The Use of Biomass in Ecology

Plant ecologyFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaPlant ecology is a subdiscipline of ecology which studies the distribution and abundance of plants, the interactions among and between members of plant species, and their interactions with their environment. Plant ecology has its roots both in plant geography and in studies of the interactions between individual plants and their environment.Broadly speaking, the scope of plant ecology encompasses plant ecophysiology, plant population ecology, community ecology, ecosystem ecology and landscape ecology.Most plants are rooted in the soil, and often they reproduce vegetatively in a way that makes it difficult to distinguish individual plants of the same species. These characteristic features of plants necessitate a somewhat different scientific methodology than used in e.g. animal ecology, but the different subdiciplines of ecology is integrated in ecosystem ecology. Structure and functionLife formsPlant life-form schemes constitute a way of classifying plants alternatively to the ordinary species-genus-family scientific classification. In colloquial speech, plants may be classified as trees, shrubs, herbs (forbs and graminoids), etc. The scientific use of life-form schemes emphasizes plant function in the ecosystem and that the same function or "adaptedness" to the environment may be achieved in a number of ways, i.e. plant species that are closely related phylogenetically may have widely different life-form, for example Adoxa and Sambucus are from the same family, but the former is a small herbaceous plant and the latter is a shrub or tree. Conversely, unrelated species may share a life-form through convergent evolution. The most widely applied life-form scheme is the Raunkiær system.Life-form and growth-form are essentially synonymous concepts, despite attempts to restrict the meaning of growth-form to types differing in shoot architecture. Most life form schemes are concerned with vascular plants only. Plant construction types may be used in a broader sense to emcompass planktophytes, benthophytes (mainly algae) and terrestrial plants. StrategiesIn plant ecology, the C-S-R Triangle theory is a theory of plant strategies developed by J. Philip Grime. The three strategies are competitor (C), stress tolerator (S), and ruderal (R). These strategies each thrive best in a unique combination of either high or low intensities of stress and disturbance.CompetitorCompetitors are plant species that thrive in areas of low intensity stress and disturbance and excel in biological competition. These species are able to out compete other plants by most efficiently tapping into available resources. Competitors do this through a combination of favorable characteristics, including rapid growth rate, high productivity (growth in height, lateral spread, and root mass), and high capacity for phenotypic plasticity. This last feature allows competitors to be highly flexible in morphology and adjust the allocation of resources throughout the various parts of the plant as needed over the course of the growing season.Stress toleratorStress tolerators are plant species that live in areas of high intensity stress and low intensity disturbance. Species that have adapted this strategy generally have slow growth rates, long lived leaves, high rates of nutrient retention, and low phenotypic plasticity. Stress tolerators respond to environmental stresses through physiological variability. These species are often found in stressful environments such as alpine or arid habitats, deep shade, nutrient deficient soils, and areas of extreme pH levels.RuderalRuderals are plant species that prosper in situations of high intensity disturbance and low intensity stress. These species are fast-growing and rapidly complete their life cycles, and generally produce large amounts of seeds. Plants that have adapted this strategy are often found colonizing recently disturbed land, and are often annuals.ReproductionPlant reproduction is the production of new individuals or offspring in plants, which can be accomplished by sexual or asexual means. Sexual reproduction produces offspring by the fusion of gametes, resulting in offspring genetically different from the parent or parents. Asexual reproduction produces new individuals without the fusion of gametes, genetically identical to the parent plants and each other, except when mutations occur. In seed plants, the offspring can be packaged in a protective seed, which is used as an agent of dispersal. Asexual reproductionPlants have two main types of asexual reproduction in which new plants are produced that are genetically identical clones of the parent individual. "Vegetative" reproduction involves a vegetative piece of the original plant (budding, tillering, etc.) and is distinguished from"apomixis", which is a "replacement" for sexual reproduction, and in some cases involves seeds. Apomixis occurs in many plant species and also in some non-plant organisms. For apomixis and similar processes in non-plant organisms, see parthenogenesis.Natural vegetative reproduction is mostly a process found in herbaceous and woody perennial plants, and typically involves structural modifications of the stem or roots and in a few species leaves. Most plant species that employ vegetative reproduction, do so as a means to perennialize the plants, allowing them to survive from one season to the next and often facilitating their expansion in size. A plant that persists in a location through vegetative reproduction of individuals constitutes a clonal colony, a single ramet, or apparent individual, of a clonal colony is genetically identical to all others in the same colony. The distance that a plant can move during vegetative reproduction is limited, though some plants can produce ramets from branching rhizomes or stolons that cover a wide area, often in only a few growing seasons. In a sense, this process is not one of "reproduction" but one of survival and expansion of biomass of the individual. When an individual organism increases in size via cell multiplication and remains intact, the process is called "vegetative growth". However, in vegetative reproduction, the new plants that result are new individuals in almost every respect except genetic. A major disadvantage to vegetative reproduction, is the transmission of pathogens from parent to daughter plants; it is uncommon for pathogens to be transmitted from the plant to its seeds, though there are occasions when it occurs.Seeds generated by apomixis are a means of asexual reproduction, involving the formation and dispersal of seeds that do not originate from the fertilization of the embryos. Hawkweed (Hieracium), dandelion (Taraxacum), some Citrus (Citrus) and Kentucky blue grass (Poa pratensis) all use this form of asexual reproduction. Pseudogamy occurs in some plants that have apomictic seeds, where pollination is often needed to initiate embryo growth, though the pollen contributes no genetic material to the developing offspring. Other forms of apomixis occur in plants also, including the generation of a plantlet in replacement of a seed or the generation of bulbils instead of flowers, where new cloned individuals are produced.Natural vegetative structuresThe rhizome is a modified underground stem serving as an organ of vegetative reproduction, e. g. Polypody, Iris, Couch Grass and Nettles.Prostrate aerial stems, called runners or stolons are important vegetative reproduction organs in some species, such as the strawberry, numerous grasses, and some ferns.Adventitious buds form on roots near the ground surface, on damaged stems (as on the stumps of cut trees), or on old roots. These develop into above-ground stems and leaves.A form of budding called suckering is the reproduction or regeneration of a plant by shoots that arise from an existing root system. Species that characteristically produce suckers include Elm (Ulmus), Dandelion (Taraxacum), and members of the Rose Family (Rosa).Another type of a vegetative reproduction is the production of bulbs. Plants like onion (Allium cepa), hyacinth (Hyacinth), narcissus (Narcissus) and tulips (Tulipa) reproduce by forming bulbs.Other plants like potatoes (Solanum tuberosum) and dahlia (Dahlia) reproduce by a method similar to bulbs: they produce tubers.Gladioli and crocuses (Crocus) reproduce by forming a bulb-like structure called a corm. Human uses of asexual reproductionThe most common form of plant reproduction utilized by people is seeds, but a number of asexual methods are utilized which are usually enhancements of natural processes, including: cutting, grafting, budding, layering, division, sectioning of rhizomes or roots, stolons, tillers (suckers) and artificial propagation by laboratory tissue cloning. Asexual methods are most often used to propagate cultivars with individual desirable characteristics that do not come true from seed. Fruit tree propagation is frequently performed by budding or grafting desirable cultivars (clones), onto rootstocks that are also clones, propagated by layering.In horticulture, a "cutting" is a branch that has been cut off from a mother plant below an internode and then rooted, often with the help of a rooting liquid or powder containing hormones. When a full root has formed and leaves begin to sprout anew, the clone is aself-sufficient plant, genetically identical to the mother plant. Examples include cuttings from the stems of blackberries (Rubus occidentalis), African violets (Saintpaulia), verbenas (Verbena) to produce new plants. A related use of cuttings is grafting, where a stem or bud is joined onto a different stem. Nurseries offer for sale trees with grafted stems that can produce four or more varieties of related fruits, including apples. The most common usage of grafting is the propagation of cultivars onto already rooted plants, sometimes the rootstock is used to dwarf the plants or protect them from root damaging pathogens.Since vegetatively propagated plants are clones, they are important tools in plant research. When a clone is grown in various conditions, differences in growth can be ascribes to environmental effects instead of genetic differences.[Sexual reproductionSexual reproduction involves two fundamental processes: meiosis, which rearranges the genes and reduces the number of chromosomes, and fusion of gametes, which restores the chromosome to a complete diploid number. In between these two processes, different types of plants vary. In plants and algae that undergo alternation of generations, a gametophyte is the multicellular structure, or phase, that is haploid, containing a single set of chromosomes:The gametophyte produces male or female gametes (or both), by a process of cell division called mitosis. The fusion of male and female gametes produces a diploid zygote, which develops by repeated mitotic cell divisions into a multicellular sporophyte. Because the sporophyte is the product of the fusion of two haploid gametes, its cells are diploid, containing two sets of chromosomes. The mature sporophyte produces spores by a process called meiosis, sometimes referred to as "reduction division" because the chromosome pairs are separated once again to form single sets. The spores are therefore once again haploid and develop into a haploid gametophyte. In land plants such as ferns, mosses and liverworts, the gametophyte is very small. In flowering plants (angiosperms), it is reduced to only a few cells, where the female gametophyte (embryo sac) is known as a megagametophyte and the male gametophyte (pollen) is called a microgametophyte.History of sexual reproductionUnlike animals, plants are immobile, and cannot seek out sexual partners for reproduction. In the evolution of early plants, abiotic means, including water and wind, transported sperm for reproduction. The first plants were aquatic and released sperm freely into the water to be carried with the currents. Primitive land plants like liverworts and mosses had motile sperm that swam in a thin film of water or were splashed in water droplets from the male reproduction organs onto the female organs. As taller and more complex plants evolved, modifications in the alternation of generations evolved; in the Paleozoic era progymnosperms reproduced by using spores dispersed on the wind. The seed plants including seed ferns, conifers and cordaites, which were all gymnosperms, evolved 350 million years ago; they had pollen grains that contained the male gametes for protection of the sperm during the processof transfer from the male to female parts. It is believed that insects fed on the pollen, and plants thus evolved to use insects to actively carry pollen from one plant to the next. Seed producing plants, which include the angiosperms and the gymnosperms, have heteromorphic alternation of generations with large sporophytes containing much reduced gametophytes. Angiosperms have distinctive reproductive organs called flowers, with carpels, and the female gametophyte is greatly reduced to a female embryo sac, with as few as eight cells. The male gametophyte consists of the pollen grains. The sperm of seed plants are non-motile, except for two older groups of plants, the Cycadophyta and the Ginkgophyta, which have flagellated sperm.Flowering plantsFlowering plants are the dominant plant form on land and they reproduce by sexual and asexual means. Often their most distinguishing feature is their reproductive organs, commonly called flowers. Sexual reproduction in flowering plants involves the production of male and female gametes, the transfer of the male gametes to the female ovules in a process called pollination. After pollination occurs, fertilization happens and the ovules grow into seeds with in a fruit. After the seeds are ready for dispersal, the fruit ripens and by variousmeans the seeds are freed from the fruit and after varying amounts of time and under specific conditions the seeds germinate and grow into the next generation.The anther produces male gametophytes, the sperm is produced in pollen grains, which attach to the stigma on top of a carpel, in which the female gametophytes (inside ovules) are located. After the pollen tube grows through the carpel's style, the sex cell nuclei from the pollen grain migrate into the ovule to fertilize the egg cell and endosperm nuclei within the female gametophyte in a process termed double fertilization. The resulting zygote develops into an embryo, while the triploid endosperm (one sperm cell plus two female cells) and female tissues of the ovule give rise to the surrounding tissues in the developing seed. The ovary, which produced the female gametophyte(s), then grows into a fruit, which surrounds the seed(s). Plants may either self-pollinate or cross-pollinate. Nonflowering plants like ferns, moss and liverworts use other means of sexual reproduction.AdaptationsFlowers of wind pollinated plants tend to lack petals and or sepals. Typically large amounts of pollen are produced and pollination often occurs early in the growing season before leaves can interfere with the dispersal of the pollen. Many trees and all grasses and sedges are wind pollinated, as such they have no need for large fancy flowers. In plants that use insects or other animals to move pollen from one flower to the next, plants have developed greatly modified flower parts to attract pollinators and to facilitate the movement of pollen from one flower to the insect and from the insect back to the next flower. Plants have a number of different means to attract pollinators including color, scent, heat, nectar glands, eatable pollen and flower shape. Along with modifications involving the above structures two other conditions play a very important role in the sexual reproduction of flowering plants, the first is timing of flowering and the other is the size or number of flowers produced. Often plant species have a few large, very showy flower while others produce many small flowers, often flowers are collected together into large inflorescences to maximize their visual effect, becoming more noticeable to passing pollinators. Flowers are attraction strategies and sexual expressions are functional strategies used to produce the next generation of plants, with pollinators and plants having co-evolved, often to some extraordinary degrees, very often rendering mutual benefit.The largest family of flowering plants is the orchids (Orchidaceae), estimated by some specialists to include up to 35,000 species, which often have highly specialized flowers used to attract insects and facilitate pollination. The stamens are modified to produce pollen in clusters called pollinium, which are attached to insects when crawling into the flower. The flower shapes are modified to force insects to pass by the pollen, which is "glued" to the insect. Some orchids are even more highly specialized, with flower shapes that mimic the shape of insects to attract them to 'mate' with the flowers, a few even have scents that mimic insect pheromones.Another large group of flowering plants is the Asteraceae or sunflower family with close to 22,000 species, which also have highly modified inflorescences that are flowers collected together in heads composed of a composite of individual flowers called florets. Heads with florets of one sex, when the flowers are pistillate or functionally staminate, or made up of all bisexual florets, are called homogamous and can include discoid and liguliflorous type heads. Some radiate heads may be homogamous too. Plants with heads that have florets of two or more sexual forms are called heterogamous and include radiate and disciform head forms, though some radiate heads may be heterogamous too.FernsFerns typically produce large diploid sporophytes with rhizomes, roots and leaves; and on fertile leaves called sporangium, spores are produced. The spores are released and germinate to produce short, thin gametophytes that are typically heart shaped, small and green in color. The gametophytes or thallus, produce both motile sperm in the antheridia and egg cells in separate archegonia. After rains or when dew deposits a film of water, the motile sperm are splashed away from the antheridia, which are normally produce on the top side of the thallus, and swim in the film of water to the antheridia where they fertilize the egg. To promote out crossing or cross fertilization the sperm are released before the eggs are receptive of the sperm, making it more likely that the sperm will fertilize the eggs of different thallus. A zygote is formed after fertilization, which grows into a new sporophytic plant. The condition of having separate sporephyte and gametophyte plants is call alternation of generations. Other plants with similar reproductive means include the Psilotum, Lycopodium, Selaginella and Equisetum.BryophytesThe bryophytes, which include liverworts, hornworts and mosses, reproduce both sexually and vegetatively. The gametophyte is the most commonly known phase of the plant. An early developmental stage in the gametophyte of mosses (immediately following germination of the meiospore) is called the protonema. All are small plants found growing in moist locations and like ferns, have motile sperm with flagella and need water to facilitate sexual reproduction. These plants start as a haploid spore that grows into the dominate form, which is a multicellular haploid body with leaf-like structures that photosynthesize. Haploid gametes are produced in antherida and archegonia by mitosis. The sperm released from the antherida respond to chemicals released by ripe archegonia and swim to them in a film of water and fertilize the egg cells thus producing a zygote. The zygote divides by mitotic division and grows into a sporophyte that is diploid. The multicellular diploid sporophyte produces structures called spore capsules, which are connected by seta to the archegonia. The spore capsules produce spores by meiosis, when ripe the capsules burst open and the spores are released. Bryophytes show considerable variation in their breeding structures and the above is a basic outline. Also in some species each plant is one sex while other species produce both sexes on the same plant.Sexual expressionMany plants have evolved a complex sexuality, which is expressed in different combinations of their reproductive organs. Some species have separate male and female individuals, some have separate male and female flowers on the same plant, abut the majority of plants have both male and female parts in the same flower. Some plants change their gender expression depending on a number of factors like age, time of day, or because of environmental conditions. Plant sexuality also varies within different populations of some species. Biological interactionsCompetitionWhen plants grow close to other plants they may compete for resources, such as light, water and nutrients, that are needed for plant growth. Plants may compete for a singlegrowth-limiting resource e.g. light in agricultural systems with sufficient water and nutrients, but in most natural ecosystems plants probably are adapted to respond to the environment in such a way that they are colimited by several resources, e.g. light, phosphorus and nitrogen at the same time.In principle, it is possible to examine competition at the level of the limiting resources if a detailed knowledge of the physiological processes of the competing plants is available. However, in most terrestrial ecological studies, there is only little information on the uptake and dynamics of the resources that limit the growth of different plant species, and, instead, competition is inferred from observed negative effects of neighbouring plants without knowing precisely which resources the plants were competing for.FacilitationFacilitation among neighboring plants may act by reducing the negative impacts of a stressful environment, and in general, facilitation is more likely to occur in physically stressful environments than in favorable environments, where competition may be the most important interaction among speciesHerbivoryAn important ecological function of plants is that they produce organic compounds for herbivores in the bottom of the food web. Oppositely, herbivory is an important source of disturbance for many plant species, and they have evolved many different forms of defensive physical structures and chemical compounds to prevent herbivory.DistributionPlant communities are broadly distributed into biomes based on the structure of dominant plant species. Biomes are determined by regional climates, namely temperature and precipitation, and follow general latitudinal trends. Within biomes, there may be many ecological communities, which are impacted not only by climate and a variety ofsmaller-scale features, including soils, hydrology, and disturbance regime.In the same way that plant communities vary at differing latitudes, plant communities vary with elevation. Communities at high elevations often resemble those found at higher latitudes. AbundanceThe ecological success of a plant species in a specific environment may be quantified by its abundance, and depending on the life form of the plant different measures of abundance may be relevant, e.g. density, biomass, or plant cover.The change in the abundance of a plant species may be due to both abiotic factors, e.g. climate change, or biotic factors, e.g herbivory or interspecific competition. Colonisation and local extinctionWhether a plant species is present at a local area depends on the processes of colonisation and local extinction. The probaility of colonisation decreases with distance to neighboring habitats where the species is present and increases with plant abundance and fecundity in neighboring habitats and the dispersal distance of the species. The probability of local extinction decreases with abundance (both living plants and seeds in the soil seed bank).。

absolute reproductive value 绝对生殖值abundance 多度abyssal zone 深海带acclimation 驯化accumulation horizon 淀积层aestivation 夏眠age structure 年龄结构age-specific life table 特定年龄生命表agroecosystem 农业生态系统alleles 等位基因allelochemic 异种信息素/种间外激素Allen’s rule 阿伦法则allogenic succession 异发演替allopatric speciation 异域性物种altruism 利他行为asexual reproduction 无性生殖association group 群丛组association table 群丛表association unit theory 群丛单位理论associations 群丛Autecology 个体生态学autogenic succession 自发演替autotrophs 自养生物Acid precipitation 酸沉降Acid rain 酸雨Agricultural eco-engineering 农业生态工程Agricultural ecology, agroecology 农业生态学Agricultural economical zoning 农业经济区位Agricultural resources 农业资源Agroecosystem 农业生态系统Agroforestry 农林业系统Allee’s principle 阿利氏群聚原则Allelochemicals 化感物质Allelopathy 化感作用Artificial auxiliary energy 人工辅助能Artificial direct regulation 人工直接调控Artificial information flow 人工信息流Auxiliary energy 辅助能balancing selection hypothesize 平衡说basal area 底面积Bergman’s rule 贝格曼规律bethal zone 半深海带biocoenosis 生物群落bioconcentration 生物浓缩biological enrichment 生物富集biomagnification 生物放大biomass 生物量biome 生物带bionomic strategy 生态对策biosphere 生物圈Biodynamic agriculture 生物动力农业Biogecochemical cycle 生物地球化学循环Biological agriculture 生物农业Biological control 生物防治Biological energy subsidies 生物辅助能Biological oxygen demand BOD 生化需氧量生化耗氧量Biomass 生物量Bionomic strategies 生态对策Biological micro-cycle 生物小循环bottle neck 瓶颈C3 plant C3植物C4 plant C4植物CAM plant CAM植物Capital flow 资金流Carrying capacity 环境容纳量Chemical ecology 化学生态学Chemical oxygen demand COD 化学耗氧量Chinese Ecological Agriculture 中国生态农业Climax 顶极群落Coase’s theory 高斯理论Coevolution 协同进化Commensalisms 偏利作用Community 群落Competition 竞争Competition exclusion principle 竞争排斥原理Components structure 组分结构Controlled availability fertilizers, CAFs 控效肥料Crop productivity potential 作物生产潜力cannibalism 同种相食carnivores 食肉动物carring capacity 负荷量catastrophic 灾难性因素chamaephytesCh 地上芽植物character displacement 特征替代cheliophytes 阴性植物climate climax 气候顶级climate school 气候学派climax community 顶级群落climax 顶级群落cline 渐变群closed community 封闭群落clumped 集群分布coadapted system 协同适应系统coarse grained 粗粒性分布co-dynamics 相互动态co-evolution 协同进化cohort 同生群cold desert 冷荒漠colonization 定居, 建群coloration 色泽communities in littoral zone 沿岸生物群落communities in the limnetic zone 湖沼带生物群落communities in the profundal zone 深水带生物群落Community ecology 群落生态学community matrix 群落矩阵community organization 群落组织community 群落companion species 伴生种compen-satory predation 补偿性捕食competition coefficient 竞争系数competition hypothesis 竞争假说competitive exclusion 竞争排除competive lottery 抽彩式竞争conservation 保守主义者conspicuousness 显著度constancy 恒有度contest competition 干扰竞争contest type of competition 争夺型竞争continental rise 大陆隆continental shelf 大陆架continental slope 大陆坡convergent adaptation 趋同适应convergent oscillation 趋同波动cost of gene recombination 基因重组价cost of mating 交配价cost of meiosis 减数分裂价courtship behavior 求偶行为coverage 盖度crude density 原始密度cryptophytesCr 隐芽植物Decomposer 分解者Desertification 土地沙漠化Detritus food chain 腐食食物链decomposition 分解作用delayed density dependence 延后密度制约density effect 密度效应density ratio 密度比density-dependent 密度制约density-independent 非密度制约deterministic model 决定模型detrial food chain 碎食物链detritus feeder 食碎生物development 发育differential species 区别种diffuse competition 分散竞争diominant-submissive 支配—从属directional selection 定向选择discrete generation 离散世代disruptive selection 分裂选择disturbance climax/disclimax 偏途顶级divergent oscillation 趋异波动dominance 优势度dominant species 建群种dominant species 优势种dominant-submissive 支配—从属关系dry desert 干荒漠dynamic classification 动态分类系统dynamic life table 动态生命表dynamic-composite life table 动态混合生命表earth nucleus 地幔earth’s crust 地核Ecological amplitude 生态幅ecological density 生态密度ecological dominance 生态优势ecological environment 生态环境ecological equivalent 生态等值种ecological factor 生态因子ecological force 生态力ecological invasion 生态入侵ecological natality 生态出生率ecological release 生态释放Ecology 生态学ecosystem development 生态系统的发育Ecosystem ecology 生态系统生态学ecosystem 生态系统acetone hypothesis 生态交错带假说ecotype 生态型ectoderm 外温动物edge effect 边缘效应etiolating phenomenon 黄化现象emergy 能值emigration 迁出endogenous migration 内因性迁移endoderm 内温动物environment hormone 环境激素environment 环境equilibrium theory 平衡理论euphonic zone 透光带euryecious 广栖的euryhaline 广盐性的euryhydric 广水性的euryphagic 广食性的eurythermal 广温性的eurytopic species 广适种eutrophication 富营养化evergreen hardwood forest 常绿硬材林Evolution ecology 进化生态学evolution force 进化力exogenous migration 外因性迁移exploitive competition 利用竞争exponetial growth 指数增长Eco-economical zoning 生态经济区位Ecological agriculture 生态农业Ecological agriculture model pattern 生态农业模式Ecological density 生态密度Ecological effect 生态效益Ecological efficiency 生态效率Ecological factor 生态因子Ecological engineering 生态工程Ecological pyramid 生态金字塔生态锥体Ecological succession 演替Ecological sustainability 生态持续性Ecology 生态学Economic effect 经济效益Economic externality 经济外部性Ecosystem 生态系统Ecotone 群落交错区生态交错区Ecotope 景观元素生态点Ecotype 生态型Edge effect 边缘效应Embodied energy 内含能Emergent property of system 系统的整合特性Energy analysis 能流分析Energy flow chart 能流图Energy flow path 能流路径Energy flow structure 能流结构Energy flowing 能量流Entropy 熵Eutrophication 富营养化Exponential growth form 种群指数增长模式External benefit 收益外泄External cost 成本外摊Feed back 反馈作用First law of thermodynamics 热力学第一定律Fish pond-dike system 基塘系统Flow 流Food chain 食物链Food chain structure 食物链结构Food web 食物网Free energy 自由能First law of resources economic 资源经济学第一定律Functional component adundence 功能组分冗余facultative parthenogenesis 孤雌生殖facultative parthenogenesis 兼性孤雌生殖facultative 兼性因素family selection 家庭选择farmland ecosystem 农田生态系统fecundity schedule 生育力表fecundity 生育力feedback 反馈feeding niches 取食生态位filter food 滤食性生物fine grained 细粒性分布finite rate of increase 周限增长率fitness 合适度floristic-structural classification 植物区系—结构分类系统fluctuation 波动food chain 食物链formation group 群系组formation 群系formation 植物群系foundational niche 基础生态龛freshwater ecology 淡水生态学freshwater ecosystem 淡水生态系统function response 功能反应gamete selection 配子选择gaps 缺口gaseous cycle 气体循环geng pool 基因库geographic variation 地理变异geographical theory of speciation 物种形成geometric growth 几何级数增长geophytesG 地下芽植物global ecology 全球生态gradient hypothesis 梯度假说grain 粒性grazer 牧食生物grazing food chain 捕食食物链greenhouse effect 温室效应gregarization pheromone 聚集信息素gross primary production 总初级生产力group selection 群体选择growth form 生长型guild 同资源团habal zone 深渊带habitat 生境heath 石楠群丛height 高度hemicryptophytesHe 地面芽植物herbivore 植食herbivores 植食动物heterotrophic succession 异养演替heterotrophs 异养生物hibernation 冬眠homeostasis 内稳态homeostasis 自调节稳态homeostatic organism 内稳态生物homeostatic process 内稳定过程human demography 人口统计学Human ecology 人类生态学humus 腐殖质hydrarch succession 水生演替hydrosere 水生演替系列immigration 迁入importance value 重要值individual converse rate 个体转化率industrial melanism 工业黑化现象inner capacity increase 内禀增长力inner-environment 内环境instantaneous rate of increase 瞬间增长率intensity 强度interference competition 干扰竞争interference competition 干扰竞争intermediate disturbance hypothesis 中度干扰假说internal distribution pattern 内分布型interspecfic relationship 种间关系intertidal zone 潮间带intraspecific relationship 种内关系inversely density dependent 反密度制约Island ecology 岛屿生态学iteroparity 多次繁殖生物iteroparous 多次生殖Jordan’s rule 约丹定律keystone species 关键种kin selection 亲属选择kin selection 亲属选择k-strategists k-策略者land cover 土地覆盖land use 土地利用Landscape ecology 景观生态学law of constant final yield 最后产量衡值法则law of the minimum 最小因子法则law of tolerance 耐受性法则layer 层leached layer 淋溶层leaf area index 叶面积指数leaf area indexLAS 叶面积指数lentic ecosystem 静水生态系统life cycle 生活周期life expectancy 生命期望life form spectrum 生活型谱life form 生活型life history strategy 生活史对策life history 生活史lifespan 生活年限lifetime 寿命limit of tolerance 忍受性限度littoral zone 沿岸带lotic ecosystem 流水生态系统macroclimate 大气候macrofauna 大型生物Marine ecology 海洋生态学marine ecosystem 海洋生态系统maximum natality 最大出生率maximum sustained yield 最大持续生产量megafauna 巨型生物mexofauna 中型生物microclimate 小气候microcolony 微菌落microcommunities 小群落micro-ecosystem 微生态系统micro-environment 微环境microfauna 小型生物microplankton 小型浮游生物migration 迁徙modular organism 构件生物modules 构件Molecular ecology 分子生态学monoclimax theory 单元演替顶级monocultute 单种养殖monogamy 单配偶制monpohagous 单食性monsoon forest 季风林mortality curve 死亡曲线mortality 死亡率mosaic 镶嵌性natality 出生率n-dimensional niche n 维生态龛negative feedback 负反馈net primary productionGP 净初级生产力neutrality controversy 中性说论战niche compression 生态位压缩niche separation 生态位分离niche shift 生态位分离niche 生态位non-equilibrium theory 非平衡理论non-homeostatic organism 非内稳态生物obiotic component 非生物成分ocean-current 洋流ohort life table 同群生命表omnivores 杂食动物open community 开放群落open shrublands 稀疏灌丛opportunist 机会主义者ordination 排序ornamentation 修饰panclimax 泛顶级pantropical 泛热带区parabiosphere 副生物圈parasites 寄生生物parasitoidism 拟寄生parent material 母质层parental care 亲代关怀parental investment 亲本投资patchiness 斑块性per capita growth rate 每员增长率perclimax 前顶级peritrophic mycorrhizae 周边营养性菌根phanerophytesPh 厄尔尼诺El Nino photoperiodism 光周期现象phyplankton 浮游植物physiognomy 外貌Physiological ecology 生理生态学physiological natality 生理出生率phytochrom 色素pioneer community 先锋群落pjarapatric speciation 邻域性物种plankon 浮游生物Poission distribution 泊松分布polyandry 一雌多雄制polyclimax theory 多元顶级理论polygamy 多配偶制polygyny 一雄多雌制polymorphism 多型现象polyphagous 多食性的Population ecology 种群生态学population 种群porosity 粒间空隙positive feedback 正反馈postclimax 超顶级predation 捕食者predator 捕食者present reproductive value 当年繁殖价值prevail climax 优势顶级prey 猎物prezygotic mechanism 合子前隔离primary production 初级生产primary succession 初级演替primary succession 原生演替principle of allocation 分配原理principle of competitive exclusion 竞争互斥原理production rate 生产率production 生产量productivity 生产力progressive succession 进展演替protogynous hermaphriodism 雌雄同体pyramid of energy 能量金字塔radiation adaptation 趋异适应random 随机分布rare species 偶见种reaction time lag 反应滞时reactive species 反映性物种realized natality 实际出生率realized nick 实际生态龛regressive succession 逆行演替relative frequency 相对频度relative reproductive value 相对生殖值reproduction effect 生殖成效reproductive cost 繁殖成本reproductive pattern 生殖格局reproductive time lag 生殖滞时reproductive value 生殖值residual reproductive value 剩余繁殖价值resilient stability 恢复稳定性resistant stability 抵抗稳定性Restoration ecology 恢复生态学richness 丰度r-k continuum of strategies r-k略连续系统r-strategists r-策略者saprovores 食腐者savanna woodland 热带稀树草原林地scavenger 食腐者sciophytes 阳性植物scramble competition 利用竞争scramble type of competition 分摊型竞争secondary metabolites 次生代谢物质secondary production 次级生产力secondary succession 次生演替secondary 次级演替sedimentary cycle 沉积循环selective fertilization 选择受精self-destructive 自我破坏semelparity 一次繁殖生物semelparous 一次生殖sex ratio 性比sexual dimorphism 雌雄二形现象sexual reproduction 有性生殖sexual selection 性选择shade plants 耐阴性植物Shannon-Weiner index 香农—威纳指数sieve selection hypothesis 筛选说similarity 相似度Simpson’s diversity index 辛普森多样性指数social group 社群social hierarchy 社会等级social-economic-natural complex ecosystem 社会--经济--自然复合系统solar emergy 太阳能值solar emjoules 太阳能焦耳solar transformity 太阳能值转换率spatial pattern 空间格局special heterogeneity 空间异质性speciation 物种形成species area curve 物种面积曲线species diversity 物种多样性species evenness or equitability 种的均匀度species heterogeneity 种的不齐性species turnover rate 种的周转率spore reproduction 孢子生殖stability-resilience 稳定恢复力stabilizing selection 稳定选择standing crop 现存量static life table 静态生命表stenoecious 窄栖性的stenohaline 窄盐性的stenohydric 窄水性的stenophagic 窄食性的stenothermal 窄温性的steppe and semideserty 干草原和半荒漠stochastic model 随机模型stratification 成层现象subassociation 亚群丛组subdominant 亚优势种subformation 亚群系succession 演替succulent 肉质植物succulent 肉质植物summed dominance ratio SDR综合优势比summer-green deciduous forest 夏绿落叶林survivorship curve 存活曲线sympatric speciation 同域性物种Synecology 群落生态学synusia 层片Terrestrial ecology 陆地生态学territorial behavior 领域行为territoriality 领域性the –2/3 thinning law –2/3自疏法则the effect of neighbours 邻接效应therophytes Th 一年生植物thertnoperiodism 温周期现象thorn forest and scrub 多刺森林和密灌丛time-specific life table 特定时间生命表torpor 蛰伏total neutrality hypothesis 中性说trophic level 营养级trophic relationship 营养的联系trophic relationship 营养联系tundra and cold forest 苔原和冷森林uniform 均匀分布unitary organism 单体生物univoltine insects 一化性的昆虫upper horizon 覆盖层Urban ecology 城市生态学vegetation subtype 植被亚型vegetation type group 植被型组vegetation type 植被型vegetative propagation 营养生殖volume 体积water cycle 水循环weight 重量xerarch succession 旱生演替xerophytes 旱生植物zero net growth isoline ZNGI零增长线zone of emergent vegetation 挺水植物带zooplankton 浮游动物El Nino 厄尔尼诺feedback 反馈reflex 反射generalist 泛化种defennce behavior 防卫行为flower visitor 访花昆虫non-hierarchical 非等级的non-spatial model 非空间模型non-homeostatic organism 非内稳态生物nonequilibrium metapopulation 非平衡态复合种群nonequilibrium habitat-tracking metapopulation 非平衡态跟踪生境复合种群nonequilibrium declining metapopulation 非平衡态下降复合种群non—niche 非生态位physical environment 非生物环境nonlinear 非线性关系dispersion 分布decomposer 分解者branching process 分支过程molecular taxonomy 分子分类学the neutral theory of molecular evolution 分子进化的中性理论molecular ecology 分子生态学molecular systematics 分子系统学plankton 浮游动物negative feedback 负反馈carrying capacity 负荷量negative interaction 负相互作用negative selection 负选择epifauna 附底动物metapopulation 复合种群eutrohication 富营养化现象relamation 改良coverage 盖度cover ratio 盖度比disturbance 干扰disturbance patch 干扰斑块disturbance corridor 干扰廊道interference 干扰作用height 高度Coarse's hypothesis 高斯假说Coarse's theory 高斯理论phanerophytes 高位芽植物Grenville Orogenesis 格林威尔造山运动individual 个体individualistic concept 个体论概念renewal 更新functional niche 功能生态位aggressive behavior 攻击行为modules 构件modular organism 构件生物keystone species 关键种association coefficients 关联系数light saturation point 光饱和点light compensation point 光补偿点photoperiod 光周期filter 过滤器Hardy-Weinberg principle 哈德-温伯格原理Ocean ecosytem 海洋生态系统Cambrian period 寒武纪siccocolous 旱生植物river corridor 河流廊道contancy 恒有度mangrove 红树林respiration 呼吸量mutualism 互利synomone 互利素synomonal 互利作用allelopathy 化感作用chemical defence 化学防御chemical ecology 化学生态学allelochemicals 化学物质chemocryptic 化学隐藏divisive 划分的environment 环境environmental ethics 环境伦理学environmental carryin capacity 环境容纳量environmental resource patch 环境资源斑块environmental resource corridor 环境资源廊道desert 荒漠desertification 荒漠化desert ecosystem 荒漠生态系统eitiolation phenomenon 黄化现象restoration ecology 恢复生态学chaos 混沌学mixed type 混合型exchange pool 活动库acquired behavior 获得性行为organismic school 机体论学派Fundamental niche 基础生态位Ecology is the scientific study of interactions among organisms and their environment, such as the interactions organisms have with each other and with their abiotic environment. Topics of interest to ecologists include thediversity, distribution, amount biomass, number population of organisms, as well as competition between them within and amongecosystems. Ecosystems are composed of dynamically interacting parts including organisms, the communities they make up, and the non-living components of their environment. Ecosystem processes, such as primary production, pedogenesis, nutrient cycling, and various niche construction activities, regulate the flux of energy and matter through an environment. These processes are sustained by organisms with specific life history traits, and the variety of organisms is calledbiodiversity. Biodiversity, which refers to the varieties of species,genes, and ecosystems, enhances certain ecosystem services.生态是生物和环境之间的相互作用,如生物相互之间以及与他们的非生物环境的相互作用的科学的研究;生态学家感兴趣的话题包括的thediversity,分布量生物量,数量人口的生物,以及他们之间的竞争和amongecosystems内;包括生物体的动态相互作用的部分组成的生态系统,他们的社区做起来,他们的环境和非生物成分;生态过程,如初级生产,成土作用,养分循环,各种小生建设活动的环境,通过调节能量和物质通量;这些过程持续生物体特定的生活史,各种生物calledbiodiversity;生物多样性是指物种,基因和生态系统的品种,提高一定的生态系统服务;Ecology is an interdisciplinary field that includes biology and Earth science. The word "ecology" "Ökologie" was coined in 1866 by the German scientist Ernst Haeckel 1834–1919. Ancient Greek philosophers such as Hippocrates and Aristotle laid the foundations of ecology in their studies on natural history. Modern ecology transformed into a more rigorous science in the late 19th century. Evolutionary concepts on adaptation and natural selection became cornerstones of modernecological theory. Ecology is not synonymous with environment,environmentalism, natural history, or environmental science. It is closely related to evolutionary biology, genetics, and ethology. An understanding of how biodiversity affects ecological function is an important focus area in ecological studies. Ecologists seek to explain:生态学是一个跨学科领域,包括生物学和地球科学; “生态学”的“Ökologie”,是由德国科学家恩斯特·海克尔1834-1919于1866年创造的;如古希腊哲学家希波克拉底和亚里士多德在他们的研究奠定了基础,生态,自然历史;现代生态转化为更严格的科学在19世纪后期;适应和自然选择的进化概念成为了基石modernecological理论;生态环境,环保,自然历史,或环境科学的代名词;它是密切相关,进化生物学,遗传学和行为学;理解生物多样性如何影响生态功能是生态研究的一个重点领域;生态学家寻求解释：Life processes, interactions and adaptationsThe movement of materials and energy through living communitiesThe successional development of ecosystems, andThe abundance and distribution of organisms and biodiversity in the context of the environment.生命过程,相互作用和适应通过物质和能量的运动生活社区生态系统的演替发展,上下文环境中的生物和生物多样性的丰度和分布;Ecology is a human science as well. There are many practical applications of ecology in conservation biology, wetland management,natural resource management agroecology, agriculture, forestry,agroforestry, fisheries, city planning urban ecology, community health, economics, basic and applied science, and human social interaction human ecology. Organisms and resources compose ecosystems which, in turn, maintain biophysical feedback mechanisms that moderate processes acting on living biotic and nonliving abiotic components of the planet. Ecosystems sustain life-supporting functions and produce natural capital like biomass production food, fuel, fiber and medicine, the regulationof climate, global biogeochemical cycles, water filtration, soil formation, erosion control, flood protection and many other natural features of scientific, historical, economic, or intrinsic value.生态是人类科学;有很多实际应用中的生态保护生物学,湿地管理,自然资源管理农业生态学,农业,林业,农林业,渔业,城市规划城市生态,社区卫生,经济,基础科学和应用科学,人类社会的互动人类生态学;生物和资源组成的生态系统,反过来,保持生物物理反馈机制,适度的过程,作用于生活生物和无生命的星球生物的组件;生态系统维持生命支持功能和生产生物质生产食品,燃料,纤维和医药,调节气候等自然资本,全球生物地球化学循环,过滤水,土壤的形成,控制水土流失,防洪和许多其他科学的自然特征,历史,经济,或内在价值;Hierarchical ecologyThe scale of ecological dynamics can operate like a closed system, such as aphids migrating on a single tree, while at the same time remain open with regard to broader scale influences, such as atmosphere or climate. Hence, ecologists classify ecosystems hierarchically by analyzing data collected from finer scale units, such as vegetation associations, climate, and soil types, and integrate this information to identify emergent patterns of uniform organization and processes that operate on local to regional, landscape, and chronological scales.生态动力学的规模可以象一个封闭的系统,如在一个单一的树进行迁移的蚜虫操作,而在同一时间保持打开状态,关于更广泛的范围的影响,如大气或气候;因此,生态学家生态系统分类较细规模的单位,如植被协会,气候和土壤类型,通过分析收集的数据分层,整合此信息来确定突发模式统一组织和流程上操作的地方到区域,景观,实足鳞片;To structure the study of ecology into a conceptually manageable framework, the biological world is organized into a nested hierarchy, ranging in scale from genes, to cells, to tissues, to organs, to organisms, to species, topopulations, to communities, to ecosystems, to biomes, and up to the level of the biosphere.6 This framework forms a panarchy7 and exhibits non-linearbehaviors; this means that "effect and cause are disproportionate, so that small changes to critical variables, such as the number of nitrogen fixers, can lead to disproportionate, perhaps irreversible, changes in the system properties.组织生态学研究的一个概念管理的框架,组织成一个嵌套层次的生物世界,规模不等,从基因,细胞,组织,器官,生物体,以品种,群体,社区,生态系统,生物群落,最多对生物圈的水平;6该框架形成一panarchy7和展品的非线性行为,这意味着“效应而引起不成比例,从而使小的变化的关键变量,如固氮细菌的数量,可导致不相称的,或许是不可逆转的,在系统属性的变化;BiodiversityBiodiversity an abbreviation of "biological diversity" describes the diversity of life from genes to ecosystems and spans every level of biological organization. The term has several interpretations, and there are many ways to index, measure, characterize, and represent its complex organization.101112 Biodiversity includes species diversity, ecosystem diversity, and genetic diversity and scientists are interested in the way that this diversity affects the complex ecological processes operating at and among these respective levels.111314 Biodiversity plays an important role inecosystem services which by definition maintain and improve human quality of life.151612 Preventing species extinctions is one way to preserve biodiversity and that goal rests on techniques that preserve genetic diversity, habitat and the ability for species to migrate.citation needed Conservation priorities and management techniques require different approaches and considerations to address the full ecological scope of biodiversity.Natural capital that supports populations is critical for maintaining ecosystem services1718 and speciesmigration e.g., riverine fish runs and avian insect control has been implicated as one mechanism by which those service losses are experienced.19 An understanding of biodiversity has practical applications for species and ecosystem-level conservation planners as they make management recommendations to consulting firms, governments, and industry从基因到生态系统的生物多样性“生物多样性”的缩写描述生命的多样性,跨越各个层次的生物组织;这个词有几种解释,指数,衡量的方法有很多,检定和代表其复杂的组织;10 1112生物多样性包括物种多样性,生态系统多样性,遗传多样性和科学家感兴趣的是这种多样性影响的复杂的生态过程,在各自水平和经营方式;111314生物多样性生态系统服务的定义保持和提高人类的生活质量起着重要的作用;1516 12防止物种灭绝,是保护生物多样性的方式之一,目标在于技术,保持遗传多样性,栖息地和物种迁移的能力;引证需要优先保护和管理技术需要不同的方法和注意事项,以解决全生态生物多样性的范围;支持人口的自然资本是至关重要的维持生态系统服务17 18和物种迁移例如,运行河流鱼类和昆虫控制禽流感已牵连作为一个机制,这些服务亏损经历;19理解生物多样性,物种和生态系统一级保护规划具有实际应用,因为他们提出管理建议,咨询公司,政府和行业•。

The influence of mining exploitation on environment and the solution of the disposal of solid waste residue By the year of 2012, China has 8557 State-owned mining enterprises and over 200 thousands individually owned enterprises. The area of destroyed land in mining area adds up to 29 thousand km^2 and grows at the rate of 2% each year (Liao L-P, Gao.H and Yu X-J, 2012). The mining industry has scored tremendous achievements, but meanwhile it threatens the environment. Some individually owned enterprises lack the awareness of environmental protection and take no preventive measure to lower their cost. Furthermore, out-of-date equipment and poor technology cause huge waste in production, which cause serious environmental pollution.The destruction on land resourcesStrip mining and the piling of tailings and waste residue occupies and destroys large land. In china, the waste-occupied land in mining area adds up to 59 thousand km^2 and the resulting deforestation area adds up to 11 thousand km^2 (Ma X-Q, Huang B-L, 2010). Strip mining can result in the destruction of land surface and Land Subsidence and accelerate the water and soil losses. According to official statistics, by the year of 2011, in the mining area of western China, the Soil erosion area annually increases 20 km^2.The increase of the risk of geological disasterThe construction of mining engineering can significantly change the landform in mining area. Digging to a certain depth will threaten the stability of hillside and easily induce some geological disasters, such as landslip, collapse, debris flow, surface subsidence and even earthquake (Cao F-G, 2007). For example, 4 tons of water will be drained off when 1 ton of coal is mined. The loss of groundwater exerts huge pressure on earthcrust (Gibowicz, 1999). In China, there are nearly 2000 sinkholes and the collapse area adds up to 1150 km^2. Almost 40 of the mining cities in China have Cave-in accident, which threatens the life of mine operators and cause heavy property loss, about 120 million dollars on average each year.The influence on water resourceDeep mining engineering will influence the surface water resources and groundwater resources. Excessive groundwater extraction can cause the drop of water level, some problems on water supply and land subsidence (Auclair AD, 2008). The quality surface water will decrease and the course of river might be changed. In some drought region，the drop of groundwater level can lead to the death of land vegetation (Becker M, 2005). More seriously, huge amounts of industrial water are required tosupport over exploitation in mineral-abundant region and most of the water is drawn from agricultural water, which interferes the agricultural production (Shi X-H, 2009). The loss of biodiversitySoil degradation, environmental pollution, the emission of waste and vegetation clearing are fatal to the biodiversity in mining area. After the loss of biodiversity, some high-resistant species can still inhabit the abandoned land in mining area, but because of the barren soil and the deficiency of microorganism activity, the recovery of ecosystem usually need 10-50 years (Xiao H-L, 2011). The loss of biodiversity in some damaged ecosystems is even irreversible.The solution of the disposal of solid waste residueSolid waste residue is the biggest polluter in mining area and the disposal of it still plagues the government and mining enterprises, so it deserves a separate discussion. The heavy metal ion in solid waste is the most harmful substance. Once contacting water source, these ions will dissolve, making the water corrosive and toxic, and it is very difficult to extract them from the water (FAO, 2004).High technology offers two new methods to solve this problem. One is microorganism technology. The removal of heavy metal ions by microorganism is a new applicable technique. Various types of biomass, including bacteria, fungi, yeast and algae have been evaluated for their heavy metal uptake properties. The most prominent features of biosorption are the use of low cost biomass material and the high efficiency of some biomass to uptake heavy metals in very low concentration (Jose T.Matheickal, 2001).Another one is new corrosion-resisting clay. This kind of clay is toughened, innocuous and environmental-friendly. In the process of disposing the waste residue, the clay will be first made into mud. The clay mud covers the surface of waste residue and after it dries out, the clay will become a waterproof layer and can resist the corrosion of any substance in the soil. Then the waste residue can be sequestered underground safely (Moore, 2005).However, Zhu.J.J has pointed out the possible resistance of the implementation of these methods. There is a lack of related Professional Staff. Disposing the waste residue in high-tech methods will increase the cost of enterprises (Zhu J-J, 2009). What’s more, some individually-owned enterprises are even ignorant of the importance of environmental protection, so they may be completely uninterested in these handling methods .Summary and TipsAlong with the enhancing of the people's awareness of the environment，the environmental management has become indispensable in the development of mining industry. Some relative rules, regulations, and standards show be put on to establish a more rational Working mechanism. If the development condition of the mining industry improves, the mining enterprises will no longer pursue profit at the cost of environment.ReferencesAuclair AD. (2008). A case stury of forest decline in western Canada and the adjacent United States. Water, Air and Soil pollution 53(2): 23-31.Becker M. (2005). Silver fir decline in the V osges mountains: Role of climate and natural culture. Water, Air and Soil Pollution 48: 77-80Cao F-G. (2007). Hunan Geology Science & Technology 21(2): 29-31(in Chinese) FAO. (2004). State of the World’s Chemical Industry, 2009. Journal of Applied Chemistry, 15(10): 195-196Gibowicz. (1999). Magnitude and energy of subterranean shocks in Upper Silesia.The Earth's Interior Structure 32(7): 14-15Jose T.Matheickal. (2001). Removal of Heavy Metal Ion from Wastewater by Using Biosorbents from Marine Algae. Chinese Journal of Chemistry 9(2): 133-136 Liao L-P, Gao H, Yu X-J (2012). Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology 11(2): 61-64 (in Chinese)Ma X-Q, Huang B-L. (2010). A study on self-poisoning effects of Chinese fir plantation. Journal of Nanjing Forestry University 24(1): 12-16Moore.(2005). Changes in structure and composition of modern Industrial raw materials.Modern Industry Management 208(1/3): 223-225Shi X-H. (2009). Rain and its influence on environmental ecosystem. Journal of Inner Mongolia Agricultural University 21(1): 109-114(in Chinese)Xiao H-L. (2011). Increased soil temperature and forest decline. Tropical Subtropical Soil Science 4(4): 246-249(in Chinese)Zhu J-J. (2009). A review on fundamental studies of secondary forest management.Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology 13(12): 168-169。

The Impact of Biodiversity on Ecosystems Biodiversity refers to the variety of living organisms that inhabit the earth. It encompasses the diversity of species, genes, and ecosystems. Biodiversity plays a crucial role in maintaining the balance of nature and the well-being of the planet. It is essential to understand the impact of biodiversity on ecosystems and how it affects our lives.One of the most significant impacts of biodiversity on ecosystems is the provision of ecosystem services. Ecosystem services are the benefits that humans derive from the natural environment. These services include the provision of food, water, and air, as well as the regulation of climate, water, and soil quality. Biodiversity is the foundation of these services, and without it, ecosystems would not be able to provide them.Biodiversity also plays a crucial role in maintaining the stability of ecosystems. Species within ecosystems are interconnected, and the loss of one species can have a ripple effect on the entire ecosystem. For example, the extinction of a predator species can result in an increase in the population of its prey, which can lead to a decrease in the population of the prey's food source. This can ultimately result in the collapse of the entire ecosystem.The impact of biodiversity on ecosystems also extends to the cultural and aesthetic value of nature. Biodiversity provides us with a sense of wonder and appreciation for the natural world. It is a source of inspiration for art, literature, and music. It also has cultural significance, as many indigenous communities rely on biodiversity for their livelihoods and cultural practices.However, human activities such as deforestation, pollution, and climate change are threatening biodiversity and the ecosystems that depend on it. The loss of biodiversity can have severe consequences for humans, including the loss of ecosystem services, decreased food security, and increased vulnerability to natural disasters.To address the impact of biodiversity loss on ecosystems, it is essential to take action to protect and restore biodiversity. This can involve measures such as habitat restoration, conservation efforts, and sustainable management practices. It also requires addressing theunderlying causes of biodiversity loss, such as unsustainable consumption and production patterns.In conclusion, biodiversity plays a critical role in maintaining the balance of nature and the well-being of the planet. It provides us with ecosystem services, maintains the stability of ecosystems, and has cultural and aesthetic value. However, human activities are threatening biodiversity and the ecosystems that depend on it. To address this issue, it is essential to take action to protect and restore biodiversity and address the underlying causes of biodiversity loss. By doing so, we can ensure the continued provision of ecosystem services and the well-being of both humans and the natural world.。

生物专业英语试题及答案一、词汇题（每题2分，共20分）1. 以下哪个单词表示“细胞分裂”？A. Cell divisionB. Cell fusionC. Cell differentiationD. Cell metabolism答案：A2. “基因”在英文中的正确表达是？A. GeneB. GenusC. GenotypeD. Genomics答案：A3. 哪个术语与“光合作用”相关？A. PhotosynthesisB. RespirationC. FermentationD. Anaerobic respiration答案：A4. “遗传工程”的英文表达是什么？A. Genetic engineeringB. Genetic mutationC. Genetic selectionD. Genetic variation答案：A5. “酶”的英文单词是？A. EnzymeB. HormoneC. ProteinD. Lipid答案：A6. “生态系统”在英文中如何表达？A. EcosystemB. BiosystemC. EcosystemsD. Biosphere答案：A7. “进化”的英文对应词是？A. EvolutionB. DevolutionC. InvolutionD. Revolution答案：A8. “克隆”在生物学中的英文术语是什么？A. CloningB. CopyingC. DuplicationD. Replication答案：A9. “物种”的英文单词是？A. SpeciesB. GenusC. VarietyD. Type答案：A10. “微生物”的英文表达是？A. MicroorganismB. MacroorganismC. OrganismD. Microbe答案：A二、阅读理解题（每题5分，共30分）阅读以下段落，并回答问题。

Biotechnology is the use of living organisms and bioprocesses to develop or make products. It involves the use of organisms, cells, and cellular components to research and produce goods and services. Modern biotechnology provides breakthrough products and technologies to combat debilitating and rarediseases, reduce our environmental footprint, feed the hungry, use less and cleaner energy, and have safer, cleaner and more efficient industrial manufacturing processes.11. 根据段落，生物技术涉及哪些方面？A. 使用生物和生物过程开发产品B. 仅使用生物过程C. 仅使用生物D. 使用生物和非生物过程答案：A12. 现代生物技术提供了哪些突破性的产品和技术？A. 治疗罕见疾病B. 减少环境影响C. 提供食物D. 所有上述选项答案：D13. 根据段落，生物技术如何帮助环境？A. 减少环境足迹B. 增加污染C. 加剧气候变化D. 消耗更多资源答案：A14. 生物技术如何帮助解决饥饿问题？A. 提供更少的食物B. 提供更多的食物C. 提高食物价格D. 降低食物质量答案：B15. 生物技术在工业制造中的作用是什么？A. 提高效率B. 降低安全性C. 增加污染D. 减少清洁度答案：A三、完形填空题（每题3分，共15分）阅读以下短文，从所给选项中选择最合适的一项填入空白处。

第 32 卷 第 10 期Vol.32，No.1058-702023 年 10 月草业学报ACTA PRATACULTURAE SINICA 金欣悦， 龚莉， 王梦亭， 等. 紫草科2种短命植物功能性状的差异化协变特征. 草业学报， 2023， 32（10）： 58−70.JIN Xin -yue ， GONG Li ， WANG Meng -ting ， et al . Differential covariation characteristics in functional traits of two ephemerals of Boraginaceae in the Gurbantunggut Desert ， China. Acta Prataculturae Sinica ， 2023， 32（10）： 58−70.紫草科2种短命植物功能性状的差异化协变特征金欣悦1，2，3，龚莉1，王梦亭1，2，3，陶冶2，3，周多奇1*（1.安庆师范大学生命科学学院，皖西南生物多样性研究与生态保护安徽省重点实验室，安徽 安庆 246133；2.荒漠与绿洲生态国家重点实验室，干旱区生态安全与可持续发展重点实验室，中国科学院新疆生态与地理研究所，新疆 乌鲁木齐830011；3.新疆抗逆植物基因资源保育与利用重点实验室，中国科学院新疆生态与地理研究所，新疆 乌鲁木齐830011）摘要：短命植物是为逃避夏季干旱而演化成的一类特殊植物类群，但不同种的短命植物功能性状是否具有相同或相似的协变特征尚不明晰。

以新疆古尔班通古特沙漠广布的紫草科不同属短命植物硬萼软紫草和假狼紫草为研究对象，通过野外采样及室内测定，使用降主轴回归、主成分分析及植物性状网络分析对比探究不同物种功能性状特征、性状间异速生长关系及性状协变关系的差异性。

结果表明，假狼紫草地上生物量（2.217 g ·株₋1）、全株生物量（2.407 g ·株₋1）、冠幅直径（14.26 cm ）及冠幅株高比（1.550）显著高于硬萼软紫草（1.010 g ·株₋1、1.145 g ·株₋1、10.95 cm 和1.138），但后者根冠比（0.147）高于前者（0.091）。

对生物学做出贡献英语作文I've always been fascinated by the diversity of life on this planet. From the tiniest microorganisms to the largest mammals, the study of biology has opened my eyes to the incredible complexity and interconnectedness of all living things.One of the most exciting moments in my career as a biologist was when I discovered a new species of insect in the Amazon rainforest. It was a tiny, iridescent beetlethat had never been documented before. This discovery not only added to our understanding of the biodiversity of the rainforest, but also highlighted the importance of preserving these ecosystems for future generations.In my research, I have focused on the role of genetics in disease susceptibility. By studying the genetic makeup of different populations, I have been able to identify genetic variations that may contribute to an increased risk of certain diseases. This work has the potential to lead tothe development of more targeted and personalizedtreatments for individuals based on their genetic profile.Another area of my research has been in the field of conservation biology. I have worked on projects aimed at protecting endangered species and their habitats. By understanding the ecological needs of these species, we can develop more effective conservation strategies to ensure their survival in the face of increasing threats such as habitat loss and climate change.I have also been involved in outreach and education efforts to inspire the next generation of biologists. By sharing my passion for biology with students and the public, I hope to foster a greater appreciation for the natural world and the importance of preserving it for future generations.Overall, my contributions to the field of biology have been driven by a deep curiosity about the natural world and a desire to make a positive impact through my research and outreach efforts. I am excited to continue exploring newfrontiers in biology and sharing my knowledge and enthusiasm with others.。

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红树林湿地有机碳研究进展*朱耀军＊＊郭菊兰武高洁（中国林业科学研究院湿地研究所，国家林业局湿地研究中心，北京100091）摘要红树林湿地是地球上生产力最高的区域之一，尽管红树林的面积相对较少，但其单位面积的固碳能力很强，是重要的“蓝碳”碳库，其有机碳储量及动态对于全球碳平衡有重要影响。

本文对红树林湿地有机碳（包括植被生物量碳和沉积物有机碳）的碳储量及计量方法，沉积物中有机碳的组成、来源及溯源方法，以及影响红树林湿地有机碳动态的因素等方面的研究进行了综述，并对其存在的问题和今后的研究趋势进行了分析。

基于红树林湿地的固碳潜力和资源快速减少的现状，准确评估红树林碳库及其动态，有助于气候变化框架条约下的滨海湿地碳计量和价值评价，可以揭示红树林生态系统与全球变化的反馈关系，为红树林生态恢复和保护提供依据。

关键词红树林；有机碳；碳储量；沉积物；滨海湿地中图分类号S963文献标识码A 文章编号1000－4890（2012）10－2681－07Organic carbon in mangrove wetlands ：A review．ZHU Yao-jun ，GUO Ju-lan ，WU Gao-jie（Institute of Wetland Research ，Chinese Academy of Forestry ，Wetland Research Centre ，State Forestry Administration ，Beijing 100091，China ）．Chinese Journal of Ecology ，2012，31（10）：2681－2687．Abstract ：Mangrove wetland is one of the most productive ecosystems in the world．Its occupied area is not vast ，but its carbon-sequestration capability per unit area is quite strong ，being animportant ‘blue carbon ’sink ，and the storage and dynamics of the organic carbon in the sink having great effects on the balance of global carbon cycle．In this paper ，the present research progress on the organic carbon storage （including that of vegetation biomass and sediment ）in mangrove wetlands and related measurement methods ，the components and source of the sediment organic carbon ，and the factors affecting the dynamics of the organic carbon in mangrove wet-lands were summarized ，and the existing problems and future research trends were analyzed．In terms of the rapid decline of the carbon-sequestration capability of mangrove wetland and the rap-id decrease of the wetland resource ，it would be necessary to accurately assess the carbon sink and its dynamics of mangrove forests ，which would contribute to the carbon measurement and val-uation of coastal wetlands under the treaty of climate change framework ，help to reveal the feed-back relationships of mangrove ecosystem and global change ，and provide a basis for the restora-tion and protection of mangrove ecosystems．Key words ：mangrove ；organic carbon ；carbon storage ；sediment ；coastal wetland．*国家自然科学基金项目（31100413）、中央级公益性科研院所基本科研业务费项目（CAFINT2011C10和CAFINT2010K08）和林业公益性行业科研专项（201104072）资助。