden losses caused by a serious, corporate virtual surplus real loss. In China, some enterprises do not increase because of Cost Management, but in order to achieve improper goals or interest to do so at the cost of the external disclosure of false information. Study its causes and performance: business managers in order to gloss over its management performance, to investors, especially medium and small shareholders have a good explanation to take virtual cut costs, inflated benefits, such as Joan China source event, Guangxia event; some private enterprises do not even pay taxes in order to tax less, false purchase invoices, virtual offset value-added tax; inflated costs, pay less corporate income tax; a number of enterprise Cost Management is in chaos, infrastructure work is not solid, it is difficult to accurately account for product costs, and thus disclosed the cost of information is not accurate. (D) internal Cost Management of the establishment of the main mistakesCost of production and operation activities, a comprehensive index covering all aspects of management, but also involves all levels of personnel. However, a long time, people have been the existence of a bias, the Cost Management as a finance officer for a small number of managers patents, that the cost-effectiveness should be handled by business leaders and finance staff and to all workshops, departments, teams and groups of workers only as a producer, resulting in control costs, understand technology, understand technology, understand the financial, the majority of the workers as to which costs should be controlled, how to control problems have no intention also were unable to say in the cost-conscious indifference. Workers that Ganhaoganhuai a sample, feel market pressures, cost control initiative can not be mobilized, serious waste, mainly in energy and materials, the next material without careful planning, the next corner does not make full use of materials, energy and run , risk, dripping, and leak is serious. Cost Management of the main mistakes made to establish the Cost Management business has lost the management of large groups of promise, of course, Cost Management work is not really achieve good results. Second, strengthen enterprise Cost Management measuresCost Management for Chinese Enterprises in the problems, we should start the following efforts tostrengthen Cost Management:(A) the introduction of new ideas - the use of strategic Cost ManagementStrategic management is central to the sustained competitive advantage for businesses, competitive advantage is the core of any Strategy, it ultimately comes from enterprises to create value for customers, this value must exceed the costs of enterprises to create it. An enterprise to gain a competitive advantage need to make a choice, that is, enterprises must strive for what would be an advantage, and to what extent the problem for superiority to make a choice. This requires the introduction of strategic management of Cost Management thinking, to achieve a strategic sense of the extensions to form a strategic Cost Management. Strategic Cost Management refers to management of the specialized approach provides an analysis of the enterprise itself and its competitors information to assist managers and evaluation of the formation of corporate Strategy, thereby creating a competitive advantage in order to meet enterprises to effectively adapt to constantly changing external environment.(B) establish a new concept1, establish a system management concepts, the implementation of a comprehensive, whole process of Cost ManagementThe content and scope of the cost of doing business should not be confined to areas of production, management needs to be with the change, and as the development of management development. Cost Management should be comprehensive, the whole process, and at the design stage till the development planning stage should begin to reduce the cost of activities. Modern enterprise Cost Management should include the impact on cost changes in all aspects of the projections to penetrate the enterprise, decision-making, technology, sales and other areas in all aspects of the enterprise expansion.2, establish the concept of cost-effectiveness, cost forecasting and decision-making levels Enterprises can not succeed in the market for greater profits, they must establish the cost of determining the market concept, give full play to the cost of policy-making functions. Cost Management and enterprise's overall effectiveness should also be linked to the concept of dynamic cost-effective approach to cost and control issues, from the comparative analysis of input and output to look into the necessity and rationality of the enterprise from the perspective of efficiency to determine the increases or decreases in order to conduct a cost benefit as the center of the dynamic management.3, establish a sense of innovation, technology and insist on combiningThe vitality lies in its continued innovation, and enterprises should seize the pulse of the market, seeking mechanism innovation, vibrancy, increase scientific and technological input, and the effective use of new technologies, new equipment, new processes and new materials, relying on technology to reduce product cost. Meanwhile, cost accounting should be considered in the scientific and technological content of products, including the cost to go to facilitate enterprises to the correct decision. The formation of the product cost, the technical factors, plays an important role, to improve Cost Management, we must implement the technology-driven economic principle of combining.4, establish a people-oriented concept, create a cohesive force in enterprisePeople do not simply a tool for wealth creation, but an enterprise's largest capital, assets, resources and wealth, the main body of the enterprise, is the main Cost Management is to determine the cost of key factors. Therefore, to establish a people-oriented management thinking, and arouse people'sintellectual factors, train and develop people's ability to work, so that employees and managers on an equal footing and enjoy the same participation in power, the humanistic, democratic management thinking throughout the enterprise management process from beginning to end, so that enterprises can truly become a democratic, humane organizations, from the human heart in order to stimulate everyone's sense of responsibility and willing to devote themselves masters of the spiritual power.(C) the introduction of advanced Cost Management - activity-based costing and cost-planning methodSince the cost of the early 20th century inception, he has appeared 'standard cost', 'budget control', 'difference', 'cost-of-state analysis', 'variable cost method', 'volume-profit analysis', 'responsibility accounting', etc. a series of traditional cost accounting methods. However, in today's increasingly competitive market economy, the traditional cost accounting methods have fatal defects, thus creating an activity-based costing and cost-planning method.1, Activity-Based CostingActivity-Based Costing is based on 'cost driver' as the fundamental basis of a cost-accounting methods. Its basic principle is that consumption of output operations, operations consume resources. In the product cost, it will be the focus from the traditional 'products' move to 'work' on to work for the accounting object, and the first motivation of resources based on resource allocation of costs to the job, and then tracked by the activity driver products, the final product obtained costs. It is customer-oriented chain, to the value chain as the center of the business 'operational procedures' fundamental and thorough reform, emphasizing the coordination of corporate internal and external customer relations, starting from the enterprise as a whole, coordinating the various departments and links the relationship between the ask enterprises to material supply, production and marketing aspects of the operations form a continuous, synchronous's 'workflow', the elimination of all can not increase the value of the operation, so that enterprises in the state continued to improve and promote enterprise-wide optimization, establishing competitive advantage.2, cost planning methodThe cost of planning the basic ideas: (1) to full life-cycle-based, market-oriented development of target cost. Basic formula is: target cost = expected market price - target profit. (2) product design stage the cost of squeezing. This process can be expressed as the cost of the 'Settings - decomposition - to achieve - (re-setting) - (re-decomposition) - (another achievement) - ... ...', and repeatedly as well as endless, until it reaches target cost. (3) the cost of production at the manufacturing stage decomposition and pressure transmission. The target cost pressures refined to teams and groups, and even individuals and vendors. (4) pre-production phase of the feedback control. Through trial and feedback from the production process and timely leak fill a vacancy, strengthen internal management, improve cost control management through a variety of incentive measures to make the cost of the ideological objectives of planning can be the greatest degree of implementation. (5) The target cost optimization. Product to meet the needs of market competition must be constantly adjusted and optimized so that the cost of setting goals to keep up with the pace of technological and market changes, so that the cost of the entire planning process to form a complete cycle, continuous improvement, and constantly perfect, and always be able to adapt to the changing market.(Iv) computer technology in Enterprise Cost ManagementAt present, the computer is an indispensable tool for economic life, to modern information technology-based Cost Management Cost Management information system has become a symbol of modernization.1, the software applicationLOTUS, EXCEL and other spreadsheet software has a powerful form processing, database management and statistical charts processing functions, is commonly used office automation software. They do not have programming, flexible and convenient, the use of low cost, high efficiency, use of these software can be easily and quickly assist management in cost projections, decision-making, and can control the process of implementation of the monitoring analysis, received good results. Businesses can combine their own characteristics, commissioned by software developers for their costs of developing a more professional management software.2, the application ofThe network has a strong scalability, enables the sharing of resources, improve efficiency and reduce costs. Internal and external Internet connection of the timely transmission of a variety of cost information, and can interactively communicate with the outside world, learn from each other and promote the application of various Cost Management techniques to achieve Cost Management objectives.(E) to take measures to ensure cost-effective informationCompanies should establish a sound internal control system, through accounting and other business processes control, help reduce the occurrence of the phenomenon of accounting information Cuobi to a certain extent, the accounting and other information to ensure true and reliable. For example, a good internal control system, required documents must be recorded against previous audit, the certificate of transfer must follow certain procedures, to the reconciliation table cards and checking accounts. Through these means of control, it is possible to reduce the incidence of errors to ensure the accuracy and reliability of accounting information and thus the basis for cost accounting and management information is reliable.Enterprises also need to improve the management and accounting staff of professional ethics. The main body of the implementation of the system is the enterprise managers and decision-making participation in the operation of accounting personnel, in the generation and provision of relevant information, on one hand to enhance the legal awareness, on the one hand to enhance the sense of moral self-discipline, strengthen the moral sense of responsibility and sense of responsibility to maintain professional conscience, economic objectives of enterprises and managers to enhance the double moral standards.In addition to strengthen the market research and information feedback in the Cost Management applications. Information as a business activity is an important factor in the cost management an integral part of. With economic development, enterprise cost management level, with the development of the situation can improve, operation can proceed smoothly, to a large extent also depends on the level of the cost of feedback. Therefore, the enterprise cost management must also adapt to this objective, continually improve the level of information management, seize the opportunity to truly become the strong market competition.中国企业成本管理的现状分析与对策摘要：随着中国所取得的进展，中国传统的成本管理模式已经难以适应竞争日益激烈的市场环境。

工程造价专业毕业外文文献、中英对照中文翻译：工程造价专业毕业外文文献工程造价专业是一种重要的工程技术专业，主要负责工程投资的评估、选择和控制工程项目成本，以及项目质量、进度和安全。

因此，工程造价专业需要具备丰富的知识和技能，包括工程建设、经济学、管理学、数学、统计学等方面。

为了提高工程造价专业学生的综合能力，学习外文文献是不可或缺的步骤。

本文将介绍几篇与工程造价专业相关的外文文献，并提供中英文对照。

1）《The Role of Quantity Surveyors in Sustainable Construction》该文研究了数量调查师在可持续建筑中的作用，并深入探讨了数量调查师在项目的可持续性评估、营建阶段和运营阶段的角色和责任。

该文指出，数量调查师可以通过成本控制、资源利用、和材料选择等方面促进可持续建筑的发展，为未来可持续发展提供支持。

中文翻译：数量调查师在可持续建筑中的作用2）《Cost engineering》该文研究了造价工程的理论和实践，并提供了一系列工具和方法用于项目成本的控制和评估。

该文还深入探讨了工程造价和项目管理之间的关系，并提供了一些实用的案例研究来说明造价工程的实际应用。

中文翻译：造价工程3）《Construction cost management: learning from case studies》该文通过案例分析的方式来探讨建筑项目成本管理的实践。

该文提供了多个案例研究，旨在向读者展示如何运用不同的方法来控制和评估项目成本，并阐述了思考成本问题时需要考虑的多个因素。

中文翻译：建筑项目成本管理：案例学习4）《Project Cost Estimation and Control: A Practical Guide to Construction Management》该书是一本实用指南，详细介绍了在工程起始阶段进行项目成本估算的方法和技巧，以及如何在项目执行阶段进行成本控制。

预算编制外文翻译中英文2020英文Budget making: The theatrical presentation of accounting discourseLawrence CorriganAbstractThis interpretative research engages with calls for a visual turn in accounting by presenting stagy empirical illustrations of municipal budgeting that draw upon Goffman’s dramaturgical framework. The budget is theorized as visual and theatrical. Analysis of video recordings of budget meetings and on-scene observation of budget-making at a site of city management reveal visual triggers, rhetoric, and framing that constitute budgeting as visual discourse. A central impression presented in this paper is that of uncontrollability. The apparatus of budgeting is complex and grows in an undisturbed way, given that budget actors seem to be passive in taking leadership roles to substantively promote change. This paper draws attention to numerous elements of budget-making that highlight visual accounting as part of its apparatus. This view is in contrast to classic theories of controllability that claim Weberian bureaucratic ideals of rationality, efficiency, and professionalism. Two scholarly contributions are claimed. First, this paper joins a growing academic conversation about visual accounting, and extends this discussion with an exemplar of management accounting. Until recently, the visual has been inappropriately neglected in accounting research, particularly in studies of the public sector. Second, this paper applies Goffman’s dramaturgy, an underused perspective in the accounting literature and a thought-provoking methodology with a capacity for what may be regarded as “visual critique”.Keywords：Visual accounting，Municipal administration，Budget，Dramaturgy，Accounting discourseIntroductionThe accounting milieu, and social life in general, is immensely visual. This paper calls attention to influential visual material in performances of accounting authority and contributes to a nascent academic conversation around critical visual analysis inaccounting (Brown, 2010, Davison, 2015, Davison et al., 2015, Malsch and Gendron, 2009, Meyer et al., 2013). A broad definition of the visual is employed in this paper; for example, pictures, diagrams, spreadsheets, ritual enactments, videos, web pages, television screens, graphs, and artefacts in the physical spaces where interaction takes place.Accounting researchers have been interested in the visual for at least several decades. However, unlike other disciplines such as the humanities and social studies, this stream of research has not been prominent. “Visuality has been neglected despite accounting having a strong visual resonance” (Brown, 2010, p. 486). Th e call for more visual research in accounting began in earnest with a special issue of Accounting, Auditing & Accountability Journal (AAAJ, 2009). It was suggested that “there was a blind spot with regard to the visual in both accounting and organization s tudies” (Davison & Warren, 2009, p. 845). Davison (2015) also argues that until recently the visual has been mostly absent in accounting studies. Important for the focus of my paper, Davison’s (2015) synthesis of 83 articles in the visual accounting field, which reveals an infrequent use of drama-based theoretical approaches, claims that there has been “no work on the public sector or on management accounting” (p. 148). This opinion is supported by Meyer et al. (2013)who claim that visual modes of meaning construction in organization and management research remain inactive and require more quantity and contrasting types of methodologies. Lapsley, Miller, and Panozzo (2010, p. 305) call for accounting research based on “visualizing and calculating the city” b ecause they have found that municipalities have received little attention regarding the visual. Thus, the visual turn, nearly a decade after its introduction in AAAJ, is still in need of a variety of empirical illustrations of its theoretical concepts.This paper answers the call for a visual turn in accounting by paying attention to how actors in municipal administration use visual images to achieve financial patronage1 in budget practices. It does so intertextually by bringing dramaturgy(Goffman, 1959, Goffman, 1967, Goffman, 1974) explicitly into the emerging literature on visual accounting. The following sampling of articles illustrates the rather eclectic nature of this literature. Bettner, Frandsen, and McGoun(2010)discuss the prevalent visual culture of accounting –a culture that teaches us how to visually see knowledge patterns. They claim that it is possible to also “hear” patterns (listening to accounting) to aurally find knowledge. Brown (2010)considered challenges and prospects of accounting and visual cultural studies. She concluded that this confluence enables strategic accounting to critique and resist dominant modes of thinking. Meyer et al. (2013) show how visuals disguised as information, rather than argument, become reified –enhancing their power to dominate, even though such domination is seldom made explicit. It has been suggested elsewhere that visual accounting in annual reports is laden with vestiges of archaic religious symbolism (Davison, 2004), including visuals that often adopt sacred images of ascension. Visual accountability has also been explored in the context of accounting for municipal projects (Czarniawska, 2010); the article discusses interpretative frameworks for studying city management and enriches the discussion by including visual reporting of the author’s photographs.Although the above introduction indicates a lack of visual accounting literature using drama-based theory, especially related to the public sector, some extant studies are particularly relevant to this paper. Mueller (2017) noted that accounting research has occasionally called upon Goffmanian ideas (Mueller lists seven articles with publication dates reaching back to 1985) but he claims that no systematic work has yet been of significance in the field of accounting. Mueller (2017)addresses that gap by taking dramaturgy seriously and applying aspects of the interaction order to the performance of strategy in organizations. The dramaturgy of interactions is a theme that runs throughout Goffman’s work. In the area of social accounting, Jones (2011) uses Goffman’s concept of impression management to assess the use, abuse, and visual impact of graphs in environmental accounting. Jones (2011) notes the extensive accounting literature concerned with earnings management and he broadens this idea toward presentational management such as accounting narratives and graphs.Following a dramaturgical framework (Goffman, 1959), my research examines the budget processes of Halifax Regional Municipality where operational boundaries give rise to fierce contests concerning political allocation of scarce resources.“Theatrical” analysis of accounting discourse helps us realize that impression management in budgeting involves skillful use of imagery. This paper contributes to visual accounting by focusing on municipal budgeting. Specifically, accounting researchers are encouraged to understand budget-making as visual and theatrical rather than uncritically seeing budgeting as an all-too-mundane administrative practice. If one wishes to imagine accounting as a visual theatrical performance, what succeeds at receiving (or what fails to receive) public funding should be of great interest. The budget processes of the Halifax City Council may be seen as theatrical experience where interests of the actors are sustained only by submitting to staged performances in an organized dispute over operating and capital financing. This paper examines how the visual is involved in argument and counter-argument surrounding the formal performance of municipal budget ratification. Goffman refers to these performances as “expression games” (1969, p. 10), where the structure of interactions is dependent on the control and asymmetry of information. Accordingly, “the budget” is socially constructed and complex; it can swiftly convert from a single object into a web of thousands of individual budget line items and a host of assumptions, calculations, legal commitments, and wild guesses. Municipal budgeting is also affected by a polyphonic voice3 (Bakhtin, 1981) because many competing bits and pieces of advice (mostly unasked for) independently reach the ears of elected officials in the lead-up to formal meetings of the Council. Strategic visualization (numbers, words, images, as well as accounting storytelling) is needed to respond to polyphonic overtones and to communicate overwhelming budget texts. In the Halifax budget story to follow, the players (municipal management, elected officials, staff members, the news media, others) visually and theatrically perfo rm a “good” budget even though it imposes an unwanted tax increase. Higher tax rates are embedded in a complex set of accounting calculations and able to “disappear from view” even though the subject of taxation remains in plain sight of the municipal actors.Theoretical framework – dramaturgyDramaturgy is a qualitative research tradition that grew from Goffman’s (1959)notion of social performances. Dramaturgy accepts a fundamental belief in thetheatricality of organizing and resonates with dramatic visual elements that are integral to budget accounting. Goffman used the language of theatre and called upon numerous dramaturgical terms to expound on the presentation of self in social situations. Goffman’s ontological stance includes the notion that the indi vidual is a crafter of the self. In this respect, Goffman stands-out among symbolic interactionists as one who leans toward a subjectivist orientation (although not all would agree with a categorization of Goffman as a symbolic interactionist, as discussed in Baert, 1998). Indeed, dramaturgy is difficult to situate paradigmatically. The philosophical assumptions underlying dramaturgy arise from an ontological position that implies nominalism while also approaching an objective attitude toward realism.As indicated in the previous section, dramaturgy has been sparingly applied in accounting research. Goffman’s dramaturgical framework has been used to question taxable business profits (Edgley, 2010), examine auditor facework (Johed & Catasús, in press), problematize the development of accounting narratives (Beattie, 2014), understand stigma related to accounting professionalism (Jeacle, 2008), and expose aspects of impression management (Skærbæk & Tryggestad, 2010). To date, dramaturgy has not been meaningfully used to engage with the visual turn in accounting since “the visual has often been (erroneously) regarded either as empty decoration or as transparent information” (Davison, 2015, p. 122). This is surprising because, theoretically, dramaturgy and visual studies share several fundamental tenets – Chart 1 outlines seven key concepts of visual studies, along with selected citations that elaborate these ideas. Each of the seven visual studies concepts is matched with a comparative dramaturgical concept. These draw upon seminal Goffman publications that fundamentally recognize the theatricality and visuality of social life. A central pattern evident from the comparison outlined in Chart 1 is that dramaturgical and visual artefacts have a capacity to establish and organize what comes to be accepted as knowledge. This often manifests as telling “a story of the situation” (Lorino, Mourey, & Schmidt, 2017, p. 43) in a way that is meaningful for future action.For this paper, four selected dramaturgical tools are central. Each of these is briefly outlined below.•Regions: (see Benford & Hunt, 1992) According to dramaturgy, performances depend upon segregation of social space into the front region and backstage. The front region is a physical space associated with visual masks, or persona. The front region contains a variety of fixed trappings called a setting and features fronts of human actors, which include personal appearance, manner, clothing, badges, gender, race, age, gestures, voice, credentials, and a host of other visual insignia. Actors do not necessarily continue the same performance when the audience is not present. The back region is the place “where the impression fostered by the performance is knowingly contradicted as a matter of course” (Goffman, 1959, p. 115). Dramaturgy has it that one’s authentic self is usually found in the backstage of social life.•Performance (see Biehl-Missal, 2011): Performance may be thought of as all acting that serves to influence other participants. Performances involve the efforts of individuals toward convincing others (and themselves) that their claims are genuine. Performance includes several elements as follows. Dramatic realization is the process whereby individuals infuse their activity with signs to more convincingly convey “facts” that otherwise might remain ambiguous. Idealization is the tendency of actors to present “officially accredited values” (Goffman, 1959, p. 45) for their audience to witness. Mystification involves the maintenance of rituals and visualization. These create an approving audience in awe of the performance.•Audience (see Hogan, 2010): Impressions are scripted for the benefit of an audience. From a visual point of view, theatre sites can be disorderly. They include mostly appreciative outward signals such as applause or shouts of bravo. Booing and heckling is also possible, as is the neutral, albeit annoying, propensity of audience members to forget to turn off their cellphones. Critique by the municipal audience is often restrained by dramaturgical techniques in the budget process. Municipal taxpayers and citizen lobbyists are able to resist through performances of their own through social media and by political efforts beyond the formal meetings in the Council Chamber.•Impression management (see Goffman, 1971, Solomon et al., 2013): Goffman discusses two types of management of impressions: what we say, and what we do. Theformer is information that we “give”, and is believed to be substantially under our control; those impressions that are communicated in what we do while we say things, i.e., the information that we “give off”, are believed to be less under our control. Thus audiences have access to visual and tacit signs that the performer is unable to manage. These signs may be used as a check of expressive behaviour that is given from behind a mask. Scholars have gone as far as to say that “impression management may be called upon as a general umbrella framework for visual analysis” (Davison, 2015, p. 134).ConclusionThis paper contributes to the conversation around visual analysis in accounting research (Davison, 2015, Davison et al., 2015, Jones, 2011, Malsch and Gendron, 2009). The call for critical visual research, especially in the field of management accounting and public sector management stems from a deficit of the visual in case-based studies of accounting. The “visual turn” has produced a persuasive theoretical grounding and discussion over the past decade. However, the visual turn in accounting is still in need of a variety of empirical illustrations of its theoretical concepts. By examining the budget processes of the Halifax Regional Municipality, this paper pays attention to how actors in municipal administration use visual images in practice. Following Goffman’s dramaturgical framew ork, this research accepts the notion that municipal budgeting is dramatic. The reputation of budgeting (and accounting generally) as mundane administrative work is unwarranted (Jeacle, 2008). Seeing accounting discourse as “theatrical” helps us realize that Goffman’s concepts of performing regions, performance, audience, and impression management in budgeting involve skillful use of imagery. Since the municipal budget is a socially-constructed vision of a contested and ever-changing reality, its construction depends upon how municipal actors perform their accounting authority. These performances are infused with a broad range of visual phenomena.A central impression presented in this paper is that of uncontrollability. The apparatus of budgeting is complex and grows in an undisturbed way, given that budget actors seem to be passive in taking leadership roles in order to substantivelypromote change. Power (2013) understands “apparatus” in the context of Foucault’s (1977, p. 195) notion of “dispositif”, whic h is a system of thinking that has a dominant strategic function as negotiations produce dispositions. I support this view by dramaturgically calling attention to numerous elements of budget-making that highlight visual accounting as part of its apparatus. This includes budget process diagrams, accounting spreadsheets with detailed budget line-items, engineering photographs of capital project sites, ritual enactments of dramatistic managers, videos “explaining” tax policy, municipal web pages, television sc reens showing the elected officials in action, and other visualizations that “construct controllability boundaries” (Gendron & Spira, 2009, p. 97). This view is in contrast to classic theories of controllability. For example, Ouchi (1979) considers various approaches18 that influence the boundaries of controllability, including a bureaucratic control philosophy based on Weber’s (2002)“ideal” bureaucracy. This model is characterized by hierarchical authority relations, personal scrutiny, and defined spheres of competence subject to impersonal rules. Theoretically, the Weberian bureaucratic goal is to be rational, efficient, and professional. Thus, the budget process may be seen as a control mechanism for behaviour. Ouchi (1979)stresses that it is of fundamental importance to establish which form of control is most efficient. However, this paper does not emphasize efficiency or rational control. I focus instead on trying to understand the complexity of budget control. On the one hand, visual accounting highlig hts ritual enactments that collectively construct a “meta image” that the budget is under control. On the other hand, this paper indicates a backstage (as captured through analysis of the frontstage) in which the individual actors involved, especially the councillors, seem to lack sufficient power to “control” the budget. This impression of uncontrollability raises an important question: Is backstage uncontrollability of the budget in line with democratic accountability? This paper has dramaturgically engaged with this question by showing that stakeholder views of reality may be constructed with visual accounting, and that corporate drama may interfere with classic notions of controllability.The research milieu for this paper has several limitations as well as opportunitiesfor further elaboration. First, the area studied in this research was a single sector, city government. Since Halifax Regional Municipality, and only that municipality, is where I performed fieldwork and gathered artefacts, from a conservative perspective it might be argued that the level of analysis is too micro. A similar complaint was held against Goffman who was seen as “a discoverer of the infinitely small” (Bourdieu, 1983, p. 112). Although a tight focus may be a limitation for some, the case study does provide a useful platform to demonstrate theoretical ideas relating to visual accounting. Case studies offer a nuanced understanding of situations of uncertainty and instability (Cooper & Morgan, 2008) as well as shedding light on what accountants actually do in their work setting (Power & Gendron, 2015). There are many aspects of municipal organizational life that could have been explored. For example, differences of big and small administrations, differences of urban and rural districts, differences of strong mayor versus strong manager structures, the municipality of the present and the municipality of the past, silence as a counterpoint to discourse. An abundance of dichotomies. However, I found that this paper’s contribution to visual accounting could be accommodated in a single municipal unit in Halifax.I conclude this paper with a suggestion for future research. Critical accounting studies, when dealing with the visual at all, have tended to focus on technical visual forms (Davison, 2015) such as film, architecture, diagrams, colour, web pages, graphs, and other visual forms. However, visual accounting research has begun to surface ideas concerning the accountant’s professional identity (e.g., Jeacle, 2012, Picard et al., 2014). Further research efforts should be extended to the accountant persona given the high impact that professionals have on society. A useful research question would be: “How does the visual constitute the accountant’s self?” Mead’s seminal publication, Mind, Self and Society (1934) conceptualized the self and explicitly recognized the role-playing capacity of the self. Meadian roles that people play in society are “first rehearsed in the theatre of the mind and later performed in the theatre of life” (Czarniawska-Joerges & Jacobsson, 1995, p. 377). Accountants can be an audience of their own performance, and the self can be theorized as a product ofvisual performances. This suggestion for future research could, for example, be related to the important matter of accounting transparency. As stated by Roberts (2009, p. 964), “the power of transparency lies in the possibility that I and/or others will identify with the image of the self that such transparency offers: that I will recognize myself and/or be recognized i n its categories”. Thus, future research could make a contribution to the idea that accounting actors require an understanding of the self to explore tension between the seen and the unseen in accounting identity and roles.Finally, it should be recalled that critical accounting researchers are actors in the construction of knowledge (Golden-Biddle & Locke, 2007). Trying to act as a dramaturge, I sought to show how visual symbols such as municipal flags, prayer invocations, poetry, impressive stacks of budget papers, para-military uniforms, the standard business suit, and a variety of texts play a role in the visual presentation of a municipal budget. Understanding this role is required for making evident both mundane and problematic performances of accounti ng. “Seeing and visualizing are implicated in strategies for knowing, for desiring and for the exercise of power” (Brown, 2010, p. 483). In this paper, I used dramaturgical concepts and visual accounting to expose fractious power relations among municipal stakeholders and to identify the asymmetry of budget information skewed in favour of management. This paper also reenacted visual drama that otherwise plays expression games, silences rivals, and promotes versions of reality constructed in the backstage of power relations. Thus, this dramaturgical research engaged with calls for a “visual turn” in accounting and did so by providing a critical perspective on municipal budgeting.中文预算编制：会计话语的展示劳伦斯·科里根摘要这项解释性研究通过在哥夫曼戏剧性框架的基础上，呈现出对市政预算的平凡经验性例证，从而呼吁对会计进行可视化转变。

.The Cost of Building Structure1. IntroductionThe art of architectural design was characterized as one of dealingcomprehensively with a complex set of physical and nonphysical designdeterminants. Structural considerations were cast as important physicaldeterminants that should be dealt with in a hierarchical fashion if theyare to have a significant impact on spatial organization and environmentalcontrol design thinking.The economical aspect of building represents a nonphysical structuralconsideration that, in final analysis, must also be considered important.Cost considerations are in certain ways a constraint to creative design.But this need not be so. If something is known of the relationship betweenstructural and constructive design options and their cost of implementation, it is reasonable to believe that creativity can beenhanced. This has been confirmed by the authors' observation that mostenhanced. This has been confirmed by the authors' observation that mostcreative design innovations succeed under competitive bidding and notbecause of unusual owner affluence as the few publicized cases ofextravagance might lead one to believe. One could even say that a designerwho is truly creative will produce architectural excellence within theconstraints of economy. Especially today, we find that there is a needto recognize that elegance and economy can become synonymous concepts.Therefore, in this chapter we will set forth a brief explanation ofthe parameters of cost analysis and the means by which designers mayevaluate the overall economic implications of their structural andarchitectural design thinking.The cost of structure alone can be measured relative to the total costof building construction. Or, since the total construction cost is buta part of a total project cost, one could include additional considerationfor land(10～20percent),finance and interest(100～200percent),taxesand maintenance costs (on the order of20 percent).But a discussion ofthese so-called architectural costs is beyond the scope of this book, andwe will focus on the cost of construction only.文档资料Word.On the average, purely structural costs account for about 25 percentof total construction costs, This is so because it has been traditionalto discriminate between purely structural and other so-called architectural costs of construction. Thus, in tradition we find thatarchitectural costs have been taken to be those that are not necessaryfor the structural strength and physical integrity of a building design.“Essential services” forms a third construction costcategory andrefers to the provision of mechanical and electrical equipment and otherservice systems. On the average, these service costs account for some 15to 30 percent of the total construction cost, depending on the type ofbuilding. Mechanical and electrical refers to the cost ofproviding forair-conditioning equipment and he means on air distribution as well asother services, such as plumbing, communications, and electrical lightand power.The salient point is that this breakdown of costs suggests that, upto now, an average of about 45 to 60 percent of the total cost ofconstructing a typical design solution could be considered asarchitectural. But this picture is rapidly changing. With high interestcosts and a scarcity of capital, client groups are demanding leanerdesigns. Therefore, one may conclude that there are two approaches thedesigner may take towards influencing the construction cost of building.The first approach to cost efficiency is to consider that whereverarchitectural and structural solutions can be achieved simultaneously,a potential for economy is evident. Since current trends indicate areluctance to allocate large portions of a construction budget to purelyarchitectural costs, this approach seems a logical necessity. But, evenwhere money is available, any use of structure to play a basic architectural role will allow the nonstructural budget to be applied tofulfill other architectural needs that might normally have to be appliedto fulfill other architectural needs that might normally have to be cutback. The second approach achieves economy through an integration ofservice and structural subsystems to round out one's effort to producea total architectural solution to a building design problem. The final pricing of a project by the constructor or contractor usually文档资料Word.takes a different form. The costs are broken down into (1) cost ofmaterials brought to the site, (2)cost of labor involved in every phaseof the construction process, (3)cost of equipment purchased or rented forthe project, (4)cost of management and overhead, and(5) profit. Thearchitect or engineer seldom follows such an accurate path but shouldperhaps keep in mind how the actual cost of a structure is finally pricedand made up.Thus, the percent averages stated above are obviously crude, but theycan suffice to introduce the nature of the cost picture. The followingsections will discuss the range of these averages and then proceed to adiscussion of square footage costs and volume-based estimates for use inrough approximation of the cost of building a structural system.2. Percentage EstimatesThe type of building project may indicate the range of percentages thatcan be allocated to structural and other costs. As might be expected,highly decorative or symbolic buildings would normally demand the lowestpercentage of structural costs as compared to total construction cost.In this case the structural costs might drop to 10～15percentof the totalbuilding cost because more money is allocated to the so-called architectural costs. Once again this implies that the symbolic componentsare conceived independent of basic structural requirements. However,where structure and symbolism are more-or-less synthesized, as with achurch or Cathedral, the structural system cost can be expected to besomewhat higher, say, 15and20 percent (or more).At the other end of the cost scale are the very simple and nonsymbolicindustrial buildings, such as warehouses and garages. In these cases, thenonstructural systems, such as interior partition walls and ceilings, aswill as mechanical systems, are normally minimal, as is decoration, andtherefore the structural costs can account for60 to 70 percent, even 80percent of the total cost of construction.Buildings such as medium-rise office and apartmentbuildings(5～10stories)occupy the median position on a cost scale at about 25 percentfor structure. Low and short-span buildings for commerce and housing, say,of three or four stories and with spans of some 20 or 30 ft and simple文档资料Word.erection requirements, will yield structural costs of 15～20 percent oftotal building cost.Special-performance buildings, such as laboratories and hospitals,represent another category. They can require long spans and a more thanaverage portion of the total costs will be allocated to services (i.e.,30～50 percent), with about 20 percent going for the purelystructuralcosts. Tall office building (15 stories or more) and/or long-spanbuildings (say, 50 to 60 ft) can require a higher percentage for structuralcosts (about 30to 35percent of the total construction costs),with about30 to 40 percent allocated to services.In my case, these percentages are typical and can be considered as ameasure of average efficiency in design of buildings. For example, if alow, short-span and nonmonumental building were to be bid at 30 percentfor the structure alone, one could assume that the structural design maybe comparatively uneconomical. On the other hand, the architect shouldbe aware of the confusing fact that economical bids depend on the practicalability of both the designer and the contractor to interpret the designand construction requirements so that a low bid will ensue. Progress instructural design is often limited more by the designer's or contractor'slack of experience, imagination, and absence of communication than bythe idea of the design. If a contractor is uncertain, he will add coststo hedge the risk he will be taking. It is for this reason that both thearchitect and the engineer should be well-versed in the area ofconstruction potentials if innovative designs ate to be competitively bid.At the least the architect must be capable of working closely withimaginative structural engineers, contractors and even fabricatorswherever possible even if the architecture is very ordinary. Efficiencyalways requires knowledge and above all imagination, and these areessential when designs are unfamiliar.The foregoing percentages can be helpful in approximating totalconstruction costs if the assumption is made that structural design isat least of average (of typical) efficiency. For example, if a total officebuilding construction cost budget is ﹩5,000,000,and 25percent is the“standard” to be used for structure, a projected structural system文档资料Word.should cost no more than ﹩1,250,000.If a very efficientdesign wererealized, say, at 80 percent of what would be given by the “average”efficient design estimate stated above the savings,(20 percent),wouldthen be﹩250,000 or 5 percent of total construction costs ﹩5,000,000.Ifthe ﹩5,000,000 figure is committed, then the savings of ﹩250,000 couldbe applied to expand the budget for “other” costs.All this suggests that creative integration of structural (and mechanical and electrical) design with the totalarchitectural designconcept can result in either a reduction in purely construction designconcept can result in either a reduction in purely construction costs ormore architecture for the same cost. Thus, the degree of success possibledepends on knowledge, cleverness, and insightful collaboration of thedesigners and contractors.The above discussion is only meant to give the reader an overall perspective on total construction costs. The following sections will nowfurnish the means for estimating the cost of structure alone. Twoalternative means will be provided for making an approximate structuralcost estimate: one on a square foot of building basis, andanother onvolumes of structural materials used. Such costs can then be used to geta rough idea of total cost by referring to the “standards”for efficientdesign given above. At best, this will be a crude measure, but it is hopedthat the reader will find that it makes him somewhat familiar with thetype of real economic problems that responsible designers must deal with.At the least, this capability will be useful in comparing alternativesystems for the purpose of determining their relative cost efficiency.3. Square-foot EstimatingAs before, it is possible to empirically determine a “standard”per-square-foot cost factor based on the average of costs for similarconstruction at a given place and time. more-or-less efficient designsare possible, depending on the ability of the designer and contractor touse materials and labor efficiently, and vary from the average.The range of square-foot costs for “normal” structural systems is﹩10 to ﹩16 psf. For example, typical office buildings averagebetween﹩12 and ﹩16 psf, and apartment-type structures range from ﹩10 to ﹩文档资料Word.14.In each case, the lower part of the range refers to short spans andlow buildings, whereas the upper portion refers to longer spans andmoderately tall buildings.Ordinary industrial structures are simple and normallyproducesquare-foot costs ranging from ﹩10 to ﹩14,as with the moretypicalapartment building. Although the spans for industrial structures aregenerally longer than those for apartment buildings, and the loads heavier,they commonly have fewer complexities as well as fewer interior walls,partitions, ceiling requirements, and they are not tall. In other words,simplicity of design and erection can offset the additional cost forlonger span lengths and heavier loads in industrial buildings. Of course there are exceptions to these averages. The limits ofvariation depend on a system's complexity, span length over “normal”and special loading or foundation conditions. For example, the CrownZellerbach high-rise bank and office building in San Francisco isan exception, since its structural costs were unusually high. However,in this case, the use of 60 ft steel spans and free-standing columns atthe bottom, which carry the considerable earthquake loading, as well asthe special foundation associated with the poor San Francisco soilconditions, contributed to the exceptionally high costs. The design wasalso unusual for its time and a decision had been made to allow higherthan normal costs for all aspects of the building to achieve open spacesand for both function and symbolic reasons. Hence the proportion ofstructural to total cost probably remained similar to ordinary buildings.The effect of spans longer than normal can be further illustrated. The“usual” floor span range is as follows: for apartmentbuildings,16 to25 ft; for office buildings,20 to 30 ft; for industrial buildings,25 to30 ft loaded heavily at 200 to 300 psf; and garage-type structures span,50to 60 ft, carrying relatively light(50～75 psf) loads(i.e.,similar tothose for apartment and office structures).where these spans are doubled,the structural costs can be expected to rise about 20 to 30 percent.To increased loading in the case of industrial buildings offers anotherinsight into the dependency of cost estimates on “usual”standards. Ifthe loading in an industrial building were to be increased to 500psf(i.e.,文档资料Word.two or three times), the additional structural cost would be on the orderof another 20 to 30 percent.The reference in the above cases is for floor systems. For roofs usingefficient orthotropic (flat) systems, contemporary limits for economicaldesign appear to be on the order of 150 ft, whether of steel or prestressedconcrete. Although space- frames are often used for steel orprestressed concrete. Although space-frames are often used for steelspans over 150 ft the fabrication costs begin to raise considerably.At any rate, it should be recognized that very long-span subsystems arespecial cases and can in themselves have a great or small effect on isadded, structural costs for special buildings can vary greatly from designto design. The more special the form, themore that design knowledge andcreativity, as well as construction skill, will determine the potentialfor achieving cost efficiency.4. Volume-Based EstimatesWhen more accuracy is desired, estimates of costs can be based on thevolume of materials used to do a job. At first glance it might seem thatthe architect would be ill equipped to estimate the volume of materialrequired in construction with any accuracy, and much less speed. But itis possible, with a moderate learning effort, to achieve some capabilityfor making such estimates.Volume-based estimates are given by assigning in-place value to thepounds or tons of steel, or the cubic yards of reinforced or prestressedconcrete required to build a structural system. For such a preliminaryestimate, one does not need to itemize detailed costs. For example,in-place concrete costs include the cost of forming, falsework,reinforcing steel, labor, and overhead. Steel includes fabrication anderection of components.Costs of structural steel as measured by weight range from ﹩0.50 to﹩0.70 per pound in place for building construction. Forlow-risebuildings, one can use stock wide-flange structural members that requireminimum fabrication, and the cost could be as bow as ﹩0.50per pound.More complicated systems requiring much cutting andwelding(such as acomplicated steel truss or space-frame design) can go to ﹩0.70 per pound文档资料Word.and beyond. For standard tall building designs (say, exceeding 20stories),there would typically be about 20 to 30 pounds of steel/psf,which one should wish not to exceed. A design calling for under 20 psfwould require a great deal of ingenuity and the careful integration ofstructural and architectural components and would be a real accomplishment.Concrete costs are volumetric and should range from anin-place lowof ﹩150 per cu yd for very simple reinforced concrete work to ﹩300 percu yd for expensive small quantity precast and prestressed work. Thislarge range is due to the fact that the contributing variables are morecomplicated, depending upon the shape of the precise components, theerection problems, and the total quantity produced.Form work is generally the controlling factor for anycast-in-placeconcrete work. Therefore, to achieve a cost of ﹩150 per cuyd, only thesimplest of systems can be used, such as flat slabs that require littlecutting and much reuse of forms. Where any beams are introduced thatrequire special forms and difficulty in placement of concrete and steelbars, the range begins at ﹩180 per cu yd and goes up to ﹩300.Since, ina developed country, high labor costs account for high forming costs, thisresults in pressure to use the simplest and most repetitive of systemsto keep costs down. It become rewarding to consider the possibility ofmass-produced precast and prestressed components, which may bring asaving in costs and\or construction completion time. The latter resultsin savings due to lower construction financing costs for the contractorplus quicker earnings for the owner.To summarize, the range of cost per cubic yard of standard types ofpoured-in-place concrete work will average from $150 to $250, the minimumbeing for simple reinforced work and the maximum for moderatelycomplicated post tensioned work. This range is large and any estimate thatignores the effect of variables above will be commensurately inaccurate.5.SummaryThe estimate and economical design of structure building are importantand essential work, which should be valued by all architects and engineersand others. Better you do it, more profit you will receive from it!文档资料Word.建筑结构的成本1.前言众所周知，建筑物的结构设计是一个相当复杂的过程，其中既包含处理很多物质因素，又考虑诸多非物质方面的因素。

中英文对照外文翻译(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)The significance of control construction costs manages on entireprocessFirst, The necessary of control construction costs manages on entire process Talk about the management and the control on construction costs, that the field we are just accustomed to is thought of is a project advance in final account. Indeed , right away at present system and reality,what the job of that the management and the control on construction costs is advance in final account. Be that in advance, the people who work on final account according that already be ascertaied of the working drawing to calculate project amounts，apply a quota mechanically, the meter mechanically fetching cost, or designing that according to the drawing sheet and construction organization after construction is over as well as the scene construction visa takes notes weaves the final account being completed. This is necessary , useful no doubt. But we must see that when pre-final accounts personnel weave working drawing budget or the final account being completed, the construction plan and thedesign paper already determined. But construction being to take according to picture as principle, so then in advance, job done by final account personnel is only the change secretly scheming against cost produced by design alteration and prevents upvaluation from calculating boldly. But suppose the project is unreasonable on economy, there is a fault in decision-making; suppose designing a scheme feasible or be not optimum on the technology; the final account personnel can do nothing for sb then in advance. Job of final account personnel does accounts in advance only under just saying system currently in effect, after the event , can only reflect already complete project amounts inactively , can only reflect design and be under construction passively. This evidently is single-faceted , insufficient , we must carry out the entire proceeding supervisory control on the construction costs of building a project.Concrete conditions of union our country, cost of construction manages have problems as follows:1、Be not enough to take investment decision into the stage of construction costs seriously charge indeed.Investment decision is to produce the construction costs headstream, This one stage blow the expense at take up the total investment forehead about 0.5%～3%,but that can have an effect to raise the project benefit of investment. That the project carries out rational choice on construction is that resource carries out direct , the most important optimization deploy means on economy , project benefit of investment affects efficiency and beneficial result to entire national economy. The developed country charges attach importance to control on investment decision stage construction costs,and costs not stinting big capital of money making the studies on the stage of carrying out investment decision energetically, make relatively comparatively accurate construction costs , go along the controlFor a long time, there is the grave phenomenon investing in swelling in engineering construction of our country,bring the limit for a project feeling longer and longer, construction costs is higher and higher. The cause of that is short of the effective basis of the building of earlier stage ascertaining construction costs, only basis the already completed according to the expert , decision-makers draw lessons to estimate the project construction costs. Because a lot of factor effects, the“three surpass " phenomenon very common, there are main cause as follows:(1) personal factor brings about rough estimate lessening(2) equipment composes in reply material price's not working out according to market quotations.(3) construction units bring forward the too high for exceeding a design criterion 2、The design stage of construction costs is not under the control of strictThe design stage is the faucet in that project construction costs controls. After the investment decision is be made rationally , that is the process of plan the technology and organic together economly . Effective control the cost of construction requires strictly and all-round in the enginee designing . Engineering design of current our country also puts move bidding system , fair competition into practice , cost of construction looks on control engineering effective to design stage as one of thestandard choosing main part being hit by the bid unit , cost of construction carries out the administration controlling on the entire proceeding .Our country major part design that the unit carries out thorough analysis lack on construction project technology and economy , big multiple technologies make light of economy in design but at present , design that the personnel is responsible seemingly only to design project mass , are concerned with the construction costs height not very. Optimize a design plan to such an extent as having no way to pass, the first step designs , the rough estimate gets to the effect controlling general cost of construction's establishment. Mass and depth that engineering design pursues etc. is also insufficient , amounts project mistakes in amounts project detailed lists calculates , misses and not calculating, can't arouse increasing by estimating a project momentary, the mass making a tender work is difficult to ensure that , have no way to have an effect to control construction costs asa result also.3、Has not adopt the amounts project detailed list quoted price way being applied or used universally on the international all roundAdopt the amounts project detailed list quoted price way being put into use commonly on the international , is that our country construction costs system reforms and cause the inevitable trend reforming to bid system in invitation to bid tender.One of important act carrying out project public bidding system being to build socialist market economy and to perfect construction market operating mechanism in construction field. After the construction project tender is carried out all round in our country, the effect is obvious in the respect of shortening the mass building a time limit for a project , ensuring a project , reducing construction costs , boycotting an unhealthy tendency. Have ensured the invitation to bid people and bidder's lawful rights and interests also effectively. With the socialist market economy uninterrupted growth,the original tender stage puts the budget quota valuation pattern into practice already doing not adapting , adopt the amounts project detailed list quoted price way being put into use commonly on the international to carry out a tender is an inevitable trend. Ministry of Construction has issued amounts project detailed list valuation method , amounts project detailed list valuation has been in construction project tender job , person has provided project quantity from invitation to bid according to national unification project amounts calculation regulation , quoted price, and classics have judged the reason bidder autonomously trying the at a low price middle bid construction costs valuation pattern.That carrying out amounts project detailed list valuation method is one important measure of item of construction costs deepen the reform, is standard tender behavior effective measure. This method is beneficial to changing over taking that "amounts" ", "price" are "quota-consuming" as dominant static state managing a pattern , make project amounts in detailed list not enter competition, competition being confined to price only; Beneficial to rightness appraises enterprise strength; Project mass beneficial to ensuring that, reduces construction costs; May cut down the physical labour complicated and overloaded repeating the amounts calculating a project; Facilitate the tender quoted price job; Argue with the dispute back and forth in cutting down project settlement; Receive a track step by step with the convention "controllingamounts , guiding price , competing for a fee's on" the international, deepen the reformation that project valuation manages mainly according to the marketplace changes development, taking one's place on the international market for our country contracts business creates condition.4、The stage being under construction controls lack to construction costsWant to have strict control design alteration too in the stage being under construction. Guard the pass though that working drawing appears in joint trial or are able to have all sorts of problems, but call for to design a branch in the process of construction hard to avoid is strict out of the construction works complexity, the situation changing after avoiding doing first, is also that the weight avoiding break a rough estimate , effective control engineering of construction costs cost of construction plays with a link. At the same time, the sharpening contract manages , ensures equality and mutual benefit issuing contract of method and contracting method.5、The construction costs being completed settling a stage's controls a project inefficientlyThat the final account being completed is that entire construction costs is under the control of the most important one is encircled by construction works. How the final account being completed can reflect actual entire project cost of construction honestly , have also reflected the ability issuing contract of method and contracting method to construction costs administration , have finished handling a project in time the final account being completed must collect , arrange settling a data , pursuing , designing the certificate material changing notice , various warning including that the project is completed and so on being completed. These data collecting must pay attention to whose validity with obtaining evidence, specimen seal impression having designing personnel's signature and being related to if the design alteration advice note must be made known to lower levels by plain design organ. Scene inspection and control visa must label seal and the ratification going on a punitive expedition to such that designing a personnel etc. having construction site person in charge of first party. Great majority our country construction projects are completed in the project being under construction when the final account, during the period of the final account being completed contracting method , are are under construction contracting method calculating commonly much in the book being completed winding up an account , are issue contract of haggie just inexhaustible in devices and schemes , are dispute over trifles phenomenon is grave , project settlement drags repeatedly , some confirmation having drug once and , greatly, affecting engineering construction project sigmatism and building construction costs.A construction project includes the following procedure from brewing , planning , designing that to establishing completion and commissioning: Be that the project letter of advice stage , feasibility appraise the stage , design stage , the stage being under construction , acceptance check stage and the queen being completed estimate that.Correspondingly, the construction costs ascertaining that and the project construction phase job look at and appraise the stage adapting to , several being allotted in general for the following: The investment studying stage establishment inthe project letter of advice and feasibility is estimated, design stage establishment designs a rough estimate in the first step, budget designing that the stage weaves working drawing in working drawing, budget builds ampere of construction costs face to face with working drawing for basis tender project engineering contract, price is also that the form ascertains that with the business contract; Project amounts putting stage into practice being going to be completed according to contracting reality in project, takes contract price as basis , considers cost of construction rise aroused by inflation of prices at the same time , considers the project and cost being difficult to estimate that to designing middle but happening in putting stage reality into practice , the example is ascertained estimating price; All-in cost costing in the reality being completed checking and accepting a stage , assembling into engineering construction process middle all round, weaves the final account being completed , embodies the actual cost of construction that a construction project according to the facts."Four guess that two-valence "is interrelated , the former restricts the latter , the latter supplements the former.What is called, build the construction costs administration and control, it is the occurrence contracting the stage and construction in the investment decision stage , design stage , construction project putting stage into practice with construction construction costs to control within the cost of construction quota O. K. , correcting the deviation happening at any time, to ensure that the project manages the target realization , get fairly good benefit of investment and social benefits in an attempt being able to use manpower and material resources, financial resources rationally in building a project one by one.Second, the importance of the investment decision-making stage of project cost controlConstruction projects in the investment decision-making stage, the project of the techno-economic decision-making, as well as the cost of construction projects completed and put into production after the project cost-effective, have a decisive impact on the construction project cost control is an important stage. Project cost management as a decision-making stage in the feasibility study report shall be prepared, and economic evaluation of the proposed project, select the technically feasible and economically the construction of example programs and to optimize the construction program on the basis of the preparation of high-quality items investment is estimated that the project construction so that the real control of the project has played the role of total investment.The impact of the decision-making phase of the project cost are the main factors: a, the determine level of construction standards; b, the choice of built-up areas; c, building location (site) selection; d, project the economic scale; e, technology selection f, equipment selection .Such as the choice of built-up areas, there is a basic principle, that is close to raw materials, fuel and consumer principles. This project completed and put into production, you can avoid the raw materials, fuels, and finished the long-haul transport, reduce costs, lower costs; transportation distance may be shortened to reduce the flow of time, speed up cash flow and is conducive to business. If theproject's economic size, economies of scale, product standard is a reasonable means of production volume, a number of products under certain conditions, was "increasing returns" of economic phenomena, that is, with the expansion of production volume, unit cost reduction, revenue increase.Therefore, in order to phase in the investment decision-making control over project cost effective, we must do a good job in the following areas:(1) the implementation of construction project legal person responsibility system, the construction project from planning to implementation of the whole process of the use of funds and repayment responsibilities to people and projects at the same time establish a system of matching corporate oversight mechanisms, by the competent authorities and supervision of the industry sector establishment of a monitoring group to oversee the use of project funds.(2) to conduct market analysis and seeking truth from facts, to avoid the blindness of the project decision-making, reduce risk and lower investment, give full consideration to construction projects in the future competitiveness of the market so that more scientific book design and reliability(3) Capital financial capital must be committed to a formal document, investment funds must be put in place the parties, there must be a funding document to ensure that projects are implemented on schedule after approval. Conditions of the loans should be carefully analyzed and compared to minimize the interest burden and repayment pressure.(4) Strengthening of engineering geology, hydrogeology, as well as land, water, electricity, transport, environmental protection projects such as the work of the depth of the external conditions, so that there is sufficient basis to estimate the investment. At the same time, extensive research should be to compare similar projects, a serious functional analysis, comparison and choice of multi-program, a full-scale technical feasibility studies and economic evaluation, the finalization of technologically advanced, reliable, economical and rational project construction program in order to estimate more accurate and realistic estimate of the amount of investment in order to make the project cost from the start position in a more reasonable level.Third, the design phase of the importance of project cost controlMake investment decisions in the project, the project cost control is the key to the design. Design is in the technical and economic implementation of the proposed project to conduct a comprehensive arrangement, is also planning the construction process. Technologically advanced, economical and rational design can reduce the project construction period, savings investment, to improve efficiency. According to expert analysis, design fee generally equal to the construction of the project life-cycle cost of less than 1%, which costs less than 1% of project cost accounts for the impact of degrees above 75%. Because of the general construction projects, selection of materials and equipment accounted for more than 50% of the cost of the project, and in the design phase of architectural forms, structural type, the selection of equipment and materials have been identified in the construction of post-implementation phase, the impact of the project cost a small (10 % or less). This shows that the design quality is crucial to the entire projectThe same construction project, the same single unit of work can have different programs, which have different costs, it is therefore necessary to meet the function under the premise of doing a number of options, through technical comparison, economic analysis and efficiency evaluation, selection of technology selection into the application of economic and rational design, that is, the process of design optimization. Often used to optimize the design of the program, also known as the value of value engineering analysis, that is, as far as possible in meeting the functionality or improve the function of the premise, as far as possible to reduce costs.Occurred in the cost of all parts of the application of value engineering, construction investment will require a lot of people, financial, and material, and thus the value of engineering construction works great. For a rather mature and effective management methods, value engineering in a number of works have been widely used in construction.In the engineering design phase correctly handle the technical and economic relationship between the unity of opposites, we can control the key to investment, design and cost management must work closely with staff to make a lot of the technical and economic comparison, in the reduction and control of project efforts, engineering Cost management in the design process should be timely investment analysis on the comparison, the cost of information feedback and dynamic impact on the design, in order to ensure effective control over investment.At the design stage to project cost control should focus on the following aspects.(1) to promote the design and the design of the bidding campaign optimization design approachThe assessment team of experts using scientific methods, in accordance with applicable, economic, aesthetic principles, as well as technologically advanced, well-structured to meet the building energy saving and environmental requirements, a comprehensive assessment of the merits of design, selection of the best in determining the successful program. Estimates of selected investment program in general to be close to the scope of construction projects. The design of these two methods both contract design choice and competition, to ensure selection of the design of technologically advanced, innovative and unique, adaptable, and help control project cost. Design units should strive to improve their own quality, clever engineering design ideas, great care, in order to reduce the project cost more than their brains in order to improve design quality, and strive to put at the design stage in the approval of project cost control within the investment limits.(2) actively pursuing the design limitThe so-called cap design, is in accordance with the approved design of the book and investment is estimated that in the guarantee under the premise of the functional requirements. Preliminary design and budget control, in accordance with the approved budget for the preliminary design and total control of the construction design. Through the ceiling design, every professional, every designer has a target investment limit. During the design process, designers should be more into the program to compare and optimize the design, Not only to ensure that technically advanced and reasonable design, innovative aesthetics, but also the investment limit is not exceededthe target in order to put an end to the design of the project to raise the factor of safety and design standards, or only consider the feasibility of technical solutions, rather than the phenomenon of economic rationality to ensure effective cost control.(3) the implementation of the design of reward and punishment systemIn order to limit the design of the implementation into practice, the limit should be set up and sound system designed to reward and punishment. To limit the design is done well, cost savings and control of investment there is the effectiveness of the project legal person should be given appropriate incentives and design units. Design to limit the development of the internal design of assessment and incentive methods to limit attention to the design, made to save investment and effective cost control offices and the significant achievements of individuals, should be rewarding. Do not attach importance to limit the design, do not take measures to save the investment, resulting in more than a design limit investment offices and individuals should be given to economic penalties. Do reward and encourage designers to design deep potential economic importance to design the control of a reasonable project cost will be a major breakthrough.Fourth、the cost control of the implementation phase of construction project1, the bidding process stageThe implementation of construction project bidding is effective means of construction projects to control the implementation phase of the project cost. If we want To do a good job for bidding, the first we should make sure that qualification is clearance, and resolutely put an end to bribery, such as all the Phenomenon about destruction of all bidding discipline; Secondly, we should strengthen the bid management, to ensure the accuracy and confidentiality of bid preparation; Third, make sure the method of Evaluation and Calibration are Scientific .when select the successful projects as a standard we should concern about the reasonable, short period, reputable companies, construction considerations such as experience. when we evaluation, the first is technical standard assessment, the follow is business assessment,this can ensure open, fair and just.2, the construction phaseIn the construction phase construction ,the goles based on project budget or contract price of Civil works and installation works and project cost control of Civil works and installation works. At this stage the scope for savings has been small, but it is likely to lead to waste,this make us give them adequate attention for the control of project cost.(1) strengthen the technical and economic comparison of construction programConstruction is an important work of the design of constructing orgnization. Reasonable constructing program can shorten the period of constructing, ensure the quality of the project and enhance economic efficiency. Comparing and analysing the constructing program from technical and economic view and comparing the three techno-economic index of the quality, duration and cost through qualitative analysis and quantitative analysis can take good use of manpower, material and financial resources, achieving better economic benefits. Consequently, good construction management is an important way of all-round cost management.(2) a sound system design change Examination and approval systemIf design subject need to be change, we should take action as far as possible in advance, because the sooner the change, the smaller loss; Second, before each design ofchanges we must analysis the quality of project and cost, and this should receive the consent of the original design. If it breakthrough the total project cost estimates after the change, this must be approved by the review of the relevant departments, we should prevent these things happened such as increasing design elements ,improving the design standards, increasing the project cost.(3) check strictly with visa procedures of the project site we should Construct project management system , establish the specialized departments,and through the use of specialized management of professionals for the project, to avoid the phenomenon that project management staff just care visa only, take no concern about the economic accounts, resulting the serious consequences such as investment is out of control.For Seriously changes of visa procedures we should make the building side, supervision side, the construction site together representatives signed a manner to ensure that the authenticity of the visa, the rationality of the economy of changes and to avoid the disputes caused by the phenomenon of fraud.(4) do a good job in the completion of the audit settlement priceClearing refers to the completion of construction enterprises in accordance with the terms of the contract completed by the contractor within the engineering, land quality experience, and in accordance with the contract, the construction units to carry out the final project settlement price. Completion of the project audited settlement is approved in accordance with the construction of the project cost. Therefore, the completion of settlement of the audit is a very important work, should focus on the following:① check the accuracy of the project quantity.the check of project Quantity is the most important and most complicated, the most detailed work in process of the settle of completed project, this must be based on completion of the project plan, changed design and construction of the scene .it strictly in accordance with the provisions of the rules one by one in terms of project review to prevent the units of construction to increase the volume of inflated project cost in the settlement on completion of the project.② examine whether the additional apply is right . check the sub-projects listed in the price in line with the fixed unit price, check whether the name, specification, measurement units and the content consistent with the units of the valuation table; for the unit price of conversion, the first step is to check if the conversion price was fixed allowed, followed check if the conversion price is correct.③ check if the standards for the admission fee In line with the cost of the fixed and the cost of policies and regulations of the project during the construction.Fifth, the thinking and outlook of project cost management system From a long time, we generally ignore the the project cost control of preparatory work for the construction phase, and control projects often focus on the cost of the construction phase - the budget review working drawings and reasonable settlement。

浅谈专业工程造价与成本控制管理中英文翻译Introduction to professional engineering cost and cost control management in both Chinese and English translation摘要：市政工程建设与工业工程建设一样，按照国家主管部门的统一规定，将一项建设工程划分为建设项目、单项工程、单位工程、分部工程、分项工程五个等级。

控制与管理市政工程造价的成本关系着一个项目的收益其重要性不言而喻。

本文先谈谈造成市政工程造价成本控制困难的原因，接着提出一套解决性措施，希望能对同行有所启发。

Abstract: the municipal engineering construction and industrial construction projects, in accordance with the unity of the competent department of the state regulations to divide a construction project for the construction project, single items of projects, unit projects, divisions, subdivisional work five grades. Cost control and management of municipal construction cost of the relationship between its importance is self-evident. The profitability of a project This article talk about the causes of difficult control of municipal engineering cost, and then puts forward a set of measures to solve, hope to inspire peers.关键词：市政工程工程造价成本控制管理策略Keywords: municipal engineering cost control of construction cost management strategy一、引言One, the introduction市政工程建设与工业工程建设一样，按照国家主管部门的统一规定，将一项建设工程划分为建设项目、单项工程、单位工程、分部工程、分项工程五个等级。

xxxxxx大学本科毕业设计外文翻译Project Cost Control: the Way it Works工程本钱控制：它的工作方式学院〔系〕：xxxxxxxxxxxx专业：xxxxxxxx学生姓名：xxxxx学号：xxxxxxxxxx指导教师：xxxxxx评阅教师：完成日期：xxxx大学工程本钱控制：它的工作方式在最近的一次咨询任务中，我们意识到对于整个工程本钱控制体系是如何设置和应用的，仍有一些缺乏理解。

所以我们决定描述它是如何工作的。

理论上，工程本钱控制不是很难跟随。

首先，建立一组参考基线。

然后，随着工作的深入，监控工作，分析研究结果，预测最终结果并比拟参考基准。

如果最终的结果不令人满意，那么你要对正在进展的工作进展必要的调整，并在适宜的时间间隔重复。

如果最终的结果确实不符合基线方案，你可能不得不改变方案。

更有可能的是，会 (或已经) 有围变更来改变参考基线，这意味着每次出现这种情况你必须改变基线方案。

但在实践中，工程本钱控制要困难得多，通过工程数量无法控制本钱也证明了这一点。

正如我们将看到的，它还需要大量的工作，我们不妨从一开场启用它。

所以，要跟随工程本钱控制在整个工程的生命周期。

同时，我们会利用这一时机来指出几个重要文件的适当的地方。

其中包括商业案例，请求〔资本〕拨款〔执行〕，工作包和工作分解构造，工程章程(或摘要)，工程预算或本钱方案、挣值和本钱基线。

所有这些有助于提高这个组织的有效地控制工程本钱的能力。

业务用例和应用程序(执行)的资金重要的是要注意，当负责的管理者对于工程应如何通过工程生命周期展开有很好的理解时，工程本钱控制才是最有效的。

这意味着他们在主要阶段的关键决策点之间行使职责。

他们还必须识别工程风险管理的重要性，至少可以确定并方案阻止最明显的潜在风险事件。

在工程的概念阶段•每个工程始于确定的时机或需要的人。

通常是有着重要性和影响力的人，如果工程继续，这个人往往成为工程的赞助。

The Cost of Building Structure1. IntroductionThe art of architectural design was characterized as one of dealing comprehensively with a complex set of physical and nonphysical design determinants。

Structural considerations were cast as important physical determinants that should be dealt with in a hierarchical fashion if they are to have a significant impact on spatial organization and environmental control design thinking.The economical aspect of building represents a nonphysical structural consideration that, in final analysis， must also be considered important。

Cost considerations are in certain ways a constraint to creative design。

But this need not be so。

If something is known of the relationship between structural and constructive design options and their cost of implementation, it is reasonable to believe that creativity can be enhanced. This has been confirmed by the authors’observation that most enhanced. This has been confirmed by the authors’ observation that most creative design innovations succeed under competitive bidding and not because of unusual owner affluence as the few publicized cases of extravagance might lead one to believe。

工程造价论文中英文资料对照外文翻译Risk Analysis of the International Construction ProjectABSTRACTThis analysis used a case study methodology to analyse the issues surrounding the partial collapse of the roof of a building housing the headquarters of the Standards Association of Zimbabwe (SAZ). In particular, it examined the prior roles played by the team of construction professionals. The analysis revealed that the SAZ’s traditional construction project was generally characterized by high risk. There was a clear indication of the failure of a contractor and architects in preventing and/or mitigating potential construction problems as alleged by the plaintiff. It was reasonable to conclude that between them the defects should have been detected earlier and rectified in good time before the partial roof failure. It appeared justified for the plaintiff to have brought a negligence claim against both the contractor and the architects. The risk analysis facilitated, through its multi-dimensional approach to a critical examination of a construction problem, the identification of an effective risk management strategy for future construction projects. It further served to emphasize the point that clients are becoming more demanding, more discerning, and less willing to accept risk without recompense. Clients do not want surprise, and are more likely to engage in litigation when things go wrong.KEY WORDS:Arbitration, claims, construction, contracts, litigation, project and risk The structural design of the reinforced concrete elements was done by consulting engineers Knight Piesold (KP). Quantity surveying services were provided by Hawkins, Leshnick & Bath (HLB). The contract was awarded to Central African Building Corporation (CABCO) who was also responsible for the provision of a specialist roof structure using patented “gang nail” roof trusses. The building construction proceeded to completion and was handed over to the owners on Sept. 12, 1991. The SAZ took effective occupation of the headquarters building without a certificate of occupation. Also, the defects liability period was only three months .The roof structure was in place 10 years before partial failure in December 1999. The building insurance coverage did not cover enough, the City of Harare, a government municipality, issued the certificate of occupation 10 years after occupation, and after partial collapse of the roof .At first the SAZ decided to go to arbitration, but this failed to yield an immediate solution. The SAZ then decided to proceed to litigate in court and to bring a negligence claim against CABCO. The preparation for arbitration was reused for litigation. The SAZ’s quantified losses stood at approximately $ 6 million in Zimbabwe dollars (US $1.2m) .After all parties had examined the facts and evidence before them, it became clear that there was a great probability that the courts might rule that both the architects and the contractor were liable. It was at this stage that the defendants’ lawyers requested that the matter be settled out of court. The plaintiff agreed to this suggestion, with the terms of the settlement kept confidential .The aim of this critical analysis was to analyse the issues surrounding the partial collapse of the roof of the building housing the HQ of Standard Association of Zimbabwe. It examined the prior roles played by the project management function and construction professionals in preventing/mitigating potential construction problems. It further assessed the extent to which the employer/client and parties to a construction contract are able to recover damages under that contract. The main objective of this critical analysis was to identify an effective risk management strategy for future construction projects. The importance of this study is its multidimensional examination approach.Experience suggests that participants in a project are well able to identify risks based on their own experience. The adoption of a risk management approach, based solely in past experience and dependant on judgement, may work reasonably well in a stable low risk environment. It is unlikely to be effective where there is a change. This is because change requires the extrapolation of past experience, which could be misleading. All construction projects are prototypes to some extent and imply change. Change in the construction industry itself suggests that past experience is unlikely tobe sufficient on its own. A structured approach is required. Such a structure can not and must not replace the experience and expertise of the participant. Rather, it brings additional benefits that assist to clarify objectives, identify the nature of the uncertainties, introduces effective communication systems, improves decision-making, introduces effective risk control measures, protects the project objectives and provides knowledge of the risk history .Construction professionals need to know how to balance the contingencies of risk with their specific contractual, financial, operational and organizational requirements. Many construction professionals look at risks in dividually with a myopic lens and do not realize the potential impact that other associated risks may have on their business operations. Using a holistic risk management approach will enable a firm to identify all of the organization’s business risks. This wi ll increase the probability of risk mitigation, with the ultimate goal of total risk elimination .Recommended key construction and risk management strategies for future construction projects have been considered and their explanation follows. J.W. Hinchey stated that there is and can be no ‘best practice’ standard for risk allocation on a high-profile project or for that matter, any project. He said, instead, successful risk management is a mind-set and a process. According to Hinchey, the ideal mind-set is for the parties and their representatives to, first, be intentional about identifying project risks and then to proceed to develop a systematic and comprehensive process for avoiding, mitigating, managing and finally allocating, by contract, those risks in optimum ways for the particular project. This process is said to necessarily begin as a science and ends as an art .According to D. Atkinson, whether contractor, consultant or promoter, the right team needs to be assembled with the relevant multi-disciplinary experience of that particular type of project and its location. This is said to be necessary not only to allow alternative responses to be explored. But also to ensure that the right questions are asked and the major risks identified. Heads of sources of risk are said to be a convenient way of providing a structure for identifying risks to completion of a participant’s part of the project. Effective risk management is said to require amulti-disciplinary approach. Inevitably risk management requires examination of engineering, legal and insurance related solutions .It is stated that the use of analytical techniques based on a statistical approach could be of enormous use in decision making . Many of these techniques are said to be relevant to estimation of the consequences of risk events, and not how allocation of risk is to be achieved. In addition, at the present stage of the development of risk management, Atkinson states that it must be recognized that major decisions will be made that can not be based solely on mathematical analysis. The complexity of construction projects means that the project definition in terms of both physical form and organizational structure will be based on consideration of only a relatively small number of risks . This is said to then allow a general structured approach that can be applied to any construction project to increase the awareness of participants .The new, simplified Construction Design and Management Regulations (CDM Regulations) which came in to force in the UK in April 2007, revised and brought together the existing CDM 1994 and the Construction Health Safety and Welfare (CHSW) Regulations 1996, into a single regulatory package.The new CDM regulations offer an opportunity for a step change in health and safety performance and are used to reemphasize the health, safety and broader business benefits of a well-managed and co-ordinated approach to the management of health and safety in construction. I believe that the development of these skills is imperative to provide the client with the most effective services available, delivering the best value project possible.Construction Management at Risk (CM at Risk), similar to established private sector methods of construction contracting, is gaining popularity in the public sector. It is a process that allows a client to select a construction manager (CM) based on qualifications; make the CM a member of a collaborative project team; centralize responsibility for construction under a single contract; obtain a bonded guaranteed maximum price; produce a more manageable, predictable project; save time and money; and reduce risk for the client, the architect and the CM.CM at Risk, a more professional approach to construction, is taking its place along with design-build, bridging and the more traditional process of design-bid-build as an established method of project delivery.The AE can review the CM’s approach to the work, making helpful recommendations. The CM is allowed to take bids or proposals from subcontractors during completion of contract documents, prior to the guaranteed maximum price (GMP), which reduces the CM’s risk and provides useful input to design. The procedure is more methodical, manageable, predictable and less risky for all.The procurement of construction is also more business-like. Each trade contractor has a fair shot at being the low bidder without fear of bid shopping. Each must deliver the best to get the projec. Competition in the community is more equitable: all subcontractors have a fair shot at the work .A contingency within the GMP covers unexpected but justifiable costs, and a contingency above the GMP allows for client changes. As long as the subcontractors are within the GMP they are reimbursed to the CM, so the CM represents the client in negotiating inevitable changes with subcontractors.There can be similar problems where each party in a project is separately insured. For this reason a move towards project insurance is recommended. The traditional approach reinforces adversarial attitudes, and even provides incentives for people to overlook or conceal risks in an attempt to avoid or transfer responsibility.A contingency within the GMP covers unexpected but justifiable costs, and a contingency above the GMP allows for client changes. As long as the subcontractors are within the GMP they are reimbursed to the CM, so the CM represents the client in negotiating inevitable changes with subcontractors.There can be similar problems where each party in a project is separately insured. For this reason a move towards project insurance is recommended. The traditional approach reinforces adversarial attitudes, and even provides incentives for people to overlook or conceal risks in an attempt to avoid or transfer responsibility.It was reasonable to assume that between them the defects should have been detected earlier and rectified in good time before the partial roof failure. It did appearjustified for the plaintiff to have brought a negligence claim against both the contractor and the architects.In many projects clients do not understand the importance of their role in facilitating cooperation and coordination; the design is prepared without discussion between designers, manufacturers, suppliers and contractors. This means that the designer can not take advantage of suppliers’ or contractors’ knowledge of build ability or maintenance requirements and the impact these have on sustainability, the total cost of ownership or health and safety .This risk analysis was able to facilitate, through its multi-dimensional approach to a critical examination of a construction problem, the identification of an effective risk management strategy for future construction projects. This work also served to emphasize the point that clients are becoming more demanding, more discerning, and less willing to accept risk without recompense. They do not want surprises, and are more likely to engage in litigation when things go wrong.国际建设工程风险分析摘要此次分析用实例研究方法分析津巴布韦标准协会总部（SAZ）的屋顶部分坍塌的问题。

外文文献：Project Cost Control： The Way it WorksBy R. Max WidemanIn a recent consulting assignment we realized that there was some lack of understanding of the whole system of project cost control, how it is setup and applied. So we decided to write up a description of how it works。

Project cost control is not that difficult to follow in theory.First you establish a set of reference baselines. Then, as work progresses, you monitor the work， analyze the findings， forecast the end results and compare those with the reference baselines. If the end results are not satisfactory then you make adjustments as necessary to the work in progress, and repeat the cycle at suitable intervals。

If the end results get really out of line with the baseline plan, you may have to change the plan。

More likely， there will be （or have been） scope changes that change the reference baselines which means that every time that happens you have to change the baseline plan anyway。

工程变更中英文资料外文翻译文献Highway engineering change reasonanalysis and cost of the project of influenceAbstract: in the implementation stage because of highway engineering design factors, environmental factors, the influence of various engineering changes happened is more common, combining with engineering practice, this paper discusses the causes and engineering change of project cost.Keywords: engineering change, Reason, CostDue to the highway project period, long, long line, so broad in construction of various causes by the engineering change is inevitable. Engineering change could lead to increase of construction cost or time limit of the owner and the contractor, between the claim will claim and the cost of the project.Owner of change and the causes of the costAnd when the owner change engineering bidding of construction conditions of commitment. "SanTongYiPing" referred to in the preceding paragraph, the engineering tight finish, delay purpose will increase the contractor's settlement fee, but little impact on total cost, the owner or project quantity change projects. Increase the project content or quantity, will increase the cost, Project content or cancel or reduce the number will reduce cost, but may affect the use function of engineering, because the owner with agreements for the existence of incomplete, or in the contract when division, can increase content of missing the contract cost, and the owners' requirements, and shorten delivery of finished ahead of the original contract period, invest more in construction unitcost of manpower and material resources, to increase, and improve the design standard requirement owner, beautiful Angle from security requirements of engineering structure change type, elevation, baseline, location, size and strength, make cost increase, and the owner to change in the construction organization design has approved the construction plan, cost increase, and the owner of the contract with the owner of the materials or equipment supply for the category and quantity, cause cost increase or decrease, and the owner of the contract specifies unreasonable, can make the cost is increasedThe design of change and the causes of the costThe design adopts the new standard, new technology, new technology, to replace the original design of the project, and put to use more favorable for owner reduce project cost, the depth of the design documents, cannot satisfy the relevant provisions of the relevant design phase of engineering change and requirements, cost increase or decrease, and when designing units in the preliminary design to fully consider the network planning, and in local government and related departments (e.g., environmental protection, water conservancy, electricity, gas, communication, navigation, etc.) and the requirements of the project, the main structure change shape and size change etc, make the cost increase, and design personnel errors or omissions caused engineering change. Due to the "two SanShen school system to implement the change that cost is increased, Unit, uncoordinated cooperation between designers, or the highway facilities with the principal part of the project design, cause sync job change, make cost increase, and the design drawing not timely delivery time delay, provide, construction, make the cost compensation shutdown caused by increased.Tthe contractor to change and cause the influence. CostThe contractor is unable to perform the contract or can't completely, the contractor shall take remedial measures proposed change, this kind of change of engineering cost, can increase by contractor burden loss, the contractor has been approved changes when bidding of construction project, this kind of change of cost, but almost no effect for the contractor may save construction cost, and the contractor for construction is convenient, or to shorten the construction period, or to reduce the investment of construction, and puts forward such reasons, and more economical and reasonable, optimizing design scheme, this kind of change if owner recognized, can reduce the construction cost, also can reduce the cost of the owner and the contractor, mutually beneficial, According to the contract, the contractor couldn't finish, engineering construction contractextension, the owner may terminate the contract terms, according to the content of construction contract in whole or in part, by the contractor, this kind of other changes generally does not make owner cost increase, but will make the contractor under loss, due to the contractor technology or management of the error caused by engineering change, this kind of change to the contractor, the owner may claim generally do not increase the cost, stipulated in the contract, the contractor change by owner procurement materials, using other kinds of materials, and therefore model brand damage by contractor, unless the owner to approbate, generally do not add costthe supervisor of change and the causes of the costSupervision by the owner, commissioned by the cause of the change of the owner or expenses directly influence the cost. 1 and supervision engineer in order to coordinate the contractor's operation, or section of this project contractors to coordinate with relevant departments or units where the relations of production, easy cause engineering change caused by increased cost. the site supervision engineers in actual situation in the contract and the technical specification for the design, according to local modification and perfect or by design, this kind of change unit may cause increased cost. and supervision engineers work and coordination ability damage caused by lack of rework, engineering cost change work. and supervision engineer proposed optimization design or construction, the design optimization or contractor agree, can reduce engineering changes caused by the project cost.The environment factors and impact on the cost of changeEngineering geology unknown or insufficiency in design, engineering cost increased to. and highway engineering construction projects from the construction, project feasibility study, design and construction drawing design to construction, due to various reasons, the project in the declaration and approval process, some problems existing in the construction stage, these problems caused by exposure to change, and engineering cost increase. and national policies, laws and regulations and standard, the change of change, resulting in increased cost. Four, the local government of the people's production and life convenient scheme adopted by engineering change after that cost increase. whose house is caused by delay, the work of engineering change, could lead to increased cost.Highway engineering change of a variety of reasons, this means that the appraisal work for engineering changes are complex and difficult to decrease the cost, the change of the effects are also different. Through the analysis, is looking for engineering changes the various causes, andthrough the analysis of the cost control are not isolated, control cost, the key is to establish and perfect the scientific management system. Based on control cost, quality assurance and accelerate the progress, the principle of efficiency to determine the necessity and feasibility of engineering change. Only in this way can we truly achieve the effective control of the construction project cost and improve the economic benefit and social benefit.公路工程变更原因分析及其对工程造价的影响摘要：公路工程在实施阶段由于设计因素、环境因素等多方面的影响，发生工程变更是较常见的，文章结合工程实践，探讨工程变更的原因及其对工程造价的影响。

毕业设计外文文献翻译院系：土木工程与建筑系年级专业：08级工程管理姓名：x学号：xOn the whole process of construction 附件：project cost control指导老师评语：指导教师签名：年月日On the whole process of construction project cost control 【Abstract】: This article mainly introduced the engineering project cost control throughout the whole process of project implementation, including project decision-making, project design, project bidding, project construction and completion of the settlement this five stages.【Keywords】: Project, the construction cost, engineering, project, construction, project costEngineering project cost control throughout the whole process of project implementation, including project decision-making, project design, project bidding, project construction and completion of the settlement this five stages. According to the statistics show that, in the project decision-making stage and design stage, and the influence of construction project cost is a 40% chance-75%; and in construction stage, influence the possibility of construction project cost is only 5%-25%.Obviously, control the cost of the key link is in the project implementation of decision-making and design stage before. And from a stage program speaking, construction management can play a decisive role. To control the engineering cost is in the design phase, project decision stage, stage of construction, project bidding, completed the stage of the settlement construction engineering cost incurred amount of control in the approval within the limit, and correct the deviation of at any time, ensure division breakdown their investment goal the realization, to get the best economic benefit and social benefit.1 whole process cost control each phase of the basic situationThe whole process of construction project cost control can be divided into the following basically five stages:1.1 construction project cost control decision-making stageP roject investment decision is choice and decided to invest action process, is aiming projecton the necessity and feasibility of technical and economic the authentication, correct decision-making is reasonable and the premise to control the engineering cost, including feasibility study, investment estimation, financial foundation estimates and evaluation data. Project investment decision stage cost control and management of the key is:1) Completes the project decision-making before preparation. Comprehensive collecting have material, including equipment operation, equipment technical parameters, the construction market dynamic and other related content of the original records and information. To do the scientific research work and then find out need emphasizes to solve the problems.2) to do a project proposal and feasibility studies reports. Must according to the market demand and development prospects, reasonably determine the scale of the project and construction standards. Two applications should be strong conviction and feasibility. In the fight for early project at the same time, should be completed as soon as possible of the feasibility study.3) science to develop the construction projects of benefit analysis of activities of investment estimate and work. The preparation of investment estimate to have the basis, to be as careful as possible and reasonable. From reality, full consideration to during the project that may arise during the process of all kinds of accidents and unfavorable factors, as well as their cost of the project may produce negative effects, want to consider the market situation and construction of the reserve price during the floating coefficient, like this can make the investment basically accord with the actual and leave room, make the investment estimate really play the role of control the total investment in the project.1.2 project cost control design stageThe government in accordance with the examination and approval according to regulation, design institute of professional elaborate design, the strict control of cost engineers, the engineering construction cost control design stage "trinity" optimal combination. The construction project design is by plans to reality decisive significance of the work phase,design work is one of the important principles to ensure that the design integrity, designed for this work include the design evaluation and comparison, the design scheme optimization design budgetary estimate, the compiling and examination, the list of quantities and control the compiling and price review.1) Reasonable function orientation and reliable design quality, meet the national standards, meet the project function requirement, this is the quality of the design of the four basic requirements. The function of the construction project positioning, first must do with national conditions, reflect the national strength. At the same time, the engineering design must meet the construction procedure in each stage of depth requirements, avoid and prevent "Sanchez" (budget exceeds the estimation, the budget exceeds the budget estimates, the settlement) takes place.2) Optimizing design scheme, effective control of the project cost. The design phase of the project cost control and management is not a simple design institute work content, the construction unit should also actively cooperate, have prior control and active management role. The construction unit in the review of the design unit design documents, first of all the attention to the optimization of design schemes of, should be based on all kinds of index and material to the total plane design, construction space and plane design for analysis. The two analysis of the cost of the project will not only, a major impact on construction and operation and the production, management have a great impact, but also for construction and operation of the production, management has significant correlation. In the choice of technology solutions, we should persist in China from the actual conditions of, in order to improve the benefit of investment for the premise, actively and steadily introducing advanced and reasonable technical scheme and mature new technology, new technology.3) Executes limitation for engineering design. To effectively control the construction cost, should be in the design process of the quota design way. The so-called quota design in accordance with approved reliability is in the study, investment estimation forehead design and construction design, and to guarantee the use function, under the premise of according tothe distribution of after thinning investment quota control, professional design, to try to stop not reasonable to change, in order to ensure that the total investment is not a breakthrough. Decomposition of total investment and project is a total of quota design and effective ways and main method, it is the design stage of the examination will be investment and decomposing the quantity of each professional, and then after thinning the decomposition to each unit engineering and the division of engineering, through the layers of decomposition to realize to the investment quota control and management, but also to achieve to design specifications, design standards, engineering quantity and project budget index, and other aspects of the management and control.Preliminary design must be in the feasibility study stage of investment estimate approval for the bottom line, and through the limitation of the way to control budget not more than the investment estimate, the focus is on the quantities and equipment, material control. So the amount of quota design and shall be in the feasibility study stage of design project examination and equipment, material standard as the basis for a feasibility study stage cannot be determined preliminarily concluded that for certain quantity. For the design, each professional design personnel should conscientiously strengthen project cost consciousness, and strictly according to the limit the decomposition of the design to control the project investment, to ensure that the design according to the limit in the decomposition of the investment to control the project, to secure the use function, under the premise of engineering cost and effort to control project in the limit of. To encourage and promote design personnel well design scheme selection, should introduce a competitive mechanism and implement bidding for the design, make the design units and design personnel increase market competition consciousness, try our best to make a design scheme more attain perfect.1.3 project tendering and bidding and sign a contract stageAnalysis of the specific conditions of the construction project, and according to the quantities bill valuation method, nine ministries to standard prepare the tender documents in the tender documents. Through the bid opening bid assessment, voted for a is able to satisfy the tenderdocuments, the provisions of the comprehensive evaluation standard, 2 it is able to meet the requirements of the tender documents and substantial after the appraisal bids the lowest price, but the bid price below the cost of except the winning bidder. The winning bidder is determined; the bid-winning notice issued in accordance with law, and in accordance with the tender documents and the bid documents of the winning bidder concludes a contract in writing.1) The tender documents to the list of quantities of programming. The list of quantities by the construction bidding, it is to point to by the bid invitation unit to provide a uniform bidding documents (including the quantities bill), bidding unit based on this, according to the tender documents to the list of quantities and the relevant requirements, the construction and the actual situation of the worked the construction organization design, according to the enterprise quota or refer to the competent administrative department of construction of the current consumption quota released and cost management agencies released to the market price of bid price quotation information, and the bid invitation unit selected according to the process of the winning bidder.2) to the list of quantities of law base price. The list of quantities of floor price under standard shall be in strict accordance with the "standard" to prepare to the list of quantities of engineering quantity are and comprehensive project content, according to the market price. Detailed list of engineering quantity of engineering quantity and wrote out the comprehensive project content may not be altered, fluctuation, must be kept and the bidding unit pricing the unity of the caliber. If the list of quantities and prepare the tender of base price is not same unit, should pay attention to release the list of quantities of the bidding documents and establishment of the strike to the list of quantities in the format and contents, description and so on various aspects keeps consistent, avoid from here and the result of failure or tender evaluation an injustice.3) The construction contract choice. The contract type selection should consider the factors include: the project scale and time limit for a project length, project competition, and projectsingle engineering projects are clear degree, the length of time, the project of the external environment factors. In the choice of the contract type, although the developer has the initiative, but the developer can't only consider their own interests, comprehensive consideration of the project shall be of various factors, consider the contractor bear ability, determined by the both parties of the contract type.1.4 project project construction cost controlBecause of project construction cycle is long, the economic relations and laws involving the complex relationship by natural conditions and objective, the great influence, lead to the actual situation of the project and project tendering and bidding situation will be compared has some changes. Therefore, often in engineering change and the contract price adjustment, the engineering claims this stage include the value of the project construction settlement and use fund plan and application.1) Try to control engineering change and the visa. In the project construction process, engineering change and the visa is inevitable, but will be powerful control. Due to the existence of loopholes for construction drawing and any defects and lead to change, except in the design drawings audit strictly when the party should be in the design, consultation, co-examination and technical consultation when carefully examine and check, in order to find the early to eliminate hidden dangers. Change hidden trouble found earlier, may cause loss of the small. So, should as far as possible to the design change control in the design stage initial, especially for those who can seriously affect engineering, more to want to use "down after the first, change" measures solved properly. Even in the construction process, also should strictly according to the visa procedures and provisions, such ability make project cost control effectively.2) Audit strictly engineering construction drawing budget. Supervisors should according to the progress of the construction drawing design plan and the construction of the actual schedule, timely construction drawing budget approved. Beyond the corresponding to budgetand construction drawing budget. Beyond the corresponding to the budget estimates construction drawing design part, will be detailed analysis, find out the cause, and promptly and project principal contact, depending on how to adjust or amend the truth agreed control goals. This is the cost of the project of dynamic control and management.3) into the scene, collect and master information related to the construction, do contract management work in project construction process, the personnel and cost control personnel related to often deeply the construction site, contrast carefully check construction drawings, and to project contract as the basis, the construction site to grasp the dynamic, assist owners to review and appraisal, because of the change of the design, the scene and visa and the additional costs is reasonable.1.5 The final accounts of the completed project phase and after completion engineering warrantyThe final accounts of the completed project is based on real number and currency index for the units of measure, which reflects the comprehensive completed projects start to project completion for all of the delivery of the construction cost, construction achievements and financial situation summary of the documents. Completed the final accounts by, completion financial final accounting statements, project completion figure, and project completion cost analysis of four parts. The quality repair warranty is a kind of after-sales service way, is the quality of contractor responsibility, among this warranty scope involves, period, economic responsibility and warranty costs and expenses processing.1) Audit completed projects compliance with the terms of these contract requirements content, whether acceptance, in the contract, the method of settlement, price basis, fees standard, advocate material price and discount and commitment to the facts are carried out.2) Audit component project and project unit price of fees whether the program specification,and presence of repetition and mistakes.3) Check take cover engineering acceptance record, see if any supervision engineer is signed, the completion of the project completion and whether chart are in agreement.4) Examine the change of the design in the original design of visa is a unit chief sign, whether the construction unit and supervision engineer is signed, the significant change of the design of the original design is the competent department for examination and approval. The above a not meeting the requirements, all can't calculate settlement range.5) Figure, according to the change of the design, completion visa checking the scene of engineering.6) Prepare tally with the actual situation of the completion settlement report, in the strict, reasonable, fairness, justice, and on the basis of the use situation of investment and project cost control management as the necessary analysis and summary.2 the current cost control management problems of researchAt present our country's basic construction system and process can ensure the engineering construction investment is effectively control and management, but in the practice process, there are still many problems to study it, as shown in the various stages of the disjointing of cost control, because of project decision-making and design, project bidding, project implementation and completion settlement auditing the four stages of the cost control and management of the construction units and are competent department, designing units, consulting unit lead implement, "railway, the police a tube, so it is difficult to set up the former control the latter, and the latter influence the former the effective management of the system.2.1 ignore investment stage and design phase of the cost controlAt present some design units in order to meet the time limit for construction unit, in order to drive plan and not enough jobs meticulous, led to construction drawing design depth is not enough, some of the projects (such as decoration parts) and even appeared practices and selection explanation not clear, design and the actual cost budget created serious deviation, budget documents are not complete, etc. Some design units do not follow the principle of value engineering, optimization design, but seek high security and design fees, even with the owner in collusion, cause low quoted price is high and settlement.2.2 The bidding phase don't respect the market rules, and blind low prices and wanton expand specified materials and equipmentMainly lies in:One is the provisions in some areas after the appraisal use only the minimum bid price method. When the bid assessment by the bidders from low to high price in the sort of bid documents detailed review, judge a qualified three bidders according to quote from low to high order from the candidate. Forced many construction enterprises to make "low price, high price list claim" strategy. Some even publicly threatened: "into do not come is your fierce, came in is my fierce", this is against the principle of good faith, cause the construction bidding process, tender offer for professionals often breaks the glasses. 2 it is part of the owner ignore the objective law of the construction market to expand the party a appoints supply materials and equipment, and the scope of the contract for narrow, increasing the owner and the construction units of conflict.2.3 construction stage design, blind change visa, result in a claim, cause cost increaseBelow the cost, in order to change the state of losses, a construction enterprise is often use time limit for stress condition, forcing the owner to accept its change design scheme, replacement of materials required refiners, even and owner hook connect, will see conditions and other projects QianZhengLiang increase several times, cause loss of state-owned assets; 2 it is construction unit and a few design units collude in collusion, in construction process manufacturing a lot of the change of the design, the construction unit of high prices claim for convenience.2.4 completed project cost audit settlement stage management confusionAccording to the relevant laws and regulations, engineering audit charge is according to the settlement and subtract the forehead charges, consulting unit to high fees, often WanHuaYang reduce quantity, and even apply mechanically norm, multiplied by less than 1 unit price coefficient. And the contractor on the buy off the cost intermediary organizations personnel, quantity and subtract the forehead of the false report.3 whole process cost control management advice3.1 design units should be held responsible for their own reasons of the value of the project providedIn view of the current social intermediary cost consultation institutions participated in the design stage cost control of the few features, set up bear related civil liability constraint mechanism, make design institute has a relatively independent responsibility restraint. Suchas design depth is not enough, the design drawing contradictory between different work, the conflicts between; The design of the function and will be setting is unreasonable, affecting the normal use, which caused economic losses, design units shall bear the corresponding civil liabilities.3.2 The bid assessment methods, and the bid evaluation committee and budget control price reviewThe government investment projects, the comprehensive assessment shall be allowed to bid evaluation method, and should also set the lower bid price quotations, a bidder below lowest limit of the offer, shall be null standard treatment. The price for budget control review to scientific and reasonable can't raise or floating, to control the price discount published, the competent construction administrative departments should give correct. At the same time for budget control in the price of illegal or irregular and infringe upon the lawful rights and interests of the parties bidding behavior to deal with according to law.According to the contract period, 3.3 contract signed contract amount is fixed costThe contract is throughout the entire cost control, the soul of the stand or fall of contract signing, directly influence subsequent cost control of performance, because both sides sign the is fixed unit price or a fixed unit price contract, recent construction engineering material market price volatility is frequent, make the developer and the contractor can predict market price risk, leading to the price of work valuation dispute increase, part of the project under construction is already seriously affected the construction progress and quality of the project. In order to safeguard the legitimate interests of the contracting parties, ensure the construction market stability and development, according to the national nine ministries and the standard construction bidding documents "(2007 edition) general provisions of contract provisions of international engineering construction bidding risk sharing practices, the proposal of theconstruction engineering construction of valuation price 0-5% risk sharing.3.4 construction stages invite professional construction cost consultation company site trackingIn order to strengthen the dynamic cost management, the employer may, the cost of hiring a professional consulting company, make full use of their familiar with the business, rich experience and understanding market and specialization and socialization and advantage, strict control engineering change, strengthen economic management visa.【Summary】：Above all, it is known that the investment control in the construction of the key is, three key points is feasibility research, design and contract, solve the problem that is the core of control and management. The engineering cost control and management is a dynamic process, in each project construction phase, may be because the market conditions change or other reasons, the engineering investment determination and the engineering cost control tends to be complicated, this needs will project cost management to meet both overall and selectively. To recognize cost and time limit, the quality of the dialectical relationship between, unity, in different stages of the project implementation, cost consultation with staff always to control the engineering cost economic consciousness, careful analysis and make full use of all kinds of information in the construction period, grasp the market pulse, become passive to active, and through the parties positive efforts to work, avoid or reduce the loss of the construction funds, maximize construction funds for the benefit of investment.【References】:[1] WeiRuiLi, WangXuePeng. Construction engineering project cost management discussion [J]. J wit, 2011, (19).[2] JiaoTianLei. Engineering project cost management in the whole process of managementand control [J]. Gansu and science and technology, 2009 (3).[3] ZhangHongBin. For enterprise engineering project cost management and control discussion [J]. Tianjin metallurgy, 2010, (4).[4] SuYong, GeWeiPing. Substation project cost management current situation analysis and countermeasures study [J]. Electric engineering in Anhui vocational technical college journal, 2006, (4).[5] LiuYingMin. Of engineering project cost management [J]. Shanxi building, 2007, (11).[6] MaiHui can. Shallow engineering project cost management and cost control [J]. Sichuan building materials, 2007, (2).[7] JiangJiXing. Strengthen cost management establish control consciousness [N]. China construction news, 2011-07-04 (008).翻译：浅谈工程建设项目的全过程造价控制【摘要】：本文主要介绍了工程建设项目的造价控制贯穿项目实施的全过程，包括项目决策、项目设计、项目招标投标、项目施工和竣工结算这五个阶段。

文献出处：Smith P. BIM & the 5D project cost manager[J]. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2014, 119: 475-484.第一部分为译文，第二部分为原文。

默认格式：中文五号宋体，英文五号Times New Roma，行间距1.5倍。

BIM和5D项目成本管理摘要：本文探讨了项目成本管理专业人员在建筑行业建筑信息建模（BIM）实施与推进中的作用问题。

本文回顾了当前BIM行业的发展趋势和问题，并对澳大利亚的工料测量公司进行了详细的访谈。

BIM不仅涉及3D建模，并且还通常在诸如4D（时间），5D（成本）甚至6D（施工施工）的进一步维度中定义。

4D将3D对象模型中的信息和数据与项目编程和调度数据进行链接，促进了施工活动的仿真分析。

5D将所有这些信息与成本数据（如数量，时间表和价格）相集成。

6D表示在建筑的运行阶段可以使用的施工模型。

本文探讨了项目成本管理专业人员在所有项目阶段一体化参与的重要性，并将第五维度成为BIM环境中的关键角色-“5D项目成本管理”。

本文主要采用文献综述和行业采访等研究方法，并将通过专业项目成本管理公司确定领域的领先优势。

本文的结论是，现代项目成本管理最大的价值在于这些管理者们具备5D施工的能力，并能够利用仿真模型实时提供详细的5D估计和成本计划。

关键词：项目成本超支，项目成本管理，数量测量，成本工程1.引言在世界各地提供专业项目成本管理服务的主要专业对象是造价工程师，工料计量师，建筑经济学家和项目经理。

工料计量师是一个起源于英国的职业，是英联邦国家认可的专业职称。

造价工程师主要用于北美和南美，中国和欧洲部分地区。

建筑经济学家在一些欧洲国家和世界其他地区被用作服务的替代描述。

在其他地区，特别是在欧洲，这三个职称得不到承认，项目管理大部分由成本管理服务商承担，作为其服务套餐的一部分。

中英⽂双语外⽂⽂献翻译：⼀种基于...此⽂档是毕业设计外⽂翻译成品（含英⽂原⽂+中⽂翻译），⽆需调整复杂的格式！下载之后直接可⽤，⽅便快捷！本⽂价格不贵,也就⼏⼗块钱！⼀辈⼦也就⼀次的事！英⽂3890单词，20217字符(字符就是印刷符)，中⽂6398汉字。

A Novel Divide-and-Conquer Model for CPI Prediction UsingARIMA, Gray Model and BPNNAbstract:This paper proposes a novel divide-and-conquer model for CPI prediction with the existing compilation method of the Consumer Price Index (CPI) in China. Historical national CPI time series is preliminary divided into eight sub-indexes including food, articles for smoking and drinking, clothing, household facilities, articles and maintenance services, health care and personal articles, transportation and communication, recreation, education and culture articles and services, and residence. Three models including back propagation neural network (BPNN) model, grey forecasting model (GM (1, 1)) and autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) model are established to predict each sub-index, respectively. Then the best predicting result among the three models’for each sub-index is identified. To further improve the performance, special modification in predicting method is done to sub-CPIs whose forecasting results are not satisfying enough. After improvement and error adjustment, we get the advanced predicting results of the sub-CPIs. Eventually, the best predicting results of each sub-index are integrated to form the forecasting results of the national CPI. Empirical analysis demonstrates that the accuracy and stability of the introduced method in this paper is better than many commonly adopted forecasting methods, which indicates the proposed method is an effective and alternative one for national CPI prediction in China.1.IntroductionThe Consumer Price Index (CPI) is a widely used measurement of cost of living. It not only affects the government monetary, fiscal, consumption, prices, wages, social security, but also closely relates to the residents’daily life. As an indicator of inflation in China economy, the change of CPI undergoes intense scrutiny. For instance, The People's Bank of China raised the deposit reserve ratio in January, 2008 before the CPI of 2007 was announced, for it is estimated that the CPI in 2008 will increase significantly if no action is taken. Therefore, precisely forecasting the change of CPI is significant to many aspects of economics, some examples include fiscal policy, financial markets and productivity. Also, building a stable and accurate model to forecast the CPI will have great significance for the public, policymakers and research scholars.Previous studies have already proposed many methods and models to predict economic time series or indexes such as CPI. Some previous studies make use of factors that influence the value of the index and forecast it by investigating the relationship between the data of those factors and the index. These forecasts are realized by models such as Vector autoregressive (VAR)model1 and genetic algorithms-support vector machine (GA-SVM) 2.However, these factor-based methods, although effective to some extent, simply rely on the correlation between the value of the index and limited number of exogenous variables (factors) and basically ignore the inherent rules of the variation of the time series. As a time series itself contains significant amount of information3, often more than a limited number of factors can do, time series-based models are often more effective in the field of prediction than factor-based models.Various time series models have been proposed to find the inherent rules of the variation in the series. Many researchers have applied different time series models to forecasting the CPI and other time series data. For example, the ARIMA model once served as a practical method in predicting the CPI4. It was also applied to predict submicron particle concentrations frommeteorological factors at a busy roadside in Hangzhou, China5. What’s more, the ARIMA model was adopted to analyse the trend of pre-monsoon rainfall data forwestern India6. Besides the ARIMA model, other models such as the neural network, gray model are also widely used in the field of prediction. Hwang used the neural-network to forecast time series corresponding to ARMA (p, q) structures and found that the BPNNs generally perform well and consistently when a particular noise level is considered during the network training7. Aiken also used a neural network to predict the level of CPI and reached a high degree of accuracy8. Apart from the neural network models, a seasonal discrete grey forecasting model for fashion retailing was proposed and was found practical for fashion retail sales forecasting with short historical data and better than other state-of-art forecastingtechniques9. Similarly, a discrete Grey Correlation Model was also used in CPI prediction10. Also, Ma et al. used gray model optimized by particle swarm optimization algorithm to forecast iron ore import and consumption of China11. Furthermore, to deal with the nonlinear condition, a modified Radial Basis Function (RBF) was proposed by researchers.In this paper, we propose a new method called “divide-and-conquer model”for the prediction of the CPI.We divide the total CPI into eight categories according to the CPI construction and then forecast the eight sub- CPIs using the GM (1, 1) model, the ARIMA model and the BPNN. To further improve the performance, we again make prediction of the sub-CPIs whoseforecasting results are not satisfying enough by adopting new forecasting methods. After improvement and error adjustment, we get the advanced predicting results of the sub-CPIs. Finally we get the total CPI prediction by integrating the best forecasting results of each sub-CPI.The rest of this paper is organized as follows. In section 2, we give a brief introduction of the three models mentioned above. And then the proposed model will be demonstrated in the section 3. In section 4 we provide the forecasting results of our model and in section 5 we make special improvement by adjusting the forecasting methods of sub-CPIs whose predicting results are not satisfying enough. And in section 6 we give elaborate discussion and evaluation of the proposed model. Finally, the conclusion is summarized in section 7.2.Introduction to GM(1,1), ARIMA & BPNNIntroduction to GM(1,1)The grey system theory is first presented by Deng in 1980s. In the grey forecasting model, the time series can be predicted accurately even with a small sample by directly estimating the interrelation of data. The GM(1,1) model is one type of the grey forecasting which is widely adopted. It is a differential equation model of which the order is 1 and the number of variable is 1, too. The differential equation is:Introduction to ARIMAAutoregressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) model was first put forward by Box and Jenkins in 1970. The model has been very successful by taking full advantage of time series data in the past and present. ARIMA model is usually described as ARIMA (p, d, q), p refers to the order of the autoregressive variable, while d and q refer to integrated, and moving average parts of the model respectively. When one of the three parameters is zero, the model is changed to model “AR”, “MR”or “ARMR”. When none of the three parameters is zero, the model is given by:where L is the lag number,?t is the error term.Introduction to BPNNArtificial Neural Network (ANN) is a mathematical and computational model which imitates the operation of neural networks of human brain. ANN consists of several layers of neurons. Neurons of contiguous layers are connected with each other. The values of connections between neurons are called “weight”. Back Propagation Neural Network (BPNN) is one of the most widely employed neural network among various types of ANN. BPNN was put forward by Rumelhart and McClelland in 1985. It is a common supervised learning network well suited for prediction. BPNN consists of three parts including one input layer, several hidden layers and one output layer, as is demonstrated in Fig 1. The learning process of BPNN is modifying the weights of connections between neurons based on the deviation between the actual output and the target output until the overall error is in the acceptable range.Fig. 1. Back-propagation Neural Network3.The Proposed MethodThe framework of the dividing-integration modelThe process of forecasting national CPI using the dividing-integration model is demonstrated in Fig 2.Fig. 2.The framework of the dividing-integration modelAs can be seen from Fig. 2, the process of the proposed method can be divided into the following steps: Step1: Data collection. The monthly CPI data including total CPI and eight sub-CPIs are collected from the official website of China’s State Statistics Bureau (/doc/d62de4b46d175f0e7cd184254b35eefdc9d31514.html /).Step2: Dividing the total CPI into eight sub-CPIs. In this step, the respective weight coefficient of eight sub- CPIs in forming the total CPI is decided by consulting authoritative source .(/doc/d62de4b46d175f0e7cd184254b35eefdc9d31514.html /). The eight sub-CPIs are as follows: 1. Food CPI; 2. Articles for Smoking and Drinking CPI; 3. Clothing CPI; 4. Household Facilities, Articles and Maintenance Services CPI; 5. Health Care and Personal Articles CPI; 6. Transportation and Communication CPI;7. Recreation, Education and Culture Articles and Services CPI; 8. Residence CPI. The weight coefficient of each sub-CPI is shown in Table 8.Table 1. 8 sub-CPIs weight coefficient in the total indexNote: The index number stands for the corresponding type of sub-CPI mentioned before. Other indexes appearing in this paper in such form have the same meaning as this one.So the decomposition formula is presented as follows:where TI is the total index; Ii (i 1,2, ,8) are eight sub-CPIs. To verify the formula, we substitute historical numeric CPI and sub-CPI values obtained in Step1 into the formula and find the formula is accurate.Step3: The construction of the GM (1, 1) model, the ARIMA (p, d, q) model and the BPNN model. The three models are established to predict the eight sub-CPIs respectively.Step4: Forecasting the eight sub-CPIs using the three models mentioned in Step3 and choosing the best forecasting result for each sub-CPI based on the errors of the data obtained from the three models.Step5: Making special improvement by adjusting the forecasting methods of sub-CPIs whose predicting results are not satisfying enough and get advanced predicting results of total CPI. Step6: Integrating the best forecasting results of 8 sub-CPIs to form the prediction of total CPI with the decomposition formula in Step2.In this way, the whole process of the prediction by the dividing-integration model is accomplished.3.2. The construction of the GM(1,1) modelThe process of GM (1, 1) model is represented in the following steps:Step1: The original sequence:Step2: Estimate the parameters a and u using the ordinary least square (OLS). Step3: Solve equation as follows.Step4: Test the model using the variance ratio and small error possibility.The construction of the ARIMA modelFirstly, ADF unit root test is used to test the stationarity of the time series. If the initial time series is not stationary, a differencing transformation of the data is necessary to make it stationary. Then the values of p and q are determined by observing the autocorrelation graph, partial correlation graph and the R-squared value.After the model is built, additional judge should be done to guarantee that the residual error is white noise through hypothesis testing. Finally the model is used to forecast the future trend ofthe variable.The construction of the BPNN modelThe first thing is to decide the basic structure of BP neural network. After experiments, we consider 3 input nodes and 1 output nodes to be the best for the BPNN model. This means we use the CPI data of time , ,toforecast the CPI of time .The hidden layer level and the number of hidden neurons should also be defined. Since the single-hidden- layer BPNN are very good at non-liner mapping, the model is adopted in this paper. Based on the Kolmogorov theorem and testing results, we define 5 to be the best number of hidden neurons. Thus the 3-5-1 BPNN structure is determined.As for transferring function and training algorithm, we select ‘tansig’as the transferring function for middle layer, ‘logsig’for input layer and ‘traingd’as training algorithm. The selection is based on the actual performance of these functions, as there are no existing standards to decide which ones are definitely better than others.Eventually, we decide the training times to be 35000 and the goal or the acceptable error to be 0.01.4.Empirical AnalysisCPI data from Jan. 2012 to Mar. 2013 are used to build the three models and the data from Apr. 2013 to Sept. 2013 are used to test the accuracy and stability of these models. What’s more, the MAPE is adopted to evaluate the performance of models. The MAPE is calculated by the equation:Data sourceAn appropriate empirical analysis based on the above discussion can be performed using suitably disaggregated data. We collect the monthly data of sub-CPIs from the website of National Bureau of Statistics of China(/doc/d62de4b46d175f0e7cd184254b35eefdc9d31514.html /).Particularly, sub-CPI data from Jan. 2012 to Mar. 2013 are used to build the three models and the data from Apr. 2013 to Sept. 2013 are used to test the accuracy and stability of these models.Experimental resultsWe use MATLAB to build the GM (1,1) model and the BPNN model, and Eviews 6.0 to build the ARIMA model. The relative predicting errors of sub-CPIs are shown in Table 2.Table 2.Error of Sub-CPIs of the 3 ModelsFrom the table above, we find that the performance of different models varies a lot, because the characteristic of the sub-CPIs are different. Some sub-CPIs like the Food CPI changes drastically with time while some do not have much fluctuation, like the Clothing CPI. We use different models to predict the sub- CPIs and combine them by equation 7.Where Y refers to the predicted rate of the total CPI, is the weight of the sub-CPI which has already been shown in Table1and is the predicted value of the sub-CPI which has the minimum error among the three models mentioned above. The model chosen will be demonstrated in Table 3:Table 3.The model used to forecastAfter calculating, the error of the total CPI forecasting by the dividing-integration model is 0.0034.5.Model Improvement & Error AdjustmentAs we can see from Table 3, the prediction errors of sub-CPIs are mostly below 0.004 except for two sub- CPIs: Food CPI whose error reaches 0.0059 and Transportation & Communication CPI 0.0047.In order to further improve our forecasting results, we modify the prediction errors of the two aforementioned sub-CPIs by adopting other forecasting methods or models to predict them. The specific methods are as follows.Error adjustment of food CPIIn previous prediction, we predict the Food CPI using the BPNN model directly. However, the BPNN model is not sensitive enough to investigate the variation in the values of the data. For instance, although the Food CPI varies a lot from month to month, the forecasting values of it are nearly all around 103.5, which fails to make meaningful prediction.We ascribe this problem to the feature of the training data. As we can see from the original sub-CPI data on the website of National Bureau of Statistics of China, nearly all values of sub-CPIs are around 100. As for Food CPI, although it does have more absolute variations than others, its changes are still very small relative to the large magnitude of the data (100). Thus it will be more difficult for the BPNN model to detect the rules of variations in training data and the forecastingresults are marred.Therefore, we use the first-order difference series of Food CPI instead of the original series to magnify the relative variation of the series forecasted by the BPNN. The training data and testing data are the same as that in previous prediction. The parameters and functions of BPNN are automatically decided by the software, SPSS.We make 100 tests and find the average forecasting error of Food CPI by this method is 0.0028. The part of the forecasting errors in our tests is shown as follows in Table 4:Table 4.The forecasting errors in BPNN testError adjustment of transportation &communication CPIWe use the Moving Average (MA) model to make new prediction of the Transportation and Communication CPI because the curve of the series is quite smooth with only a few fluctuations. We have the following equation(s):where X1, X2…Xn is the time series of the Transportation and Communication CPI, is the value of moving average at time t, is a free parameter which should be decided through experiment.To get the optimal model, we range the value of from 0 to 1. Finally we find that when the value of a is 0.95, the forecasting error is the smallest, which is 0.0039.The predicting outcomes are shown as follows in Table5:Table 5.The Predicting Outcomes of MA modelAdvanced results after adjustment to the modelsAfter making some adjustment to our previous model, we obtain the advanced results as follows in Table 6: Table 6.The model used to forecast and the Relative ErrorAfter calculating, the error of the total CPI forecasting by the dividing-integration model is 0.2359.6.Further DiscussionTo validate the dividing-integration model proposed in this paper, we compare the results of our model with the forecasting results of models that do not adopt the dividing-integration method. For instance, we use the ARIMA model, the GM (1, 1) model, the SARIMA model, the BRF neural network (BRFNN) model, the Verhulst model and the Vector Autoregression (VAR) model respectively to forecast the total CPI directly without the process of decomposition and integration. The forecasting results are shown as follows in Table7.From Table 7, we come to the conclusion that the introduction of dividing-integration method enhances the accuracy of prediction to a great extent. The results of model comparison indicate that the proposed method is not only novel but also valid and effective.The strengths of the proposed forecasting model are obvious. Every sub-CPI time series have different fluctuation characteristics. Some are relatively volatile and have sharp fluctuations such as the Food CPI while others are relatively gentle and quiet such as the Clothing CPI. As a result, by dividing the total CPI into several sub-CPIs, we are able to make use of the characteristics of each sub-CPI series and choose the best forecasting model among several models for every sub-CPI’s prediction. Moreover, the overall prediction error is provided in the following formula:where TE refers to the overall prediction error of the total CPI, is the weight of the sub-CPI shown in table 1 and is the forecasting error of corresponding sub-CPI.In conclusion, the dividing-integration model aims at minimizing the overall prediction errors by minimizing the forecasting errors of sub-CPIs.7.Conclusions and future workThis paper creatively transforms the forecasting of national CPI into the forecasting of 8 sub-CPIs. In the prediction of 8 sub-CPIs, we adopt three widely used models: the GM (1, 1) model, the ARIMA model and the BPNN model. Thus we can obtain the best forecasting results for each sub-CPI. Furthermore, we make special improvement by adjusting the forecasting methods of sub-CPIs whose predicting results are not satisfying enough and get the advanced predicting results of them. Finally, the advanced predicting results of the 8 sub- CPIs are integrated to formthe forecasting results of the total CPI.Furthermore, the proposed method also has several weaknesses and needs improving. Firstly, The proposed model only uses the information of the CPI time series itself. If the model can make use of other information such as the information provided by factors which make great impact on the fluctuation of sub-CPIs, we have every reason to believe that the accuracy and stability of the model can be enhanced. For instance, the price of pork is a major factor in shaping the Food CPI. If this factor is taken into consideration in the prediction of Food CPI, the forecasting results will probably be improved to a great extent. Second, since these models forecast the future by looking at the past, they are not able to sense the sudden or recent change of the environment. So if the model can take web news or quick public reactions with account, it will react much faster to sudden incidence and affairs. Finally, the performance of sub-CPIs prediction can be higher. In this paper we use GM (1, 1), ARIMA and BPNN to forecast sub-CPIs. Some new method for prediction can be used. For instance, besides BPNN, there are other neural networks like genetic algorithm neural network (GANN) and wavelet neural network (WNN), which might have better performance in prediction of sub-CPIs. Other methods such as the VAR model and the SARIMA model should also be taken into consideration so as to enhance the accuracy of prediction.References1.Wang W, Wang T, and Shi Y. Factor analysis on consumer price index rising in China from 2005 to 2008. Management and service science 2009; p. 1-4.2.Qin F, Ma T, and Wang J. 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