The SpectacularEruptionofMountSt. Helens欧阳家百（2021.03.07）A The eruption in May 1980 of Mount St. Helens, Washington State, astounded the world withits violence. A gigantic explosion tore much of the volcano's summit to fragments; the energyreleased was equal to that of 500 of the nuclear bombs that destroyed Hiroshima in 1945.B The event occurred along the boundary of two of the moving plates that make up the Earth'scrust. They meet at the junction of the North American continent and the Pacific Ocean. Oneedge of the continental North American plate over-rides the oceanic Juan de Fuca micro-plate,producing the volcanic Cascade range that includes Mounts Baker, Rainier and Hood, and LassenPeak as well as Mount St. Helens.C Until Mount St. Helens began to stir, only Mount Baker and Lassen Peak had shown signs oflife during the 20th century. According to geological evidence found by the United StatesGeological Survey, there had been two major eruptions of Mount St. Helens in the recent(geologically speaking)past: around 1900 B.C., and about A.D. 1500. Since the arrival ofEuropeans in the region, it had experienced a single period of spasmodic activity, between 1831and 1857. Then, for more than a century, Mount St. Helens lay dormant.D By 1979, the Geological Survey, alerted by signs of renewed activity, had been monitoringthe volcano for 18 months. It warned the local population against being deceived by themountain's outward calm, and forecast that an eruption would take place before the end of thecentury. The inhabitants of the area did not have to wait that long. On March 27, 1980,a fewclouds of smoke formed above the summit , and slight tremors were felt. On the 28th, larger anddarker clouds,. consisting of gas and ashes,. emerged and climbed as high as 20,000 feet. In Aprila slight lull ensued, but the volcanologists remained pessimistic. The, in early May, the northernflank of the mountain bulged, and the summit rose by 500 feet.E Steps were taken to evacuate the population. Most- campers, hikers, timbercuttersleft theslopes of the mountain. Eighty-four-year-old Harry Truman, a holiday lodge owner who had livedthere for more than 50 years, refused to be evacuated, in spite of official and public, including anentire class of school children, wrote to him, begging him to leave. He never did.F On May 18, at 8.32 in the morning, Mount St. Helens blew its top. literally. Suddenly, it was1300 feet shorter than it had been before its growth had begun. Over half a cubic mile of rock haddisintegrated . At the same moment, an earthquake with an intensity of 5 on the Richter scale wasrecorded. It triggered an avalanche of snow and ice. mixed with hot rock-the entire north face ofthe mountain had fallen away. A wave of scorching volcanic gas and rock fragments shothorizontally from the volcano's riven flank, at an inescapable 200 miles per hour. As the slidingice and snow melted, it touched off devastating torrents of mud and debris, which destroyed alllife in their path. Pulverised, which destroyed all life in their path.Pulverised rock climbed as adust cloud into the atmosphere. Finally, viscous lava, accompanied by burning clouds of ash andgas, welled out of volcano's new crater, and from lesser vents and cracks in its flanks.G Afterwards, scientists were able to analyse the sequence of events. First, magmamoltenrock-at temperatures above 2000oF. had surged into the volcano from the Earth's mantle. Thebuild-up was accompanied by an accumulation of gas, which increased as the mass of magmagrew. It was the pressure inside the mountain that made it swell. Next, the rise in gas pressurecaused a violent decompression. Which ejected the shattered summit like a cork from a shakensoda bottle. With the summit gone, the molten rock within was released in a jet of gas andfragmented magma, and lava welled from the crater.H The effects of the Mount St. Helens eruption were catastrophic. Almost all the trees of thesurrounding forest, mainly Douglas firs. were flattened. and their branches and bark ripped off bythe shock wave of the explosion. Ash and mud spread over nearly 200square miles of country. Allthe towns and settlements in the area were smothered in an even coating of ash. Volcanic ash siltedup the Columbia River 35 miles away, reducing the debris that accumulated at the foot of thevolcano reached a depth. in places, of 200 feet.I The eruption of Mount St. Helens was one of the most closely observed and analysed inhistory. Because geologists had been expecting the event, they were able to amass vast amounts oftechnical data when it happened. Study of atmospheric particles formed as a result of theexplosion showed that droplets of sulphuric acid, acting as a screen between the Sun and theEarth's surface, caused a distinct drop in temperature. There is no doubt that the activity of MountSt. Helens and other volcanoes since 1980 has influenced our climate . Even so, it has beencalculated that the quantity of dust ejected by Mount St. Helens - a quarter of a cubic mile- wasnegligible in comparison with that thrown out by earlier eruptions, such as that of Mount Katmaiin Alaska in 1912 (three cubic miles). The volcano is still active. Lavadomes have formed insidethe new crater, and have periodically burst. The threat of Mount St Helens lives on..Questions 1 and 2Answer questions 1 and 2 by writing the appropriate letter A-I inboxes 1 and 2 on your answersheet.Example AnswerWhich paragraph compares the eruption to the energy Areleased by nuclear bomb?1. Which paragraph describes the evacuation of the mountain?2. Which paragraph describes the moment of the explosion of Mount St. Helens?Questions 3 and 43. What are the dates of the TWO major eruptions of Mount St. Helens before 1980?Write TWO dates in box 3 on your answer sheet.4 How do scientists know that the volcano exploded around the two dates above?Using NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS , write your answer in box 4 on your answersheetQuestions 5-8Complete the summary of events below leading up to the eruption of Mount St. Helens. ChooseNO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the passage for each answer.W rite your answers in boxes 5-8 on your answer sheet.In 1979 the Geological Survey warned ... (5) ... to expect a violent eruption before the end of thecentury. The forecast was soon proved accurate. At the end of March there were tremors andclouds formed above the mountain. This was followed by a lull, but in early May the top of themountain rose by ... (6)... . People were ...(7) ... from around the mountain. Finally, on May 18that ...(8) ..., Mount St. Helens exploded.Question 9 and 10Complete the table below giving evidence for the power of the Mount St. Helens eruption.Write your answers in boxes 9 and 10 on your answer sheet.Item Equivalent toExampleThe energy released by the explosion ofMount St. HelensAnswer500 nuclear bombsThe area of land covered in mud or ash ...(9)...The quantity of dust ejected ...(10)...Question 11Choose the appropriate letter A-D and write it in box 11 one your answer sheet.11. According to the text the eruption of Mount St. Helens and other volcanoes has influenced ourclimate by ...A increasing the amount of rainfall.B heating the atmosphere.C cooling the air temperature.D causing atmospheric storms.READING PASSAGE 2Questions 12-16Reading Passage 2 has seven paragraphs A-G.Choose the most suitable headings for paragraphs B-E and G from the list of heading below.Write the appropriate numbers (i-x) in boxes 12-16 on your answer sheet.NB There are more headings than paragraphs so you will not use all of them.You may use any of the headings more than once.List of Headings(i) The effect of changing demographics on organisations(ii) Future changes in the European workforce(iii) The unstructured interview and its validity(iv) The person-skills match approach to selection(v) The implications of a poor person-environment fit(vi) Some poor selection decisions(vii) The validity of selection procedures(viii) The person-environment fit(ix) Past and future demographic changes in Europe(x) Adequate and inadequate explanations of organisational failure Example Paragraph A Answer (x)12. Paragraph B13. Paragraph C14. Paragraph D15. Paragraph E16. Paragraph GPEOPLE AND ORGANISATIONS: THE SELECTION ISSUEA In 1991, according to the Department of Trade and Industry, a record 48,000 Britishcompanies went out of business. When businesses fail, the post-mortem analysis is traditionallyundertaken by accountants and market strategists. Unarguablyorganisations do fail because ofundercapitalisation, poor financial management, adverse market conditions etc. Yet, conversely,organisations with sound financial backing, good product ideas and market acumen oftenunderperform and fail to meet shareholders' expectations. The complexity, degree and sustainmentof organisational performance requires an explanation which goes beyond the balance sheet andthe "paper conversion" of financial inputs into profit making outputs.A more completeexplanation of "what went wrong" necessarily must consider the essence of what an organisationactually is and that one of the financial inputs, the most important and often the most expensive, ispeople.B An organisation is only as good as the people it employs. Selecting the right person for thejob involves more than identifying the essential or desirable range of skills, educational andprofessional qualifications necessary to perform the job and then recruiting the candidate who ismost likely to possess these skills or at least is perceived to have theability and predisposition toacquire them. This is a purely person/skills match approach to selection.C Work invariably takes place in the presence and/or under the direction of others, in aparticular organisational setting. The individual has to "fit" in with the work environment, withother employees, with the organisational climate, style or work, organisation and culture of theorganisation. Different organisations have different cultures (Cartwright & Cooper, 1991; 1992).Working as an engineer at British Aerospace will not necessarily be a similar experience toworking in the same capacity at GEC or Plessey.D Poor selection decisions are expensive. For example, the costs of training a policeman areabout £20,000 (approx. US$ 30,000). The costs of employing an unsuitable technician on an oilrig or in a nuclear plant could, in an emergency, result in millions of pounds of damage or loss oflife. The disharmony of a poor person-environment fit (PE-fit) is likely to result in low jobsatisfaction, lack of organisational commitment and employee stress,which affect organisationaloutcomes i.e. productivity, high labour turnover and absenteeism, and individual outcomes i.e.physical, psychological and mental well-being.E However, despite the importance of the recruitment decision and the range of sophisticatedand more objective selection techniques available, including the use of psychometric tests,assessment centres etc., many organisations are still prepared to make this decision on the basis ofa single 30 to 45 minute unstructured interview. Indeed, research has demonstrated that a selectiondecision is often made within the first four minutes of the interview. In the remaining time, theinterviewer then attends exclusively to information that reinforces the initial "accept" or "reject"decision. Research into the validity of selection methods has consistently demonstrated that theunstructured interview, where the interviewer asks any questions he or she likes, is a poorpredictor of future job performance and fares little better that more controversial methods likegraphology and astrology. In times of high unemployment,!recruitment becomes a "buyer'smarket" and this was the case in Britain during the 1980s.F The future, we are told, is likely to be different. Detailed surveys of social and economictrends in the European community show that Europe's population is falling and getting older, Thebirth rate in the Community is now only three-quarters of the level needed to ensure replacementof the existing population. By the year 2020, it is predicted that more than one in four Europeanswill be aged 60 or more and barely one in five will be under 20. In a five-year period between1983 and 1988 the Community's female workforce grew by almost six million. As a result, 51% ofall women aged 14 to 64 are now economically active in the labour market compared with 78% ofmen.G The changing demographics will not only affect selection ratios. They will also make itincreasingly important for organisations wishing to mainta in their competitive edge to be moreresponsive and accommodating to the changing needs of their workforce if they are to retain anddevelop their human resources. More flexible working hours, the opportunity of work from homeor job share, the provision of childcare facilities etc., will play a major role in attracting andretaining staff in the future.Questions 17-22Do the following statements agree with the views of the writer in Reading Passage 2?In boxes 17-22 on your answer sheet writeYES if the statement agrees with the writerNO if the statement does not agree with the writerNOT GIVEN if there is no information about this in the passage 17. Organisations should recognise that their employees are a significant part of theirfinancial assets.18. Open-structured 45 minute interviews are the best method to identify suitable employees.19. The rise in the female workforce in the European Community is a positive trend.20. Graphology is a good predictor of future fob performance.21. In the future, the number of people in employable age groups will decline.22. In 2020, the percentage of the population under 20 will be smallerthan now.Questions 23-25Complete the notes below with words taken from Reading Passage 2. Use NO MORE THANONE or TWO WORDS for each answer.Write your answers in boxes 23-25 on your answer sheet. READING PASSAGE 3You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 26-38 which are based on Reading Passage 3on pages 9 and 10."The Rollfilm Revolution"The introduction of the dry plate process brought with it many advantages. Not only was it muchmore convenient, so that the photographer no longer needed to prepare his material in advance,but its much greater sensitivity made possible a new generation of cameras. Instantaneousexposures had been possible before, but only with some difficulty and with special equipment andconditions. Now, exposures short enough to permit the camera to the held in the hand were easilyachieved. As well as fitting shutters and viewfinders to their conventional stand cameras,manufacturers began to construct smaller cameras in tended specifically for hand use.One of the first designs to be published was Thomas Bolas' s 'Detective' camera of 1881.Externally a plain box, quite unlike the folding bellows camera typical of the period, it could beused unobtrusively. The name caught on, and for the next decade or so almost all hand cameralwere called ' Detectives', Many. of the new designs in the 1880s were for magazine cameras, inwhich a number of dry plates could be pre-loaded and changed one after another followingexposure. Although much more convenient than stand cameras, still used by most serious workers,magazine plate cameras were heavy, and required access to a darkroom for loading andprocessing the plates. This was all changed by a young American bank clerk turned photographicmanufacturer, George Eastman, from Rochester, New York. Eastman had begun to manufacture gelatine dry plates in 1880. being one of the first to do so inAmerica. He soon looked for ways of simplifying photography, believing that many people wereput off by the complication and messiness. His first step was to develop, wih the cameramanufacturer William H. Walker, a holder for a long roll of paper negative 'film'. This could befitted to a standard plate camera and up to forty-eight exposures made before reloading. Thecombined weight of the paper roll and the holder was far less than the same number of glassplates in their ling-tight wooden holders. Although roll-holders had been made as early as the1850s, none had been very successful be cause of the limitations of the photographic materialsthen available. Eastman's rollable paper film was sensitive and gave negatives of good quality;the Eastman-Walker roll-holder was a great success.The next step was to combine the roll-holder with a small hand camera; Eastman's first designwas patented with an employee, F. M. Cossitt, in 1886. It was not a success. Only fifty Eastmandetective cameras were made, and they were sold as a lot to a dealer in 1887; the cost was toohigh and the design too complicated. Eastman set about developing a new model, which waslaunched in June 1888. It was a small box, containing a roll of paperbased stripping filmsufficient for 100 circular exposures 6 cm in diameter. Its operation was simple: set the shutter bypulling a wire string; aim the camera using the V line impression in the camera top; press therelease botton to activate the exposure; and turn a special key to wind to the film. A hundredexposures had to be made, so it was important to record each picture in the memorandum bookprovided, since there was no exposure counter. Eastman gave his camera the invented name'Kodak'-which was easily pronounceable in most languages. and had two Ks which Eastman feltwas a firm, uncompromising kind of letter.The importance of Eastman's new roll-film camera was not that it was the first. There had beenseveral earlier cameras, notably the Stirn 'America', first demonstrated in the spring of 1887 andon sale from early 1888. This also used a roll of negative paper, and had such refinements as areflecting viewfinder and an ingenious exposure marker. The real significance of the first Kodakcamera was that it was backed up by a developing and printing service. Hitherto ,virtually allphotographers developed and printed their own pictures. This required that facilities of adarkroom and the time and inclination to handle the necessary chemicals, make the prints and soon. Eastman recognized that not everyone had the resources or the desire to do this. When acustomer had made a hundred exposures in the Kodak camera, he sent it to Eastman's factory inRochester (or later in Harrow in England) where the film was unloaded, processed and printed,the camera reloaded and returned to the owner. "You Press the Button, We Do the Rest" ranEastman's classic marketing slogan; photography had been brought to everyone. Everyone, that is,who could afford $ 25 or five guineas for the camera and $ 10 or two guineas for the developingand printing . A guinea ( $ 5 ) was a week's wages for many at the time, so this simple camera costthe equivalent of hundreds of dollars today.In 1889 an improved model with a new shutter design was introduced, and it was called the No. 2Kodak camera. The paper-based stripping film was complicated to manipulate, since theprocessed negative image had to be stripped from the paper base for printing. At the end of 1889Eastman launched a new roll film on a celluloid base. Clear, tough, transparent and flexible, thenew film not only made the rollfilm camera fully practical, but provided the raw material for theintroduction of cinematography a few years later. Other, larger models were introduced, includingseveral folding versions, one of which took pictures 21.6 cm x 16.5 cm in size. Othermanufacturers in America and Europe introduced cameras to take the Kodak roll-films, and otherfirms began to offer developing and printing services for the benefit of the new breed ofPhotographers.By September 1889 , over 5,000 Kodak cameras had been sold in the USA, and the company wasdaily printing 6-7,000 negatives, Holidays and special events created enormous surges in demandfor processing: 900 Kodak users returned their cameras for processing and reloading in the weekafter the New York centennial celebration.Questions 26-29Do the following statements agree with the views of the writer in Reading Passage 3?In boxes 26-29 on your answer sheet writeYES if the statement agrees with the writerNO if the statement does agree with the writerNOTGIVEN if there is no information about this in the passage 26. Before the dry plate process short exposures could only b achieved with cameras held inthe hand.27. Stirn's America' camera lacked Kodak's developing service.28. The first Kodak film cost the equivalent of a week's wages to develop.29. Some of Eastman's 1891 range of cameras could be loaded in daylight.Questions 30-34Complete the diagram below. Choose NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the passage foreach answer.Write your answers in boxes 30-34 on your answer sheet. Questions 35-38Complete the table below. Choose NO MORE THAN THREEWORDS from the passage foreach answer.Write your answers in boxes 35-38 on your answer sheet.。
