HIERARCHICAL LEXICAL STRUCTURE AND INTERPRETIVE MAPPING IN MACHINE TRANSLATION

Chp 1I. Blank filling1. Langue refers to the _____ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speechcommunity; parole refers to the _____ of langue in actual use.2.Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s_____ of the rules of his language, andperformance, the actual _____ of this knowledge in linguistic communication.3.“A rose by any other name would smell as sweet”. This quotation from Shakespeare illustratesthat language has the design feature of _____.4.The property of _____ of language provides a speaker with an opportunity to talk about a widerange of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time and place.nguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, one of_____, and the otherof_____. This double articulation of language enables its users to talk about anything withintheir knowledge.II. T-F choice1.Linguistics can be defined as the scientific study of a particular language.2. Language is arbitrary by nature but it is not completely arbitrary.3. We can use the word “word” to talk about a word, we can talk about “talk”, we can think a “thinking”, this shows that language has a metalingual function.III. Answer questions.1.What features of human language have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it isessentially different from any animal communication system?Chp 21. The difference between a consonant and a vowel lies in whether there is air _______in theproduction of them.2. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called ______, which is afeature of all vowels and some consonants.3. Two ways to transcribe speech sounds are available, broad transcription and narrowtranscription. The major difference between them is with or without_______.4. The basic unit of phonology is a phoneme. It is an abstract collection of ______ features.5. When phonemic contrast is mentioned we realize that the two sounds belong to_____phoneme(s), when complementary distribution is discussed, the allophones come from______phoneme(s).II.1. Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds of all human languages form patterns and howthese sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.2. In English, pill and bill form a minimal pair, and so do life and knife, pin and ping.3. The phoneme /t/ and /d/ can occur in the same position and they distinguish meaning, thereforethey are said to be in complementary distribution.4. The distinctive features in English can apply to the other languages, too. For instance, voicingdistinguishes meaning in both English and Chinese.5. In a standardized English syllable all of the three parts of onset, nucleus and coda arecompulsory.III. Why can a phoneme distinguish meaning?Chp 31. A morpheme must convey a lexical meaning.2. All words can be said to contain a root morpheme.3. The word “modernizations” is made up of three morphemes.4. Derivational morphemes never change the class of the words to which they are attached.5. The morphological rules can be generalized in spite of some exceptions.6. It is hard to believe that there is an interface between phonology and morphology.II.1. Morphology can be subdivided into two branches:______ morphology and______morphology.2. The phonological and orthographical realizations of a morpheme are termed ______.3. [-t]、[-d]、[-id] are _______of the morpheme {-ed}.; Gentle” is the ______ of the word 4. “Careless” is the _______of the word “carelessness”.“gentlemanliness”5. A morpheme can convey two kinds of meanings:_______ meaning and _______ meaning.6. Compared with a free phrase, a compound has different phonetic, _______, ________,and syntactic features.III.1. Analyze and tell how many morphemes each of the following words contain.unselfishness / justifiable / descendent / overdeveloped /naturalistically / friendships / uninvitedly2. How do you understand that there is an interface between morphology and phonology?Chp 41. The part of a sentence which comprises an infinite verb or an infinite verb phrase isgrammatically called a clause.2. The syntactic rules of a language are finite in number, yet there is no limit to the number ofsentences which can be produced.3. Language is both linearly and hierarchically structured according to the structuralist languageview.4. Phrase structure rules provide explanations on how syntactic categories are formed andsentences generated.5. UG is a system of linguistic knowledge and a human-specific gift which exists in the mind of anormal human being.II．1. For any natural language, a set of s______ rules are capable of yielding an endless number ofsentences.2. Normally a sentence consists of at least a subject and a predicate which contains a f_______verb or a verb phrase.3. The sequential order of words in a sentence suggests that the structure of a sentence isl_______.4. The subordinate sentence in a complex is called an e______ clause and the clause into which itis inserted is called a m______ clause.5. In conducting a tree diagram analysis, the principle we have to stick to is called b______division.III.1. Draw a tree diagram for each of the following two sentences to reveal the difference.a. The cat ran up the tree.b. The cat ate up the fish.2.Why does a sentence have both a linear and a hierarchical structure?Chp 51.In the classic semantic triangle, the symbol is directly related to the referent.2. Homographs are words which are pronounced alike.3. The superordinate term is more inclusive in meaning than its hyponyms.4. In a pair of complementary antonyms, there exist some intermediate forms between the twoextremes.5. All the grammatically well-formed sentences are not necessarily semantically well-formed.6. One advantage of componential analysis is that by specifying the semantic features of words, itwill be possible to show how these words are related in meaning.II．1. S_____ restrictions are constraints on what lexical items can go with others.2. There are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair of g_____ antonyms.3. The various meanings of a p______ word are related to some extent.4. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different r______ in different situations.5. Hyponymy is the relation of entailment, a superordinate entails all h______.6. “Buy” and “sell” are a pair of r_______ opposites.7. In semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called p_______.III.1. The classic semantic triangle reflects the ________.A. naming theoryB. conceptual viewC. contextualismD. behaviorist theory2. The noun “tear” and the verb “tear” are _______.A. homophonesB. HomographsC. polysemic wordD. complete homonyms3. The sentence “John gave Mary a present” contains _______arguments.A. noB. oneC. twoD. three4.The meaning relationship between the two words “couch” and “table” is______.A. synonymyB. polysemyC. hyponymyD. co-hyponym5. A (n)_______is a logical participant in a predication.A. argumentB. predicateC. subjectD. patientIV.1. Offer respective antonym for each of the following and tell to which category they belong.1.boy----- ( )2.wide------3.sell------4.thin------5.interviewer------6.teacher-----7.dead------8.lengthy------2. Name the category to which each of the following pairs of synonyms belong.1. lift/elevator2. kid/child/offspring3. rotten/addled/sour4. politician/statesman5. escape/flee6. amaze/astoud3. Identify sense relation between the following pairs of sentences.1) a. Carl was a bachelor all his life.b. Carl never married all his life.2） a. Ted bought two magazines.b. Ted bought two things.3) a. He has no sister.b. His younger sister is beautiful.Chp 61. Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent.2. The meaning of a sentence is abstract, but context-dependent.3. The meaning of an utterance is decontextualized, therefore stable.4. Utterances always take the form of complete sentences.ntention.5. Perlocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s iII.1.What essentially distinguishes s_______ and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning thecontext of use is considered.2. The notion of c_________ is essential to the pragmatic study of language.3. The meaning of a sentence is a_______, and decontextualized.4. C________ were statements that either state or describe, and were thus verifiable.5. P________ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable.6.A l_________ act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literalmeaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.7.An i__________ act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performedin saying something.8. A c_________ is commit the speaker himself to some future course of action.9. There are four maxims under the cooperative principle: the maxim of q_______, the maxim ofquality, the maxim of relation and the maxim of manner.III.1. The meaning of language was considered as something _______ in traditional semantics.A. contextualB. behaviouristicC. intrinsicD. logical2. A sentence is a _________ concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied in isolation.A. pragmaticB. grammaticalC. mentalD. conceptual3. Which of the following is true?A. Utterances usually do not take the form of sentences.B. Some utterances cannot be restored to complete sentences.C. No utterances can take the form of sentences.D. All utterances can be restored to complete sentences.4.A(n)_________ is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is theconsequence of or the change brought about by the utterance.A. locutionary actB. illocutionary actC. perlocutionary actD. performative act5. When any of the maxims under the cooperative principle is flouted, _______ might arise.A. impolitenessB. contradictionsC. misunderstandingD. conversational implicaturesIV. What does pragmatics study? How does it differ from traditional semantics?—Chp 1I. 1. abstract, realization 2. knowledge, realization 3. arbitrariness 4. displacement5. sounds, words (descriptive - prescriptive; synchronic - diachronic)II. 1-3: F T TChp 2I. 1. obstruction 2. voicing 3. diacritics 4. distinctive 5. two, oneII. 1-5： F T F F F≠“beer”# voicing 声带振动/清-浊音: [p] ≠ [b]: “peer”　# (un-)aspirated 送气: /p/ : sp h eak = speakChp 3I. 1. F 2. T 3. F 4. F 5.T 6. FII. 1. inflectional, derivational 2. morphs 3. allomorphs 4. stem, root5. lexical, grammatical6. phonetic, orthographic, semantic, syntacticIII. 1. number of morphemesunselfishness (3) / justifiable (3) / descendent (3)/ overdeveloped (3)/naturalistically (5) / friendships (3) / uninvitedly (4)Chp 4I. 1. F 2. T 3. T 4. T 5. TII． 1. syntactic 2. finite 3. linear 4. embedded, matrix 5.binaryChp 5I. 1.F 2.F 3.T 4.F 5.T 6.TII. 1. selection 2. gradable 3. polysemic 4. reference5. hyponyms6. relational7. predicationIII. 1.B 2.B 3.D 4.D 5.AIV1. 1. boy-girl / dead-alive (complementary antonym)2. wide-narrow / thin-fat / lengthy-short (gradable antonym)3. sell-buy / teacher-pupil / interviewer-interviewee (relational antonym)2. 1. dialectal synonym2. stylistic synonym3. collocational synonym4. emotive synonym5-6. synonyms that differ in semantic shades3. 1) synonymy 2) entailment 3) contradictionChp 6I. 1-5：all FII. semantics, context, abstract, Constatives, Performativeslocutionary, illocutionary, commissive, quantityIII.1-5: C B B C DKey to questions:Chp 1Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it fromany animal system communication. A framework was proposed by the American linguist Charles Hockett. He specified twelve design features, five of which will be discussed here.a)Arbitrariness. This means that there is no logic connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages. b) Productivity. Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. c) Duality. Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. d) Displacement. Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. e) Cultural transmission. It refers to, on the one hand, human language has a genetic basis, in other words, we are born with the capacity to acquire human language; on the other hand, the details of any human language are passed on from one generation to the next by teaching and learning, rather than by gene.Chp 2The reason why a phoneme can distinguish meaning is that a phoneme is a collection of distinctive phonetic features. The sound in any human language has a few features, some of which are distinctive, some of which are not. These features include voicing, nasality, labiality, coronality (teeth range), dorsality(soft palate), aspiration and the others. Among them voicing, for instance, is distinctive, whereas aspiration is not. Because voicing as in the minimal pair can distinguis h meaning; while aspiration can only lead to different pronunciations and “beer”　rather than a new word, say, [thip] and [t=ip]. As a result of distinctive features, a phoneme is also distinctive. In a word, the features from which a phoneme is abstracted determine the distinctive quality of the phoneme.Chp 32.It is true that there is an interface / interdependent and interactional relationship between morphology and phonology. The study on the interface is called morphophonology or morphophonemics, which is a branch of linguistics referring to the analysis and classification ofthe phonological factors that affect the appearance of morphemes, and the grammatical factors that affect the appearance of phonemes. On the one hand, some allomorphs appear in a particular way which is determined by phonological factors, for instance, the allomorphs [-s] [-iz] of the morpheme {plural}. They are described as the derived forms from [-z] by the application of the assimilation rule and the epenthesis rule. On the other hand, occurrence of the following allomorphs --- [-ai] in mice, [-n] in oxen, [-i:] in geese, sheep is decided mainly by morphological factors.Chp 4III. 1.1a. The cat ran up the tree.SNP VPDet. N V PPPrep. NPDet. NThe cat ran up the tree.1b. The cat ate up the fish.SNP VPDet. N V NPV Prt.Det. NThe cat ate up the fish.2. linear and hierarchical structures of sentence:Language is a highly structured system of communication. Sentences are formed by following a set of syntactic rules. When a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in a sequence. Meanwhile they are heard or read as arranged one after another in a sequence. Therefore the structure of a sentence is firstly linear, for example, Susan is practising dancing in the hall. However, the superficial arrangement of words in a linear sequence doesn’t entail that sentences are only linearly structured. In fact, sentences are also organized by grouping together words of the same syntactic category, such as NP or VP which can be replaced by another element of the same category. The various syntactic categories in a sequence determine that sentences are also hierarchically structured.In a word, the two structures which a sentence has are, in nature, decided by the syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations of language system.Chp 6V.Pragmatics studies how meaning is conveyed in the process of communication. The basic difference between pragmatics and traditional semantics is that pragmatics considers meaningin context and traditionally semantics studies meaning in isolation from the context of use.。

Chapter 6 Syntax 句法学6.1 Syntax：definition 定义Syntax is a study of sentences:sentence structure and formation 句法学就是对句子的学习。

Syntax can be defined as the branch of linguistics that studies how the words of a lang uage can be combined to make larger units, such as phrases, clauses and sentences.语法可以被定义为语言学的分支研究语言的词汇如何被合并成更大的单位,比如短语和句子,从句。

It studies the interrelationships between elements of the sentence structure and the rul es governing the production of sentences.它研究句子中各种成分之间的关系。

句法研究语言的句子结构。

Finite(有限的)number of words and small set of rules can create infinite number of sentences.有限的单词和少量规则能创造无穷尽的句子。

Syntactic knowledge: the intuition of a native speaker about how words are combined to be phrases and and how phrases are combined into sentences.句法知识:说话者用直觉知道母语词汇如何结合成词组和短语如何组合成的句子。

6.2 Grammar，syntax and morphology 语法、句法学和形态学Grammar ：“the knowledge and study of the morphological and syntactic regularities of a natural language. ”It excludes phonetics, phonology, semantics.语法是关于自然语言形态规则和句法规则的知识和研究。

语言学第四章要点(2011-10-11 21:15:48)说明：本章要点参考了多本教材，其中的X-bar theory, Universal Grammar, merger and move等部分仅供考研的同学参考。

其他同学不做要求。

第四章Syntax句法学1.Syntax定义is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language. Sentences are structured according to particular arrangement of words.2、Syntax as a system of rules. as a major component of grammar, syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences3、Sentence structureSubject all language have ways of referring to some entity, such as a person , a place, a thing, an idea, or an event, this referring expression is grammatically called subject. A subject may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.2.Type of sentence英语的句子中的三种基本类型是什么？Traditionally, three major types of sentences are distinguished. They are simple sentence, coordinate or compound sentence and complex sentence.A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence. For example, ① John reads extensively. the sentences contains a single clause and can stand structurally independent.A coordinate sentence并列句 contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinat ing conjunction, such as “and”, “but”, “or”. The two clauses in a coordinate sentence are structurally equal parts of the sentence; neither is subordinate to the other. For example, ③ John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for her history exam.A complex sentence contains two or more clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence have unequal status, one subordinating the other. The incorporated, or subordinate, clause is normally called an embedded clause子句, and the clause into which it is embedded is called a matrix sentence主句. For example, ⑤ Mary told Jane [that John liked linguistics]. In the above examples, the clauses in the square brackets are embedded clauses. Theyare subordinate to the clauses outside the brackets which are called matrix clauses.A complex sentence的特征：Some conclusions can be drawn from the complex sentence.1、an embedded clause functions as a grammatical unit in its matrix clause.2.most embedded clauses require an introductory word called a subordinator, such as “that”,” if ”.3.an embedded clause may not function as a grammatically well-formed sentence if it stands independently as a simple sentence unless it form changes.3、linearly- and hierarchically-structured.(线形结构和层次结构Language is a highly structured system of communication. Sentences are not formed by randomly(随意)combining lexical items, but by following a set of syntactic rules that arrange linguistic elements in a particular order to make a string of words not only meaningful but also linearly- and hierarchically-structured.(线形结构和层次结构)Hierarchical structure: the sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic categories of each structural constituent, such as NP and VP.5、Syntactic categories:句法类型1.lexical categories词类 (four major lexical categories and six minor lexical categories)2. Phrasal categories 短语类(lexical items have certain combinational properties that allow them to combine with words of different categories to form phrase. NP VP PP AP)6、Grammatical relations(语法关系) The structural and logical relations of constituents are called grammatical relations. It concerns the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. (who does what do whom). Structural vs. logical subject, object. (**)7、Combinational rules组合规则1、Phrase structural rules The combinational pattern in a linear formula may be called a phrase structural rule, or rewrite rule. It allows us to better understand how words and phrases form sentences, and so on.2、Syntactic movement and movement rules Syntactic movement occurs whena constituent in a sentence moves out of its original place to a new position, the sentence involving which cannot be described by phrase structure rules. It was governed by transformational rules, the operationof which may change the syntactic representation of a sentence (句法的表达方式).3、什么是X-标杆理论?X-bar theory is a general and highly abstract schema that collapses all phrasal structure rules into a single format: X″→ (Spec) X (Compl). In this format, Spec stands for specifier while Compl stands for complement. This theory is capable of reducing the redundancies of individual phrasal structure rules and may well capture certain basic properties shared by all phrasal categories, i.e. NP, VP, AP, PP, across the languages of the world.4、Syntactic movement and movement rulesSyntactic movement occurs when a constituent in a sentence moves out of its original place to a new position, the sentence involving which cannot be described by phrase structure rules. It was governed by transformational rules, the operation of which may change the syntactic representation of a sentence (句法的表达方式).1 NP-movement and WH-movementNP-movement occurs when, for example, a sentence changes from the active voice to the passive voice (postpose, prepose).WH-movement is obligatory in English. It changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative.2 Other types of movementAUX-movement (auxiliary)3 D-structure and S-structureThe syntactic component of the grammar:Phrase Structure Rules + the Lexicon (词汇)（generate）―――D-structure (deep structure) ―――Movement Rules （ transform）―――― S-structure (Surface structure) A sentence may not look different when it is at different syntactic levels. Since syntactic movement does not occur to all sentences, the D-structure and S-structure of some sentences look exactly the same at different levels of representation.4 Moreα-a general movement ruleThere is a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement, called Moveα(or Move Alpha), which means “move any constituent to any place”. The problem is Moveαis too powerful and the grammar should include some conditions which will restrain this power and stimulate tha t only “certain constituents” move to “certain positions”.7、Toward a theory of universal grammarSince early 1980s, Noam Chomsky and other generative linguists proposed and developed a theory of universal grammar (UG) known as the principles and parameters theory. According to Chomsky, UG is a system of linguistic knowledge and a human species-specific gift, which exists in the mind or brain of a normal human being. According to principles-and-parameters framework, UG consists of a set of general conditions, or general principles, that generate phrases and at the same time restrain the power of Moveα, thus preventing this rule from applying in certain cases. UG also contains a set of parameters that allow general principles to operate in certain ways, according to which particular grammar of natural languages vary。

Chapter 4 SyntaxI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1~5 DCDDD 6~10 ADDBA1. The sentence structure is ________.A. only linearB. only hierarchicalC. complexD. both linear and hierarchical2. The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite3. The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrases to form grammatical sentences.A. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational4. A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to the grammati-cal knowledge in the mind of native speakers.A. rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. ungrammatical5. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause.A. coordinatorB. particleC. prepositionD. subordinator6. Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.A. recursiveB. grammaticalC. socialD. functional7. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand _____________.A. how words and phrases form sentences.B. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC. how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD. all of the above.8. The hea d of the phrase “the city Rome” is __________.A. the cityB. RomeC. cityD. the city Rome9. The phrase “on the shelf” belongs to __________ construction.A. endocentricB. exocentricC. subordinateD. coordinate10. The sentence “They were wanted to remain quiet and not to expose themselves.” is a __________ sentence.A. simpleB. coordinateC. compoundD. complexIV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Syntax: Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.32. IC analysis: Immediate constituent analysis, IC analysis for short, refers to the analysis ofa sentence in terms of its immediate constituents –word groups (phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate sake of convenience.33. Hierarchical structure:It is the sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic category of each structural constituent, such as NP, VP and PP.34. Trace theory: After the movement of an element in a sentence there will be a trace left in the original position. This is the notion trace in T-G grammar. It’s suggested that if we have the notion trace, all the necessary information for semantic interpretation may come from the surface structure. E.g. The passive Dams are built by beavers. differs from the active Beavers built dams. in implying that all dams are built by beavers. If we add a trace element represented by the letter t after built in the passive as Dams are built t by beavers, then the deep structure information that the word dams was originally the object of built is also captured by the surface structure. Trace theory proves to be not only theoretically significant but also empirically valid.V. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. What are endocentric construction and exocentric construction? （武汉大学，2004）An endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole. A typical example is the three small children with children as its head. The exocentric construction, opposite to the first type, is defined negatively as a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of its constituents. Prepositional phrasal like on the shelf are typical examples of this type.36. Distinguish the two possible meanings of “more beautiful flowers”by means of IC analysis. （北京第二外国语大学，2004）(1) more | beautiful flowers(2) more beautiful | flowersVI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Draw a tree diagram according to the PS rules to show the deep structure of the sentence:The student wrote a letter yesterday.。

语言学知识板块及考点总结Ⅰ定义篇①phonetics(U2 of 陈；C3 of 丁)⑴phonetics deals with description, classification and transcription of speechsounds.(2)consonants are sounds produced by obstructing the vocal tract at some places todivert, impede or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.(3)cardinal vowels are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixedandunchanging, intending to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowel of existing languages.(4)coarticulation is the process of simultaneous or overlapping articulations whensounds show the influence of their neighbors.(5)phonetics transcription:1. when we try to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the minutestshades of pronunciation, it is called narrow transcription.2. when we use a set of simple symbols in our transcription, trying to indicate only thosesounds capable of distinguish one word from another in a given language, it iscalled broad transcription.(6)RP: short for received pronunciation, the standard accent of English as spoken in the south ofEngland, It has been the accent of those with power, money and influence since the earlyto mid 20th century.②phonology(1)phonology is concerned with the exploration of the patterns governingsound combinations.(2)Phones are the smallest perceptible segment of sounds in a stream ofspeech.(3)phoneme is an abstract collection of phonetics features which candistinguish meaning.(4)minimal pair: when two different forms are identical in every way exceptfor one sound segment in the same place in strings, the two soundsegments are called a minimal pair.(5)allophones: the different realizations of the same phoneme in differentphonetics environments are called allophones.plementary distribution: when two or more than two allophones of thesame phonemes do not distinguish meaning and occur in differentphonetic environments.2.free variation: if the substitution of one sound does not generate a newword but merely a different sound of the same word, the two sounds canbe seen as in free variation.(6)pitch: different frequencies produced by different rates of vibration insound production.(7)stress: it refers to the degree of force in producing a syllable.(8)intonation：it involves the occurrence of recurring falling-raising patterns,each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either.(English is a stress-timed language.)(9)tone: tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the different rate ofvariation of the vocal cords.(10)assimilation: the assimilation rule assimilate one sound to another bycopying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.1.palatalization:a process by which an originally alveolar sound is movedbackward to the palatal area.(e.g. did you /di ju:/→/did3u:/)2.voice assimilation: a sound changes to be like its pronunciation to be likeits neighbors in terms of being voiced or voiceless. (e.g. meta l→meddle)3.place assimilation: assimilation that affects place of articulation(e.g. greenpark)4.elision: it refers to the process by which some sounds may simply left outin rapid speech.(e.g. /t/ in tha t person)5.liaison:连音，the pronunciation of an otherwise absent consonant sound atthe end of the first of two consecutive words the second of which beginswith a vowel sound and follows without pause（11）different sound pattern:1. alliteration (Cvc): the initial consonants are identical2. assonance (cVc): syllables with the same vowel3. consonance (cvC): syllables ending with the same consonant4. reverse rhyme (CVc): syllables sharing the vowel and initial consonant.5. pararhyme (CvC): syllables having the same initial and final consonants③grammar(U3，U4 of 陈；C2 of 丁)Ⅰlexicon(1)morpheme: the smallest unit of language, a unit that cannot be divided into furthersmaller unit without destroying or dramatically altering its meaning.(2) free morpheme: may occur alone or constitute words by themselves. Allmonomorrphemes are free morphemes and polymorphemic words, which consist of wholly free morphemes, are compound.(3) bound morpheme: cannot occur alone. They must appear with at least anothermorpheme to form a word.(4) root: the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed withoutdestroying its meaning. it is either a free morpheme or bound morpheme..(5) affix: is a collection of the type of morphemes which can be used only whenadded to another morpheme, so affix is naturally bound.(6) stem: is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which aninflectional affix can be added.(7) inflectional affix：do not change the category of the word but only add agrammatical meaning to the stem(8) derivational affix：change lexical meaning and the word class(9) acronym: is made up from the first letter of the name of an organization,which has a heavily modified headword.(10) initialism:(11) neologism: is a newly coined term, word or phrase, that may be in theprocess of entering common use, but has not yet been accepted intomainstream language.(12) allomorph: is a variant form of a morpheme. The concept occurs when aunit of meaning can vary in sound without changing meaning.(e.g. in English, a past tense morpheme is -ed. It occurs in severalallomorphs depending on its phonological environment, assimilatingvoicing of the previous segment or inserting a schwa when following analveolar stop)●as /əd/ or /ɪd/ when the stem ends with the alveolar stops /t/ or /d/●as /t/ when the stem ends with voiceless phonemes●as /d/ elsewhere(13) collocation: defines a sequence of words or terms that co-occur more oftenthanwould be expected by chance. (e.g. strong tea; powerful computer, butnot the other way around)(14) idiom: is an expression, word, or phrase that has a figurativemeaning thatiscomprehended in regard to a common use of that expression that isseparate from the literal meaning or definition of the words of which it ismade.Ⅱsyntaxthe structure of English(1)sentence pattern(2)hierarchical structure------Immediate Constituent Analysis: bring out syntacticambiguity(3)surfacestructure(only one in a single sentence): the visible sentence sequence(4)deep structure(impossibly more than one—ambiguous utterance): what we getfrom IC Analysis(5)labeled tree diagram: 加标记的树形图(6)sentence are believed to be generate by two basic types of rules:phrasestructure(Din p34-49) & transformational rules(7)phrase structure rules: (e.g. S→NP VP)(8)lexical rules: rules indicating the words to be used for constituents(9)particle movement：the direct object if the verb is delayed an adjunct or indirectobject, sometime obligatory(when pronoun act as the object e.g. stand him u p√stand up him *)(10)simple sentence: a sentence containing only one subject-predicate structure(11)coordinate sentence: simple sentence connected by conjunctions, the twosentence have equal status, parataxis(Din P56)(12)complex sentence: when one or more clause are embedded in to a mainclause to communicate purpose, reasons ,etc(13)endocentric construction: phrase can be replace by one of its immediateconstituents(lonely policeman by policeman) or by a member of the major word-class as one of its immediate constituent( the man by John )(14)subordinate endocentric construction: ~only one of the immediateconstituents can stand for the whole(15)exocentric construction: phrase cannot be replaced syntactically by any of itsimmediate constituents(16)generative grammar: attempts to produce a particular type of grammar havingexplicit system of rules specifying what combinations of basic elements would result in well-formed sentences_____________________________________________________________________ Grammar of English(1)X-words: auxiliaries, modal ----seems not confident about your opinion, cannotbe used in academic writing.(2)non-finite verbal group: =非谓语结构，to , V-ing, PP (past participle)(3)particle and phrasal verbs:a.inseparable phrasal verb=verb+preposition=transitive verbb.seperable phrasal verb=verb+adverbial(particle)c.verb+adverbial+preposition=tansitive verb=inseperable phrasal verb(4)sentence pattern/ relation between clausea.parataxis=compound sentence(but, or, yet, and连接) :the relation betweenclauses are coordinate.b.hypotaxis：1)adverbial as hypotactic clause 2)indirect quotation as~(“so”substitution: only for repot, not for fact/ if sth following the verb is anobjective complement, it can be replace by a nominal group or a deixis)3)non-defining relative clause vs. defining relative clause:to say some characteristics of the item, as an complement. to distinguish the object from similar ones,→rankshiftc.rankshift:with the help of an includer,(defining attributive clause,subjective clause objective clause )(5)half-clause: to avoid overuse of conjunctions; 1) prep 2) subject 3) with/withoutbeing(6)modifying relations between clauses④semantics(the study of the meaning aspect of language)(1)words viewing: universal semantic properties or features P104(2)metalanguage: the language used in signifying the language itself, for examplethe feature symbol used in componential analysis.[HUAMAN],[EQUINE],[OVINE],[BOVINE],[PORCINE],[CANINE],[LEPRI NE],[CERVINE],[FELINE](3)semantic relations:a.synonymous-synonym (no pair of words are absolutely interchangeable orsynonymous because no two words contain exactly the same number ortype of semantic properties.)dialectical, evaluational(depending onsituation),registral(depending on emotional), collocationally-restictedb.antonymous-antonym(gradable, complementary, converse/relational)c.hyponymy-hyponym(superordinate/umbrella word) vs. subordinated.polysemous: the same form having at least two meaning, which areintrinsically or etymologically related.e.homonymy:homography( the same spelling with different pronunciationand distinct meaning)homophony(the same pronunciation with different spelling and distinct meaning)f. meronymy: part-whole relation(4)sense: words are assigned with some meaning systematically, each being more orless unique in the lexical or grammatical system of language./abstract conceptual (5)reference: the entities a word donates outside the language system./concreteentities(6)semantic field: those belong to the same category fall into the same semanticfield.(7)marked/unmarked: In each pair of antonyms that is more commonly used isunmarked---neutral meaning; marked is used when special circumstance calls for it.(8)idiom: opaque(the meaning of the phrase cannot be deduced by combining themeaning of the individual words that make it up)/transparent; not subject to change or modification(9)prototype: the item as the best exemplar defining a category, in which allmembers share the same attribute.(10)prototype theory: a concept is not seen as a set of critical features, but ratherin terms of a most typical instance. The advantage of this is that it allows for categories with fuzzy boundaries, rather than binary cuttings(constitutional analysis).(11)semantic extension(rhetorical device):a.metaphor: the description of one thing in terms of another(abstrac t→concrete and familiar)b.conceptual metaphor: often contains a systematic conceptual metaphorc.orientational metaphor: has to do with how something is physically locatedin spaced.ontological metaphor: to treat experience and phenomena as discreetentities.e.metonymy: a kind of substitution in which one thing is used to stand foranotherf.iconicity: the way the physical form of a language corresponds to the realexperience being referred to---(e.g. onomatopoeia)g.synecdoche: a part used for the whole, etc.h.radiation: the new meaning is independent of all the rest, and may be tracedback to the central significationi.concatenation: a word moves gradually from its original sense as a result ofsuccessive semantic changes.(12)denotation, connotation, paradigmatic, syntagmatic(omitted)⑤pragmatics(1)semantic compositionality: the meaning of complex expression is determined bytheir constituents.(2)recursive syntax: words phrases, and even sentence can be combined inaccordance with all sorts of rules(3)linguistic end in pragmatics: how linguistic forms are used to perform socialactions(4)social end: how social-cultural factors bear on the use of language(5)co-text: the preceding and the following linguistic items in a given utterance(6)situational context: concerning where and when the communication takes placeand also the number and identity of the participants involved.(7)personal deixis—central personal: current speaker(8)time dexis---central time: the time at which the speaker produces the utterance(9)place deixis—central place: the location at the utterance time(10)d iscourse dexis---- discourse central: the point which the speaker is currently at inthe production of his utterance(11)s ocial dexis---social center: the speakers social status and rank, to which thestatus or rank of the addressee is relative(12)c onstative: description of facts or states of affairs(13)p erformative: the saying itself accomplish a certain action(e.g. I promise~)a.the use of first person subjectb.simple present tensec.indicative mood, active voice and a performative verb(14)s peech act: the basic or minimal unit of linguistic communication, can beperforming three component act at the same time:a.locutionary act: the act of verbally saying sthb.illocutionary act: the intended act behind saying sth; focus of pragmatic studyc.perlocutionary act: the intended effect of an illocutionary act(e.g. Jane said to john, “I am hungry. John leave and come back with some foodfor Jane.locutionary act: Jane’s utteranceillocutionary act: an implicit request for John to bring some food for herperlocutionary act: John get some food for Jane)(15)i llocutionary speech act are categorized into five types;a.representative: stating, asserting, explaining, predicting, and classifyingb.directive: ordering, commanding, requesting, instructing, and pleadingmisive: promising, vowing, pledging, offering, and bettingd.expressive: thanking, apologizing, congratulating, and condolinge.declaration; appointing, naming, christening, vetoing, dismissing, anddeclaring(16)i ndirect speech act: people always perform one act via performing anotherlinguistically or non-linguistically.(17)A theory of the illocutionary act(from 胡)a. A speech act is an utterance as a functional unit in communication. In speechact theory, utterances have two kinds of meaning.1. Propositional meaning (locutionary meaning): This is the basic literal meaning of the utterance which is conveyed by the particular words and structures which the utterance contains.2. Illocutionary meaning (illocutionary force): This is the effect the utterance or written text has on the reader or listener. E.g. in I’m thirsty,the propositional meaning is what the utterance says about the speaker’s physical state. The illocutionary force is the effect the speaker wants the utterance to have on the listener. It may be intended as request for something to drink. A speech act is a sentence or utterance which has both propositional meaning and illocutionary force.b. A speech act which is performed indirectly is sometimes known as an indirect speech act, such as the speech act of the requesting above. Indirect speech acts are often felt to be more polite ways of performing certain kinds of speech act, such as requests and refusals.1. Locutionary act: A distinction is made by Austin in the theory of speech acts between three different types of acts involved in or caused by the utterance of a sentence. A locutionary act is the saying of something which is meaningful and can be understood.2. Illocutionary act: An illocutionary act is using a sentence to perform a function.3. Perlocutionary act: A perlocutionary act is the results or effects that are produced by means of saying something.(18)r elations between sentences:a.entailment: semantic inclusionb.presupposition: information or beliefs shared by the interlocutors.c.inconsistency: either X or Y is true.d.synonymy: when X is true, Y must be true.e.implicture:(19)p resupposition trigger: the linguistic item making the presupposition and itsinference possiblea.factive verb: those whose objects or objective clauses reflect what has reallyhappenedb.implicative verb: e.g. manage, forget, happen, avoidc.change of state verbs: stop, finish, begin, startd.verbs of judge: conveying the agent’s evaluation of what is concerned(19)defeasible presupposition: they liable to evaporated in certain contexta. immediate linguistic contextb. less immediate discourse context,c. in circumstance where there are contrary assumptions(20)felicity conditions: the conditions a speech act has to satisfy in order to count as afelicity one.a. propositional content condition: the utterance is about a future act, and to thebenefit of the hearer.b. preparatory condition: the promise has not taken place yet.c. sincerity condition: the speaker means what he said.d. essential condition: the speaker can do what is promised.(21) sociolinguistics:a. community context: geographical variation; temporal variation; socio-economicvariation; individual variation.b. context of situation:1. field(ideational): the topic being discussed2. tenor(interpersonal): relating to “who” or the interpersonal relationship involved ina discourse3. mode(textual): the type of medium that the discourse id being communicatedthroughc. discourse rules: varying from culture to culture1.discouse meaning vs. sentence meaningvocabulary of the sentencethe meaning arises from contextthe meaning within syntax and2. no one-t-one relationship between grammatical sentence types and functions indiscourse3.conversational rules(turning-taking: no gap, no overlap; each turn of speech shouldhave a structure; speak priority rule—after one person finished, who is the next person to speak )4. leaning how to avoid a topic you don’t want to talk about or feel uncomfortablediscussing(not fulfill the Cooperating Principles: 1. by violation; 2. by opting out;3. by fulfill one at the expense of another owing to a conflict maxim)5. phatic communion: talk that has very little content and that is performed for thesake of politeness and establishing the channel for communicationa. exchange are strictly limited by conversational rulesb. devoid of sentence meaning(field); only manifest discourse meaning(tenor)c. cultural specific, different culture may assign different weigh to the maximwhen conflict between maxims arise in some circumstance.(22) cooperation principles:quality: requires the speaker to be truthfulquantity: requires the speaker to be as informative as requiredrelevance: make sure what you say is relevant to the conversation at hand(literal level vs. interactional level)manner: to be clear and lucid, avoid obscurity of expression; avoid ambiguity (23) conversational implicature: sth. that is implied or left implicit in conversation orbeyondproperties of implicature:a. calculability: it can be calculated or inferred according to CooperativePrinciplesb. indeterminacy: the list of possible implicatures of an utterance is openc. non-detachablity: given the same propositiond. cancelibility: either by an explicit declaration that the speaker is opting out or,implicitly, by the co-text and context(24)politeness principle: one needs to minimize the expression of impolite beliefs; andmaximize the expression of polite belifes(25)face consideration:a. face: a socio-psychological concept that tied up with notion of being embarrassedor humiliated; the public self-image that every member wants to claim for themselvesb. positive face: the positive consistent self-image or personality (including the desirethat this sself-image be appreciated and approved of)claimed by the interactants c. negative face: the basic claim of territories, personal preserves, rights tonon-distraction ( freedom of action and freedom from imposition)⑥discourse⑦acquisition of languages(1)input issue: the hypothesis that there must be sufficient, comprehensible, input for L2 learners.a. i+1 formula: the learner needs input that contains exemplars of the language forms whichare due to be acquired next.b.i to i+1:1. the learner understands the meaning of the input containing i+1(considering the learners’existing L2 proficiency. mental ability and life experience)2. only part of input that is possessed will count as effective/valid input(2) output issue: helps learners to notice the gap in their linguistic knowledgea. external feedback: clarification request, modeling, overt correctionb. internal feedback: monitoring their own linguistic production(3) motivation issue: why one learns a language and how much effort one is willing to invest in the processa. internal: interest in the languageb. external: medium of learning other things, pass exams, professional promotion, etc..c. socioaffective filter: governing how much input made available to them gets through to their language processing mechanism1. fossilization: once L2 learners have obtained sufficient linguistic knowledge to meet their communicative and emotional needs, they may not stop learning(4) strategic issue:a. metacognitve strategiesb. cognitive strategies(5) receptive vocabulary: reading and listening(6) productive vocabulary: also in writing and speaking(8) declarative knowledge: knowledge of words, grammar rules, and pragmatic conventions(9) procedural knowledge: abilities and facility regarding how to put the knowledge into actual use(10) error analysis:a. competent- related error: owing to the lack of adequate linguistic knowledgereasons:1. overgenerlization2. overextension3. improper use of cross-association, lexical or structural4. transfer bit of L1 into L2 productionb. performance-related error/lapse: inducing by anxiety, carelessness, insufficient of time, attention, etc.--------------------------another point of view about language acquisition-------------------(1)Prof. Ding’s basic pattern：a.Application（concerning input）: The system of language is shared socially butstored in the mind if individual. When we are engaged in discourse, we put this system into use.b.Reformation（concerning output）：when we notice something new in others’language or something wrong in our own language, we may fix it in our memory so that we can use it.(2)Children language development: babbling—telegraphic speech----hypothesistesting---regressiona.Behaviorism----Skinnerb.Mentalism----Chomsky:nguage is a mental organ found only inhumans2. A child is born with a language acquisition device in his brain3.There is so-called universal grammar existing by which children use to thelinguistic data he is exposed.c.Cognitive psychology----Piaget1. Language takes place in the context of a child’s intellectual development.2. conceptualization takes place gradually and in accordance with children’sphysical development.3. representational thought—symbolic play(3) Second language acquisitiona. error study1. contrastive analysis: a theory associated with behaviorism which analyzed the differences in structure between one’s mother tongue and the target language, based on the assumption that problems in learning a second language were mostly due to the differences in one’s own native language and the target language.2. error analysis: explaining the mistakes which learners make, rather than predict the area of difficulty, considering a broader range of the source of learner error than just mother tongue interference.⑧varieties of languages(1)dialect: a version of a given language(2)interlanguage: the variety used by the students of a language as they attempt tocommunicate but continue to make a lot of systematic errors---similar to those made by children acquiring their first language.(3)Pidgin: a mixture of two languages used between people who must communicate,but do not speak each other ‘s language. It is a simplified language without all the complexity and sophistication of any true language.(4)Creole: a pidgin that has developed into the native language of a community。

第一章1. the definition of lexicology❖Lexicology is the branch of linguistics concerned with the study of the vocabulary of a given language.❖It deals with words, their origin, development, history, structure, meaning and application.❖In short, it is the study of the signification and application of words.2. Two approaches to the study of English lexicologyThe term synchronic means describing a language as it exists at one point of time.The term diachronic means concerned with historical development of a language.A synchronic approach is an approach to the study of a language at one period of time, whereas a diachronic approach is an approach to the study of the change in a language that took place over a period of time.3. the sources of the English vocabulary❖At the beginning of the fifth century Britain was invaded by three tribes from the Northern Europe: the Angles, Saxons and Jutes.4. Evolutional periods of the English LanguageA. The period from 450 to 1150 is known as old English. It is sometimes described as the period of full inflections, since during most of this period the case endings of the noun, the adjectives, and the verbs are preserved more or less unimpaired.B.From 1150 to 1500, the language is known as Middle English. During the period, the inflections, which had begun to break down toward the end of the Old English period, become greatly reduced, and it is consequently known as the period of leveled inflections.C. The language since 1500 is called Modern English. A large part of the original inflectional system has disappeared entirely and we therefore speak of it as the period of lost inflections. The progressive decay of inflections is only one of the developments that mark the evolution of English in its various stages.第二章1. The English vocabulary may be classified into two great groups according to its origin: native words and borrowed words.Native words are the foundation and the core of the English vocabulary. In structure they are mostly monosyllabic words. In meaning they express the fundamental concepts dealing with everyday objects and things.The features of the native words:1) The polysemic feature2) The collocability of native words3) Word-forming ability of native wordsBorrowed words or loan-words refer to the words that are taken from foreign languages..Foreign borrowing may be divided into four groups according to their character.(1) Aliens (2) Denizens (3) translation-loans (4) semantic borrowingsAliens are words borrowed from a foreign language without any change of the foreign sound and spelling.Denizens are words taken from a foreign language with a transformation of the foreign sound and spelling into native forms. They are not foreign words, but have been naturalized into native sound and spelling.Translation-loans are words borrowed from foreign languages by means of translation. Semantic borrowings: words which have acquired a new meaning under the influence of other language are called semantic borrowings.2. What is a word?The definition of word:A particular string of sounds must be united with a meaning3. Morphemes:The minimal units of Meaning.What is a morpheme? A morpheme, the minimal linguistic unit, is thus an arbitrary union of a sound and a meaning that cannot be further analyzed. Therefore, every word in every language is composed of one or more morphemes.4. Classification of morphemes⏹We can make a broad distinction between two types of morphemes. Free morphemes andBound morphemes.⏹Free morphemes refer to the morphemes which can stand by themselves as single words,e.g. open and door.⏹Bound morphemes refer to those which cannot normally stand alone, but which aretypically attached to another form, e.g. re-, -ist, ist, -s.What we have described as free morphemes fall into two categories. The first category is that set of ordinary nouns, adjectives and verbs which we think of as the words which carry the content of messages we convey, these free morphemes are called lexical morphemes, e.g. boy, man, house, tiger, long, yellow, sincere, open.The other group of free morphemes are called functional morphemes, like and, but, when, because, on, near, above, in, the, that, etc. This set consists largely of the functional words in the language such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns.The set of affixes which fall into the bound category can also be divided into two types. One is derivational morphemes. These are used to make new words in the language. A list of derivational morphemes will include suffixes such as the ish in foolish, the –ly in badly and the –ment in payment. It will also include prefixes such as re-, pre-, ex-, dis-, un- and so forth.The second set of bound morphemes contains what are called inflectional morphemes. These arenot used to produce new words in the English language, but rather to indicate aspects of the grammatical function of a word. Inflectional morphemes are used to show if a word is plural or singular, if it is past tense or not, and if it is a comparative or possessive form. Examples are jumped, boys, sitting, she is smaller, the smallest, Jerry’s friend. To put is simply, they are –ing, -s, -er,-est, -ed, -‘s. At the present stage of English history, there are a total of eight bound inflectional affixes. It should be noted that in English, all the inflectional morphemes are suffixes.lexicalfree {functionalMorphemes {derivationalBound {Inflectional第三章1. English word formationWord formation refers to the formation of longer, more complex words from shorter, simpler words.It is worth mentioning that there are some main common processes of word formation in English, like affixation, coinage, borrowing, compounding, blending, clipping, backformation, conversion, acronyms.Affixation: Affixation includes prefixation and suffixation. Affixation is the morphological process whereby grammatical or lexical information is added to the base.Compounding: is a word made up of two or more other words.(In some examples we have just considered, there is a joining of two separate words to produce a single form. )Blending: is a process of word formation by which a word is created by combining parts of other words. Words formed in this way are called blends.(The combining of two separate forms to produce a single new term is also present in the process called blending.)Back-formation:is a process of word formation by which a word is formed by deleting the supposed affixes.a very specialized type of reduction process is known as backformation. Typically, a word of one type ( usually a noun ) is reduced to form another word of a different type (Usually a verb). It is assumed that a new word may enter the language because of an incorrect morphological analysis, such a word is called back formation.Conversion: is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class, made do not change in morphological structure but infunction.(Conversion: a change in the function of a word. For instance, when a noun comes to be used as a verb without any reduction is generally known as conversion, functional shift.)第四章1.Motivation is the relationship between the structure of a word and its meaning, or the relationship between words and expressions and the things they can be used to refer to.phonetic motivation / onomatopoeia motivation.grammatical motivationsemantic motivation(metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, analogy)第五章1. Main types of word meaning1) Conceptual meaning: is clear that conceptual meaning is an inextricable and essential part of what language is.2) Connotative meaning: is the communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content.3) Stylistic and Affective meaning: is that which a piece of language conveys about the social circumstances of its use.4) Affective meaning: is largely a parasitic category in the sense that to express our emotions we rely upon the mediation of categories of meaning5) Reflected meaning: is the meaning which arises in cases of multiple conceptual meaning, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense.6) Collocative meaning consists of the associations a word acquires on account of the meaning of words which tend to occur in its environment.第六章1. Semantic classification of words: hyponymy, synonymy, antonymy, polysemy and homonymy2. HyponymyThe upper term in this sense relation is called superordinate and the lower terms, the members are hyponyms. A superordinate usually has several hyponyms.These members of the same class are co-hyponyms.3. AntonymyWords that are opposite in meaning are often called antonyms1) gradable antonymy2) complementary antonymy3) relational antonymy4. SynonymySynonymy is used to mean “ sameness of meaning”A) dialectal synonymsB) words differing in styles or registersC) words differing in emotive or evaluative meaningD) collocational synonyms5. Polysemy: is a term used in semantic analysis to refer to a lexical item which has a range of different meanings. That is to say, the same word may have a set of different meanings.There is a main process when a word has got plenteous meanings. That is radiation. Radiation is a term used to refer to a process of sense-shift in which the original meaning of a word is to beconsidered as the central meaning and the other meanings are derived from it.6. Homonymy is a term used to refer to two or more words which have the same form or sounds but differ in meanings.Homonyms are words different in meaning, but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in spelling or sound.The classification of homonymsA. Perfect homonyms are words identical in sound and spelling or both in sound-form and parts of speech, but different in meanings.⏹1) words identical in sound and spelling but different in meaning⏹2) words identical in both sound-form and parts of speechB. Partial homonyms are words different in meaning but identical in spelling or sound⏹1) homographs—words identical in spelling but different in sound and meanings⏹2) homophones—words identical in sound but different in spelling and meaning第七章1. Changes in word meaning1) Semantic broadening: here words takes on a wider, more general meaning than it had previously.2) Semantic narrowing, with the word taking on a more restricted meaning than before3) Amelioration, the development of more favorable meanings for words.4) Pejoration, which involves the development of a less favorable meaning or connotation for a particular word.2. Why does word meaning change?1) Historical causes2) Social causes3) Psychological causes4) Linguistic causesOthers firmly believe the following factors may contribute to the changes of word meaning:`Firstly it is known that most words are polysemic, they have a range of meanings, and over time marginal meanings may take over from central meanings.`Secondly, children do not receive a fully formed grammar and lexicon from their parents. The children may therefore acquire a slightly different meaning for a word from that understood by their parents.`The last striking cause worth mentioning here is that the relationship between concepts and the words is arbitrary and so either can vary or change fairly freely through time and across space.第八章1. Syntagmatic relationsTo sum up, as for the horizontal perspective, words are used in discourse, strung together one after another, enter into relations based on the linear character of languages. They must be arranged consecutively in spoken sequence. Combination based on sequentiality may be called syntagmaticrelations. For instance, re-read, in its place in a syntagmatic relation, any unit acquires its value simply in opposition to what precedes or to what follows, or to both2. Paradigmatic relationsOn the other hand, as for the vertical or longitudinal perspective, outside the context of discourse, words having something in common are associated together in the memory. From changement, you may associate change, vary, etc with it. This kind of connection between words is of quite a different order. It is not based on linear sequence. It is a connection in the brain, such connections are called paradigmatic relations.第九章1. Characteristics of idioms(1). Semantic unity (语义的整体性)(2). Structural stability结构的固定性2. Lexical diversity is loosely defined as one aspect of the quality of a product—as ‘something to do with the range of vocabulary displayed’in written and spoken discourses第十章1. Context---- a basic concept in the study of pragmatics. It is generally considered as common knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer, such as cultural background, situation (time, place, manner, etc.), the relationship between the speaker and the hearer, and other relevant objects…2. Classify context1）Lexical contextWords that co-occur or co-ordinate withThe meaning or interpretation of individual lexical items is constrained by co-text/lexical context. 2）Situational contextExtra-linguistic context:TimePlaceSpaceRelationship between speaker and hearOther relevant things3. The role of contextⅠ. Elimination of AmbiguityⅡ. Indication of ReferentsⅢ. Provision of clues for inference of word meaning。

Chapter 4From Word to TextI. Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false:1.Grammatical sentences are formed following a set ofsyntactic rules.2.The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but thereis no limit to the number of sentences native speakers ofthat language are able to produce and comprehend.3.An endocentric construction is also known as headed constructionbecause it has just one head4.Constituents that can be substituted for one another without lossof grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.5.In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories arecommonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase,verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase.6.Number and gender are categories of noun and pronoun.7.Word order plays an important role in the organization ofEnglish sentences.8.Like English, modern Chinese is a SVO language.9.In English the subject usually precedes the verb and thedirect object usually follows the verb.10. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.( 1-5 TTFTF6-10 TTTTT)II.Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:1 A s________ is a structurally in dependent unit that usuallycomprises a number of words to form a complete statement,question or command2.A clause that takes a subject and a finite verb, and at the sametime structurally alone is known as an f__________ clause 3.The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verbphrase and which says something about the subject isgrammatically called p_________.4. A c_________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, oneof which is incorporated into the other.5.In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clauseis normally called an e_______ clause.6.Major lexical categories are o___ categories in the sensethat new words are constantly added.7.G_________ relations refer to the structural and logicalfunctional relations between every noun phrase and sentence 8. A a__________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.9. A s__________ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.10. A s__________ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.Answers:1.sentence2. finite3.predicate4. complex5. embedded6.open7. grammatical8.simple9. sentence10. subjectIII.There are four given choices for each statement below.Mark the choice that can best complete the statement :1The head of the phrase“ the city Rome” is__________A the cityB RomeC cityD the city and Rome2. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause.A. coordinatorB. particleC.PrepositionD. subordinator3Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.A. recursiveB. grammaticalC. socialD. functional4.Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand_____________.A.how words and phrases form sentences.B.what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC.how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD.All of the above.5The phrase “ on the halfA endocentric B” belongs to ________construction exocentric C subordinate Dcoordinate6. The theory of case condition accounts for the fact that __________.A.noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.B.noun phrases can be used to modify another nounphraseC.noun phrase can be used in adverbial positionsD.noun phrase can be moved to any place if necessary.7The sentence structure is ________.A. only linearB. Only hierarchicalC. compelD. both linear and hierarchical8.The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite9.The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrasesto form grammatical sentences.A. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational10The sentence “ They were wanted to remain quiet and not to expose themselves ” is a____________sentenceA simpleB coordinateC compound DcomplexAnswers:1 D2 D 3. A 4 D 5 B 6 A 7 D 8 C 9 D10 AIV . Explain the following terms, using examples.1.Syntax2.IC analysis3.Hierarchical structureAnswers :1.Syntax: Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words arecombined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.2.IC analysis: Immediate constituent analysis, IC analysis for short,refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediateconstituents –word groups (phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate sake of convenience.3.Hierarchical structure: It is the sentence structure that groupswords into structural constituents and shows the syntacticcategory of each structural constituent, such as NP, VP and PP.V.Answer the following questions:1.What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate themwith examples.2.What are endocentric construction and exocentric construction?3.Draw a tree diagram according to the PS rules to show the deep structure of the sentence:The child asked for a new book4.What are the major types of sentences according to traditional approach? Illustrate them with examples ？Answers :1. Traditionally, there are three major types of sentences. They are simple sentence, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complex sentence. A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence, for example: John reads extensively. A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or". For example: John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for her history exam. A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence do not have equal status, one is subordinate to the other. For example: Before John gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in linguistics.2.An endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole.A typical example is the three small children with children as its head. The exocentric construction, opposite to the first type, is defined negatively as a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of itsconstituents. Prepositional phrasal like on the shelf are typical examples of this type.3.略4.Traditionally, there are three major types of sentences. They aresimple sentence, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complex sentence. A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence, for example: John reads extensively. A coordinatesentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word that iscalled coordinating conjunction, such as "and","but", "or". For example: John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for her history exam. A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence do not have equal status, one is subordinate to the other. For exam­ple: Before John gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in lin­guistics.。

2012年10月广东省高等教育自学考试英语语言学问卷（课程代码06422）I.Blank-filling (20%)Fill in the following blanks with a word, whose initial letter has been given.1. Three branches of phonetics are articulatory phonetics, a_______phonetics, and acoustic phonetics.2. The word around which a phrase is formed is termed head , and the words on the right side of the heads are c____________.3. H__________ refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling ,or in both.4. S__________ refers to the linguistic variety characteristic of a particular social class.5. There are two types of a__________ dyslexia: phonological dyslexia and surface dyslexia.6. Different languages offer people different ways of expressing the world around , they think and speak differently , this is known as linguistic r_______.7. The most basic and the smallest meaningful element of meaning is traditionally called m___________.8. The i__________ view holds that language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which he develops.9. C___________ determines the speaker’s use of language and also the hearer’s interpretation of what is said to him10. If the linguistic study aims lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be p___________.11. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a qual ity of speech sounds called “v___________”.12. R__________ means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world.13. A__________ refers to a number of acquired language disorder due to the cerebral lesions caused by vascular problems, a tumor, an accident and so on.14. Minor Lexical Categories refer to D_________, Degree word, Qualifier , Auxiliary and Conjunction.15. Linguistics is a scientific study because it is based on the s_____________ investigation of linguistic data.16. Grammatical of functional words are referred to as being c_____class words .17. A p___________ is a special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading.18. A________ are words derived from the initials of several words, such as WTO.19. I________ motivation refers to the drive that people learn a foreign language because of the wish to identify with the target culture.20.Chomsky uses the term p________ to refer to the actual realization of the knowledge in linguistic communication.II. Multiple choice(20%)Choose the best answer to the following items.21. Different from contrastive analysis, _______ gave less consideration to learners’ native language.A . negative transfer B. mistake analysisC. positive analysisD. error analysis22. The social group that is singled out for any special study is called the __________.A. public societyB. common groupC. speech communityD. speech group23. English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of _____ of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation.A. forceB. positionC. mannerD. pattern24. ___________ analysis is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning.A. ComponentialB. ContrastiveC. ComparativeD. Inflection25. Changes in a language are changes in the grammar of the speakers of the language. This means that phonemes, __________, words and grammatical rules may be borrowed, added, lost or altered.A. morphemesB. elementsC. segmentsD. constituents26. ____________ motivation occurs when the learner desires to learn a second language in order to communicate with native speakers of the target language.A. PositiveB. IntegrativeC. InstrumentalD. Intrinsic27. The words on the left side of the heads are said to function as _______.A. modifiersB. qualifiersC.specifiersD. determiners28.The following sounds belong to the same natural class EXCEPT____.A.[t]B.[s]C.[p]D.[k]29. The sentence that has a NP and a PP can be shown in a ______ formula “S→NP PP”.A. hierarchicalB. tree diagramC. verticalD. linear30. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be______.A. prescriptiveB. descriptiveC. synchronicD. diachronic31.The relationship between “ flower “and “ rose” is _______.A.homonymyB. hyponymyC. polysemyD. synonymy32.The pair of words “ east ”and “ west “ is ________.A. gradable antonymsB.co-hyponymsplementary oppositeD. relational opposites33.Which of the following hypothesis is put forward by Eric Lenneberg?A. Critical Period HypothesisB. Input HypothesisC. Sapir-Whorf HypothesisD. Language Acquisition Device Hypothesis34. X: John has taken part in the London Olympic Games.Y: John is a sportsman.The sense relation between the above sentences is _____.A. X entails YB. X is inconsistent with YC. X presupposes YD. X is synonymous with Y35.The word “unreasonably” consists of ____ morphemes.A. 4B. 3C. 5D.236.____ occurs when the Cooperative Principle is violated.A. Locutionary actB. Illocutionary actC. Conversational implicatureD. Intralingual error37. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string, the two sound combinations are said to form a __________.A. adjacency pairsB. minimal pairsC. complementary pairsD. similar pairs38.”Brunch” is a word formed by _____.A. clippingB. back-formationC. coinageD. blending39.Which of the underlined morphemes below is a derivational morpheme?A. startedB. jumpingC. physicianD. suffixes40.____ is concerned with the processes of language comprehension and production.A. PragmaticsB. MorphologyC. SemanticsD. PsycholinguisticsIII.True of false judgement (20%)41. The brain, weighing about 1,400grams, consists of about ten billion nerve cells called neurons.42. W hat is measured in the priming experiment is the extent to which the prime influences the subject’s psychological decision performance on the target stimulus.43. According to Austin, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act.44. Diacritics are added to the letter-symbols to bring out finer distinctions than the letters alone may possibly do.45.Mode of discourse refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question.46.”Language is arbitrary” means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds since different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.47.Derivational morphemes are the group of morphemes such as –en,-ate, and –ic etc. Because when they are conjoined to other morphemes (or words), a new word is derived of formed.48. Locutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.49.The cortex is separated by the longitudinal fissure into two parts: the left and right cerebral hemispheres.50. Transformational Generative Grammar was introduced by N. Chomsky in 1967.IV.Explain the following notions briefly (25%)51.behaviourist52.sense and reference53.Wh-MovementD55.Draw a tree diagram for “The girl bought the book.”V. Essay question (15%)Write a passage of 120-150words on the following topic .56. What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features of English function in conveying meaning?Illustrate your answer with concrete examples.部分参考答案（非官方答案，但大部分正确）：1.auditory2. complements3. Homonymy4. Sociolect5. acquired6. relativity7. morpheme 8. interractionist 9. Context10. Prescriptive 11. voicing 12. Reference13. Aphasia 14 . Determiner 15. systematic16. closed 17. pidgin 18. Acronyms19. Integrative 20. performance21. D 22. C 23. C 24. A 25. A26.B 27. C 28. B 29. D 30.B31.B 32.D 33. A 34.C 35.A36. C 37.B 38. D 39. C 40.D41.T 42. F 43.T 44. T 45. F 46. T 47.T 48.F 49.T 50.F51.Traditional behaviorists view language as behavior and believe that language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation.52. They are two related but different aspects of meaning.1) Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compliers are interested in.2) Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and non-linguistic world of experience.53. Wh-movement---- Move a wh phrase to the beginning of the sentence.Move a wh phrase to the specifier position under CP. (Revised)54. It is the capacity to acquire one’s first language , when this capacity is pictures as a sort of mechanism or apparatus. In the 1960s and 1970s Chomsky and others claimed that every normal human being was born with an LAD. The LAD included basic knowledge about the nature and structure of human language . The LAD was offered as an explanation of why children develop competence in their first language in a relatively short time , merely by being exposed to it.55. 略56. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone.The location of stressing English distinguishes meaning. There are two kinds of stress; word stress and sentence stress. For example, a shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun, to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged.Tones are pitch variations, which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English. When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings。

有答案的第一部分选择题I. Directions: Read each of the following statements carefully. Decidewhich one of the four choices best completes the statement and put theletter A, B, C or D in the brackets. (2%×10=20%)1、As modern linguistics aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, and not to lay down rules for "correct" linguistic behavior,it is said to be ___.A、prescriptiveB、sociolinguisticC、descriptiveD、psycholinguistic2、Of all the speech organs, the ___ is/are the most flexible.A、mouthB、lipsC、tongueD、vocal cords3、The morpheme "vision" in the common word "television" is a(n) ___.A、bound morphemeB、bound formC、inflectional morphemeD、free morpheme4、A ___ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word thatintroduces the embedded clause.A、coordinatorB、particleC、prepositionD、subordinator主从连词5、"Can I borrow your bike?" ___ "You have a bike."A、is synonymous withB、is inconsistent withC、entailsD、presupposes6、The branch of linguistics that studies how context influences the way speakers interpret sentences is called ___.A、semanticsB、pragmaticsC、sociolinguisticsD、psycholinguistics7、Grammatical changes may be explained, in part, as analogic changes, which are ___ or generalization泛化.A、elaborationB、simplification精简C、external borrowingD、internal borrowing8、___ refers to a marginal language of few lexical items and straightforward grammatical rules, used as a medium of communication.A、Lingua franca通用语B、CreoleC、PidginD、Standard language标准语言9、Psychologists, neurologists and linguists have concluded that, in addition to the motor area which is responsible for physical articulation of utterances, three areas of the left brain are vital to language, namely, ___ .A、Broca's area, Wernicke's area and the angular gyrus 角回B、Broca's area, Wernicke's area and cerebral cortexC、Broca's area, Wernicke's area and neuronsD、Broca's area, Wernicke's area and Exner's area10、According to Krashen, ___ refers to the gradual and subconcious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.A、learningB、competenceC、performanceD、acquisition第二部分非选择题II. Directions: Fill in the blank in each of the following statements with one word, the first letter of which is already given as a clue. Note that you are to fill in One word only, and you are not allowed to change theletter given. (1%×10=10%)11、Chomsky defines "competence" as the ideal user'sk of the rules of his language.12、The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/have one feature in common, i.e, they are all b .13、M is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.14、A s is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a completestatement, question or command.15、Synonyms that are mutually substitutable under allcircumstances are called c synonyms.16、The illocutionary point of r is to commit the speaker tosomething's being the case, to the truth of what has been said.17、Words are created outright to fit some purpose. Such a method of enlarging the vocabulary is known as word c .18、Wherever the standard language can use a contraction (he+is→he's), Black English can d the form of "be".19、The basic essentials of the first language are acquired in the short period from about age two to puberty, which is called the c period for first language acquisition.20、As a type of linguistic system in 12 learning, i is a product of L2 training, mother tongue intereference, overgeneralization of the target language rules, and learning and communicative strategies of the learner.III. Directions: Judge whether each of the following statements is true orfalse. Put a T for true or F for false in the brackets in front of eachstatement. If you think a statement is false, you must explain why youthink so and give the correct version. (2%×10=20%)()21、In modern linguistic studies, the written form of language is given more emphasis than the spoken form for a number of reasons.()22、Voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in bothChinese and English.()23、The compound word "bookstore" is the place where books are sold. Thisindicates that the meaning of a compound is the sum total of the meaningsof its components.()24、Syntactic categories refer to sentences (S) and clauses (C) only.()25、Dialectal synonyms can often be found in differentregional dialectssuch as British English and American English but cannot be found withinthe variety itself, for example, within British English or AmericanEnglish.()26、Only when a maxim under Cooperative Principle is blatantly violatedand the hearer knows that it is being violated do conversationalimplicatures arise.()27、The territory in which the Indo-European languages are mainly spokentoday also includes languages that are not Indo-European.()28、In most bilingual communities, two languages have the same in speechsituations known as domains.()29、According to the strong version of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis,speakers' perceptions determine language and pattern their way of life.()30、All normal children have equal ability to acquire their firstlanguage.IV. Directions: Explain the following terms, using one or two examples forillustration. (3%×10=30%)31、duality32、diachronic linguistics33、broad transcription34、morphological rules35、phrase structure rule36、relational opposites37、componential analysis38、context39、euphemism40、brain lateralizationV. Answer the following questions. (10%×2=20%)41、Explain how the inventory of sounds can change, giving some examples inEnglish for illustration.42、Briefly discuss the individual factors which affect the acquisition ofa second language.英语语言学试题（2）一、单项选择题(在每小题的四个备选答案中，选出一个正确答案，并将正确答案的序号填在题干的括号内。