华中科技大学博士入学考试试题病理学-从2000年到2015年

华中科技大学最近十年博士病理学试题华中科技大学2001年病理学（专基）（博士）一、名词解释（4*10）1、Mallory小体2、凋亡小体3、纤维素样坏死4、囊腺癌5、假结核结节6、肿瘤的异质性7、白色血栓8、区域性心肌梗死9、噬神经细胞现象10、白细胞附壁二、问答题1、试比较肥大和增生的形态学异同点（15分）2、何谓化脓性炎？可分为哪几型？各有何主要病变特点？（20分）3、发现一侧颈部肿块，有哪些可能的疾病？试述其主要病理诊断依据（25分）华中科技大学2002年病理学（专基）（博士）一、名词解释（3*10）1、凋落小体2、Biopsy3、稳定细胞4、Atypia5、逆行性栓塞6、调理素7、原癌基因8、假幽门腺化生9、Piecemeal necrosis10、噬神经细胞现象二、问答题1、举例说明梗死的类型及各型病变特点（10分）2、晚期胃癌患者，背部皮下肿块经病检证实为胃腺癌转移病灶，试分析其最可能的转移途径（10分）3、何谓化脓性炎？试比较试比较脓肿和蜂窝织炎的区别（14分）4、试述门脉性肝硬变的病理变化及其引起门脉高压的原因（16分）5、试述风湿性心脏病（风湿性全心炎）的主要病理变化及后果（20分）华中科技大学2003年病理学（专基）（博士）一、名词解释（4*10，英文翻译为汉语并加以解释）1、R-S细胞2、inflammatory mediator3、创伤性神经瘤4、heart failure cells5、羊水栓塞6、干线型肝硬变7、肿瘤的异质化8、冠状动脉性猝死9、假膜性炎10、新月体肾炎二、问答题（一）何谓肿瘤的转移？常见的转移途径有那几种？并举例说明之（20分）（二）简要比较下列各组病变的区别（8*3）1胃良性溃疡（溃疡病）与胃恶性溃疡（溃疡型胃癌）2 良性高血压与恶性高血压的细、小动脉病变3 侵蚀性葡萄胎与绒毛膜癌（三）试比较原发性肺结核病与继发性肺结核病的区别（16分）华中科技大学2004年病理学（博士）一、简答题1. 简述凋亡的基本过程2 .水中毒的病因和对机体的影响3 .低钾血症对机体的影响4 .心肌肥大的基本特点5 .简述钙超载引起心肌损伤的机制6 .何为缺血预处理？它有哪些保护作用？二、论述题1 .一例严重感染并发急性肾小管坏死的病人会出现哪些酸硷平衡紊乱，为什么？2 .何为自由基？试述它在体内的作用。

华中科技大学同济医学院考博病理学试题（1990-2015年）华中科技大学同济医学院病理考题1990（1）1 凋落2 血栓再通3 化生4 浓性卡他5 非典型增生问答：1 修复过程中组织再生受哪些因素影响？2 试述肺动脉栓塞的原因及后果。

3 何谓吞噬作用？扼要说明吞噬过程。

4 试述肿瘤增生与非肿瘤增生的区别。

华中科技大学同济医学院病理考题1990（2）一名词解释1淤血2渗出3肿瘤4葡萄胎5炎性息肉 6坏死7栓塞 8肿瘤的异型性 9单核吞噬细胞系统 10 动脉粥样硬化二简述细胞与组织常见损伤原因三试述良性高血压时心和肾的病理变化四试述脓肿的病因，病理变化和结局五原发肺结核与继发肺结核的病理变化有何不同？华中科技大学同济医学院病理考题1991（1）1 试述凝固性坏死、液化性坏死、干酪样坏死和脂肪坏死的形态学特点及其相互区别。

2 试述畸胎瘤和癌肉瘤的异同点。

3 何谓肉芽肿性炎？常见病因。

各举两例说明其形态结构和结局。

4 纤维素性炎发生与哪些器官？哪些疾病（至少两种以上）？形态学有何特点？华中科技大学同济医学院病理考题1991（2）一名词解释1吞噬溶酶体 2蜂窝织炎 3液化性坏死 4血栓形成 5梗死6免疫缺陷病 7结核结节 8尘肺 9肿瘤的异型性 10慢性萎缩性肾炎二举例说明恶性肿瘤的扩散途径三试述血吸虫性肝硬变的病变特征和临床表现四试述细菌性肺炎的病变特征华中科技大学同济医学院病理考题1992一名词解释1细胞水变性 2微血栓 3蜂窝织炎 4缩窄性心包炎 5结核病6原位癌 7浆液性炎症 8粥瘤 9固缩坏死（凋落） 10交界性肿瘤二何谓坏疽？坏疽分哪几种类型？各型病变有何特征？三简述急性炎症和结局四试述急性（普通型）病理型肝炎的病理变化及临床联系五简述弥漫性新月体肾炎的病理变化及临床病理联系华中科技大学同济医学院病理考题1993一名词解释1瘢痕组织 2风湿小节 3肠上皮化生 4混合血栓 5化脓性炎症6肿瘤的转移 7脑软化 8硅（矽）结节 9肝细胞碎片状坏死 10脓毒血症二试述肿瘤的生长方式及其临床意义三试述支气管炎的病理变化及其主要临床症状与病变的关系四简述结核病基本病变的转化规律五试述血栓对机体的影响，并各举一例加以说明同济医科大学一九九三年攻读博士学位研究生入学试题基础课：病理学一．解释常用病理学名词（每小题4分，共40分）1、肿瘤的异型性2、毛玻璃样肝细胞3、干酪样坏死4、栓塞 5、心肌梗死 6、嗜神经细胞现象 7、脂肪变性 8、organization 9、tuberculoma 10、化生二．何谓癌前病变？列举各种类型癌前病变并简要说明之。

【病理】 2010.3.27 华中科技大学博士生入学考试一、名词解释（ 5'*10 ） granular tissue风湿小体桥接坏死接触抑制梗死渗出凋亡交界性肿瘤肺肉质变二、问答1. 炎症的定义？结局？（ 15'）2. 试述癌的扩散方式及其可能机制。

（ 15'）3. 试述胃溃疡的病理改变及其合并症。

（ 10'）4. 慢性肺源性心脏病的肺和心脏病理改变？（10'）2007 年华中科技大学同济医学院病理学博士入学考试试题一、名词解释1、Hyalinedegeneration2、Gangrene3、Abscess4、Atheroma5、新月体6、肉芽肿7、肺气肿8、肉芽组织9、革囊胃10、干线性肝坏死二、梗死的概念、原因、类型及各型病理特点三、肿瘤异质性的概念，简述肿瘤的细胞异型性四、良恶性胃溃疡肉眼鉴别要点五、结核病基本病理变化、转化规律2008 年华中科技大学同济医学院病理学博士入学考试试题一、名词解释1、肉芽组织2、肉芽肿3、肺肉质变4、化生5、蜂窝织炎6、种植性转移7、异型性8、凋亡9、10、二、桥接坏死结核瘤炎症的概念、结局三、缓进性高血压和急进性高血压动脉系统病变异同四、胃溃疡基本病理变化及合并症一．解释常用病理学名词（每小题 4 分，共 40 分）1、肿瘤的异型性毛玻璃样肝细胞2、干酪样坏死3、栓塞4、心肌梗死5、嗜神经细胞现象6、脂肪变性7、8、organization9、tuberculoma10、化生二．何谓癌前病变？列举各种类型癌前病变并简要说明之。

（20 分）三．何谓化脓性炎症？试述其常见类型及病变特征。

（20 分）四．血吸虫病性肝硬变的病变有何特点？它与门静脉肝硬变有何不同？（ 20 分）解释名词（每小题 4 分，共 40 分）1、脂质小体绒毛膜癌2、痂下愈合3、4、粥样斑块5、肠上皮化生渐进性坏死6、肺出血肾炎综合征7、肺结核原发综合征8、肾盂积水9、10血栓及血栓栓塞、二．试述肿瘤的扩散规律，并举例说明之。

华中科技大学2013年病理学基础课考博试题一。

名词解释(30分1.尸检2.脂肪变性3伤寒小体4.早期胃癌5动脉粥样硬化6.颗粒型固缩肾7稳定细胞8。

化生9.肺气肿10.肿瘤异型性二问答题1.何为坏死,坏死的细胞形态学特征?坏死的结局(20分2.何为化脓性炎?主要类型及病变特点?(15分3.举例说明肿瘤的生长方式和临床意义?(15分4.原发性肺结核和继发性肺结核的区别?(20分一。

名词解释(30分1.尸检2.脂肪变性3伤寒小体4.早期胃癌5动脉粥样硬化6.颗粒型固缩肾7稳定细胞8。

化生9.肺气肿10.肿瘤异型性二问答题1.何为坏死,坏死的细胞形态学特征?坏死的结局(20分2.何为化脓性炎?主要类型及病变特点?(15分3.举例说明肿瘤的生长方式和临床意义?(15分4.原发性肺结核和继发性肺结核的区别?(20分华中科技大学2013年普外科考博试题外科总论:1、自体输血的概念,分型,适应症和禁忌症2、SIRS、Sepsis、MODS的概念和三者的关系。

3、外科预防性使用抗生素的适应症,合理用药原则4、简述Ivn的并发症!普外科部分:1、胃癌根治术的基本要求和根治程度分型2、甲状腺结节的诊断和治疗原则3、医源性胆管损伤的原因4、直肠指诊的意义和注意事项5、下肢单纯性静脉曲张的鉴别诊断和并发症6、请结合临床手术经验,胰腺癌根治术的术式有哪些和胰腺癌外科治疗进展7、原发性肝癌的根治性切除的适应症8、乳腺癌的综合治疗方法2013年华科同济医学院外科学(器官移植专业真题回忆问答题:10分x4题(共同答题部分1 什么事自体输血?有几种类型?其适应症和禁忌症如何?2 试述SIRS,Sepsis,MODS的概念与相互联系?3 外科手术预防性使用抗生素指征及合理用药原则?4 简述IVN常见并发症?名词解释5分x3题1 marginal donor2 ischemai-reperfusion-injury IRI3 operational tolerance问答题1 心脏移植的并发症有哪些?10分2 简述肝移植的适应症及禁忌症20分3 活体供肾的排除标准15分华中科技大学附属同济医院2014年外科学(普外科博士生入学考试真题外科学综合部分:一、名词解释休克丹毒ARDS 自体输血二、问答题1、肠外营养适应症、途径、并发症2、高钾血症的临床表现、诊断和处理普外科部分一、名词解释1、Reynolds五联征2、Gray-Turner征3、门静脉海绵样变4、Gardner综合征二、简答题1肝外胆管结石的主要病理变化及常用的手术方式2简述PMC(甲状腺乳头状微笑腺癌及其目前治疗原则3简述原发性肝癌的治疗方式与原则4简述肠外瘘的病理生理和处理原则。

同济医科大学2006年麻醉学（博士)一、名词解释1.2相阻滞2.V AS评分3.间歇指令通气（IMV）4.前负荷5.霍夫曼消除6.PCA7.CO2排除综合征8.MODS二、问答题1.全麻术后苏醒延迟的原因。

2.简述低流量吸入麻醉的优点和存在的问题。

3.简述肌松药的类型及肌松药作用的监测。

4.简述目前疼痛治疗的方法。

5.肺动脉高压的原因及处理6.急性肺损伤和ARDS的病因及其诊断标准。

2.同济医科大学组织胚胎学（博士）[Re: 0分会员] Copy to clipboardPosted by: 0分会员Posted on: 2008-01-22 17:38同济医科大学2004年组织胚胎学（博士）一、名解：1.神经干细胞2.凋亡3.胚泡4.抗原提呈细胞5.小强荧光细胞二、问答：1. 丘脑的结构、功能和功能的调控2. 大脑皮质的神经元种类、皮质分层和神经纤维联络3. 球旁复合体的结构和功能4. 胃肠内分泌细胞的种类、特点和功能5. 已知一种HAP1蛋白在下丘脑高水平表达，但不知道其功能。

请你进行课题设计以揭示HAP1的功能。

简述实课题研究目的、研究内容、实验方案。

并简要说明所用实验技术的基本原理。

注：名解是用英文出的。

3.同济医科大学神经解剖学（博士）[Re: 0分会员] Copy to clipboardPosted by: 0分会员Posted on: 2008-01-22 17:39同济医科大学2006年神经解剖学（博士）一、名词解释：1、皮质2、神经节3、纤维束4、internal capsule5、corpus striatum6、medial lemniscus7、？8、broca区9、锥体系10记不起来了，也很简单二、问答题：1.小脑的分叶及纤维联系2.尺神经损伤的表现及原因3.交感神经节前纤维及节后纤维的走向4.脑干一般内脏运动核的功能及纤维联系5.？6.？4.同济医科大学肿瘤学（博士）[Re: 0分会员] Copy to clipboardPosted by: 0分会员Posted on: 2008-01-22 17:40同济医科大学2006年肿瘤学（博士）一、名解（4*5）20分1 IGRT2 GCP3 VEGF4 TBI5 NCCN二、问答题80分1.简述肿瘤基因治疗的策略？152.简述霍杰金淋巴瘤的临床分期及治疗原则？153.WHO疼痛治疗原则？154.论述化疗药物机制和细胞周期的关系？155.鼻咽癌TNM分期，临床分期，治疗原则和技术？205.同济医科大学考博历年真题感染专业2005年试题[Re: 0分会员] Copy to clipboard Posted by: 0分会员Posted on: 2008-01-22 17:40同济医科大学考博历年真题感染专业2005年试题一、名词解释（每题5分）1.incudation period2.septicemia3.rabies4.nosocomial infection5.cholera二、问答题（每题20分）1.肝性脑病的发病机制及治疗原则2.HIV的治疗原则和临床表现3.丙型肝炎的基因分型及抗病毒治疗方案三、选答题（二选一）（15分）1.试述肝相关干细胞研究的现状及展望2.简述细菌对抗菌药产生耐药的发病机制6.同济医科大学细胞生物学（博士）[Re: 0分会员] Copy to clipboardPosted by: 0分会员Posted on: 2008-01-22 17:41同济医科大学2003年细胞生物学（博士）一、名词解释（共10小题，每题4分，共40分）1.nuclear skeleton2.kinetochore3.Signal Sequence4.stem cell5.molecular chaperon6.cyclin7.核孔复合体核篮模型8.膜泡运输9.微丝结合蛋白10.蛋白酶体二、综合题（共60分）1.试述溶酶体的形态结构、化学组成、形成的主要途径及功能。

华中科技大学《病理学》博士考试大纲科目代码2803一、细胞、组织的适应和损伤掌握细胞和组织几种常见的适应性变化的概念、常见类型和病理改变。

了解细胞损伤的超微结构表现，包括细胞膜的病变，细胞质、线粒体、内质网和溶酶体的病变，细胞核的病变和基底膜的病变。

掌握细胞和组织常见的损伤性变化—变性的常见类型；掌握各种变性的概念、原因、发生机制和病理变化。

掌握凋亡的概念及发生机制。

掌握坏死的概念、类型、病理变化和结局。

熟悉色素沉着和钙化的概念和病理变化。

了解细胞老化的概念及发生机制。

二、损伤的修复掌握再生和修复的概念、再生方式；各种组织和细胞的再生能力及影响再生的因素。

掌握肉芽组织的概念和形态特征，熟悉创伤愈合和骨折愈合的概念和类型。

三、局部血液循环障碍掌握充血的概念及类型。

掌握淤血的概念和后果，肺、肝淤血的发生发展过程及其形态变化。

掌握血栓形成的概念、条件、类型、结局及对机体的影响。

掌握栓子和栓塞的概念，栓子的运行途径，栓塞的类型及后果。

掌握梗死的概念，类型、原因及病理变化。

了解水肿的概念、原因、类型和病理变化。

四、炎症了解炎症的概念、炎症的原因、局部表现和全身反应、结局。

掌握炎症局部的基本病理变化（变质、渗出及增生）及其发生机制。

了解和掌握炎症介质在炎症过程中的作用及其意义。

掌握急性炎症病变类型、病变特征及不同经过与结局。

掌握慢性炎症的一般病理变化，慢性肉芽肿性炎的概念、类型及病变特点。

五、肿瘤掌握肿瘤的概念、肿瘤的形态和结构特点、肿瘤的异型性、肿瘤的生长方式、肿瘤的扩散及转移途径；肿瘤性增生与非肿瘤性增生的区别。

肿瘤对机体的影响；肿瘤的命名及分类、交界性肿瘤的概念；癌前病变、原位癌、非典型增生、上皮内瘤变、早期浸润癌的概念；良性肿瘤与恶性肿瘤的区别、癌和肉瘤的区别。

熟悉常见肿瘤的好发部位、形态特点及对机体的影响；肿瘤的分级和分期的原则；肿瘤的病理学检查方法；常见的上皮性和非上皮性肿瘤的病变特点。

了解肿瘤发生发展的基本理论，肿瘤浸润和转移的机制；常见的致癌因素及其致癌的特点、癌基因及其产物、肿瘤抑制基因及其产物。

华中科技大学考博病理复习题总结概要1.活体组织检查(biopsy)：用局部切取钳夹细针穿刺搔刮和切取病变组织的方法，从活体切除病变组织或器官进行病理诊断，为临床诊断治疗提供指导和估计预后。

疾病诊断广泛采用的方法，金标准，可用于良恶性肿瘤鉴别。

1.转移性钙化（metastatic calcification）：指全身性钙磷代谢障碍，血钙和血磷增高所引起的某些组织的钙盐沉积。

可见于甲状旁腺功能亢进、维生素D过多症等。

转移性钙化钙盐常沉积于正常泌酸的部位，如肺泡壁、肾小管基底膜和胃粘膜上皮。

营养不良性钙化（dystrophic calcification）：指继发于局部组织坏死和异物的异常钙盐沉积，可见于结核坏死灶、脂肪坏死灶、动脉粥样硬化性斑块、血栓等。

2.包裹（encapsulation）：如果坏死灶较大，或坏死物质难于溶解吸收，或不能完全机化，则常由肉芽组织加以包裹，以后则为增生的纤维组织包裹。

机化(organization):坏死组织不能完全溶解吸收或分离排出，则由肉芽组织长入并取代坏死组织、血栓、异物等的过程，称为机化，最终形成瘢痕组织。

3.气球样变：气球样变为肝细胞常见的变性病变．常发生在胞浆疏松化之后。

肝细胞受损后细胞水分增多。

开始时肝细胞肿大、脑浆疏松呈网状、半透明，称胞浆疏松化。

进一步发展，肝细胞胀大呈球形，脑浆几乎完全透明。

4.糜烂（erosion）：皮肤、粘膜处的浅表性坏死性缺损称为糜烂溃疡（ulcer）：皮肤、粘膜处的较深的坏死性缺损称为溃疡。

5.纤维素样坏死（fibrinoid necrosis）：是发生于纤维结缔组织和血管壁的一种坏死。

病变局部组织结构消失，形成边界不清的小条或小块状染色深红的，有折光性的无结构物质。

由于其染色性质与纤维素相似，故而得名。

坏死、凝固性坏死、干酪样坏死、液化性坏死、脂肪坏死、钙皂6.坏疽（gangrene）：是指较大片组织坏死并继发腐败菌感染。

95-考博病理试题31套本贴收到1朵鲜花95-考博病理试题31索引:1第二军医大病理学(硕士)2武汉大学医学院病理学考博试题3第四军医大学1996年招收攻读硕士硕士入学试题（病理学—1）4浙江大学医学院——病理学年博士硕士入学考试试题5国家医学考试中心病理学（博士全国统考题）6山东大学医学院—内分泌学博士硕士入学考试试题(多了一套内分泌试题,不改了)7北医考博病理试题8第四军医大学1995年博士入学考试病理学试题答题指南9第四军医大学1996年博士入学考试病理学试题10中山大学医学部博士入学考试病理学试题11中山大学医学部博士入学考试病理（专业基础）试题12中山大学医学部博士入学考试病理（专业基础）13浙江大学医学院博士入学病理试题14浙江大学医学院博士入学考试病理学试题15武汉大学医学部博士入学病理生理试题16天津医科大学博士入学病理试题17天津医科大学博士入学病理试题18上海第二医科大学博士入学考试病理学试题19华中科技大学同济医学院博士入学考试病理学（专业基础）试20华中科技大学同济医学院博士入学考试病理学（专业基础）试题21华中科技大学同济医学院博士入学考试病理学（专业基础）试题22华中科技大学同济医学院博士入学考试病理学（专业基础）试题23华中科技大学同济医学院1999年博士入学考试病理学（专业基础）试题24复旦大学医学院博士入学考试病理学试题25第四军医大学1997年博士硕士入学考试病理学试题（包括病理专业及其他专业）26 天医病理学硕士试题一.名词解释27 上海第二医科大学硕士入学考试病理试题（部分）名词解释30题28 上海交通大学考研病理试题29 复旦大学硕士硕士入学考试病理学试题30 北京大学医学部硕士硕士入学考试病理学试题31 重庆医科大学病理学（硕士）32 重庆医科大学病理学硕士入学试题试题:1第二军医大病理学(硕士)一、名词解释（30个共30分）化生，炎性假瘤，变质，变性，黏液样变，虎斑心，心衰细胞，槟榔肝，糜烂，肉芽组织，瘢痕组织，肺褐色硬化，伤寒细胞，绒毛心，恶性溃疡，桥接坏死，二、问答题：（一）1 良恶性肿瘤旳区别。

华中科技大学历年的考博真题整理2.同济医科大学 2001年泌尿外科(博士一、必答题(15*21 试述创伤的代谢变化及其临床意义2 溶血反应的发病机理及病理变化二选答题(每人必选一题,但是不能选本专业试题,否则没有分数10分 /题1 胃癌淋巴转移途径2 试述开放性骨折的处理原则3 阴囊内肿块常见于哪些疾病?如何诊治?4 急性颅脑损伤的诊治处理原则5 张力性气胸的处理原则6 试述施行活体供脏器移植的基本条件和要求二、专业题(一名词解释 (4分 /题1 尿失禁2 肾积脓3 石街4 精索静脉曲张5 鞘膜积液(二问答题1 试述前列腺癌的诊断和治疗(15分2 试述上尿路结石的诊断及治疗新进展(12分3 试述肾盂癌的诊断和处理原则(13分同济医科大学 2002年泌尿外科(博士一、必答题(30分(一名词解释(3分 /题1 脑再灌注损伤2 中厚皮片(二问答题(12分 /题1创伤后组织修复过程分为哪几个阶段?各阶段的主要特点是什么?2 试述肿瘤浸润与转移过程中的相关因素专业题一、名词解释(3分 /题1 尿频2 PSA3 少尿 /无尿4 肾积水5 皮质醇症二、问答题1简述尿失禁的分类及常见原因(10分2 男性前尿道损伤的治疗原则(15分3 膀胱移行细胞癌的临床分期?表浅膀胱癌的治疗原则(15分4 良性前列腺增生的诊断和鉴别诊断(15分同济医科大学 2003年泌尿外科(博士一、必答题(30分(一名词解释(5*21 成人型呼吸窘迫综合征(ARDS2全身性炎症反应综合征(SIRS3 痈4 海绵状血管瘤5 负氮平衡(二问答题(5*61 灭菌与消毒有何区别?2 高钾血症的原因有哪些?如何诊断和处理?3 简述肠外营养有哪些常见的并发症?如何处理?4 简述外科如何选择和使用抗菌药物?5 创伤后组织修复分几个阶段?简述其修复过程?二、专业题(一名词解释(4*31 膀胱破裂的导尿实验2 K抗原3 前列腺痛4 肾皮质结核(二问答题(8*61 什么叫尿频,引起尿频的原因有哪些?2 叙述多囊肾的病因及分类3 叙述分段尿及前列腺培养检查方法4 叙述双侧上尿路结石的手术原则5 叙述膀胱镜下各期膀胱肿瘤的肉眼特征6 叙述肾积水的常见原因7 原发性醛固酮增多症有那些临床表现?8 叙述精索静脉曲张的发病机理同济医科大学 2005年泌尿外科(博士公共部分:一、名解SIADH SIRS二、问答:1、成分输血的种类及适应症2、肠源性感染的发病机制3、代酸的分型及常见原因泌外:一、名解肾积脓浅表性膀胱肿瘤Cushing`s syndrome Peyronie disease二、问答1、简述 BPH 的病生特、各自引起的临床症状和治疗方案2、上尿路结石的微创方法及适应症3、前列腺癌的治疗4、肾结核的鉴别诊断同济医科大学 2006年泌尿外科(博士外科公共部分名词解释 :基因诊断条件性感染CARS问答 :1、肠内营养的适应症2、自体输血的适应症及禁忌症泌尿外科部分名词解释 :肾后性肾功衰微创泌尿外科充盈性尿失禁尿崩症问答 :1、输尿管反流的原因危害及处理2、泌尿系感染与妇科生理变化的关系3、 KUB 的作用4、膀胱造瘘的并发症及预防27. 同济医科大学分子生物学(博士[Re: 0分会员] Copy to clipboard Posted by: 0分会员Posted on: 2008-01-22 17:57同济医科大学 2001年分子生物学(博士一、英汉互译下列名词,并加以解释 (30分1、 transposable element2、 restriction enzyme3、 derepression4、 gene therapy5、 calmo dulin6、操纵子7、反式作用因子8、基因组9、原癌基因10、多克隆位点二、试述反式作用因子的结构特征及作用方式 (20分三、试述 2型限制酶的功能与特性 (20分四、试述影响原核基因转录的因素 (20分五、试述病毒核酸的结构特点 (10分华中科技大学同济医学院 2002年攻读博士学位研究生入学考试试题考试科目:分子生物学(基础课科目代码:811一名词解释并写出对应的英文名词(共10小题,每小题5分,共50分1. 克隆载体2. 表达载体3. 假基因4. 微卫星序列5. 回文结构6. 启动子7. 癌基因 8. 多克隆位点 9. 增强子 10. 开放阅读框架二问答题(共 3小题,每小题 10分,共 30分1. 若要获得 IL-2的基因工程产品,你应该怎么做?2. 真核细胞中基因表达的特异性转录调控因子是指什么?根据它们的结构特征可以分为哪些类型?它们和 DNA 相互识别的原理是什么?3. 简述细胞内癌基因激活的方式?三选答题(任选 2小题,每小题 10分,共 20分1. 简述基因治疗中转移外源基因至体内的非病毒和病毒途径的主要原理2. 请你评价一下人类基因组计划(HGMP 完成的意义(蒲А⒕ ? 济和社会的??BR>3.分子生物学实验中所涉及的引物有哪几种,各有什么用途和特点?4. 简述 3~4种 PCR 衍生技术及其应用同济医科大学 2003年分子生物学(博士一名词解释并写出对应的英文名词(共10小题,每小题5分,共50分1. 克隆载体2. 表达载体3. 断裂基因4. 双脱氧核苷酸(简单5. 多克隆位点6. 启动子7. 癌基因8. 核糖体结合位点(简单9. 增强子10. 开放阅读框架二问答题(共3小题,每小题10分,共30分1. 什么是分子克隆技术?它的主要步骤是什么?2. 真核细胞和原核细胞基因表达在转录水平上调控的特点。

目录2005年春季华中科技大学博士研究生英语入学考试试题 (2)2005年秋季华中科技大学博士研究生英语入学考试试题 (8)2006年春季华中科技大学博士研究生英语入学考试试题(1) (15)2006年春季华中科技大学博士研究生英语入学考试试题(2) (21)2005年春季华中科技大学博士研究生英语入学考试试题参考答案 (28)2005年秋季华中科技大学博士研究生英语入学考试试题参考答案 (29)2006年春季华中科技大学博士研究生英语入学考试试题参考答案(1) (30)2006年春季华中科技大学博士研究生英语入学考试试题参考答案(2) (31)2005年春季华中科技大学博士研究生英语入学考试试题Cloze (1x10=10%)Directions: In this part you are asked to choose the best word for each blank in the passage. Write your answers on the answer sheet.Some kids have a hard time 1 to the new freedom that they acquire when they leave high school and come to college. Here you are able to choose 2 or not you want to go to class. However, this responsibility comes with a great price. If you do not go to class, you may miss an important lecture and these are very critical when it comes time for the test that is fifty percent of your grade. With this responsibility I have learned how to manage my time more 3 . 4 hating every minute of school, I value it 5 a time for me to prepare for the big test. This new schedule has also changed me in that now I 6 school is worth my time. I do not dread going to class. Yes, it is boring some of the time but since I only have two to four classes a day for only four days out of the week, it is not as 7__ as high school. Also many of my courses require more in depth thinking. As an alternative to doing worksheets and 8 simple questions, college courses call 9 _ analysis and thought. Almost all of my homework now is writing papers and reading books. These to this routine, I have been able to investigate and recognize meaning more 10 and it has helped me in my thought process.1. A) content B) to adopt C) finding D) adjusting2. A) where B) when C) whether D) if3. A) effective B) efficiently C) effort D) affect4. A) Instead of B) Rather than C) Instead D) Other than5. A) for B) upon C) as D) with6. A) should like B) feel like C) look like D) would like7. A) unpleasant B) pleasant C) enjoyable D) misfortune8. A) answered B) answer C) answering D) to answer9. A) in B) for C) up D) about10. A) likely B) prepared C) ready D) readilyII. Reading comprehension (20x2=40%)Directions: There are four passages in this part. After each passage, there are five questions. You are to choose the best answer for each question. Write your answers on the answer sheet.Passage 1Extremely refined behaviour, cultivated as an art of gracious living, has been characteristic only of societies with wealth and leisure, which admitted women as the social equals of men. After the fall of Rome, the first European society to regulate behaviour in private life in accordance with a complicated code of etiquette was twelfth-century Provence, in France.Provence had become wealthy. The lords had returned to their castles from the crusades, and there the ideals of chivalry grew up, which emphasized the virtue and gentleness of women and demanded that a knight should profess a pure and dedicated love to a lady who would be his inspiration, and to whom he would dedicate his valiant deeds, though he would never come physically close to her. This was the introduction of the concept of romantic love, which was to influence literature for many hundreds of years and which still lives on an a inferior form in simple popular songs and cheap novels today.In Renaissance Italy too, in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, a wealthy and leisured society developed an extremely complex code of manners, but the rules of behaviour of fashionable society had little influence on the daily life of the lower classes. Indeed many of the rules, such as how to enter a banquet room, or how to use a sword or handkerchief for ceremonial purposes, were irrelevant to the way of life of the average working man, who spent most of his life outdoors or in his own poor hut and most probably did not have a handkerchief, certainly not a sword, to his name.Yet the essential basis of all good manners does not vary. Consideration for the old and weak and the avoidance of harming or giving unnecessary offence to others is a feature of all societies everywhere and at all levels from the highest to the lowest. You can easily think of dozens of examples of customs and habits in your own daily life which come under this heading.Etiquette cultivated as an art of gracious living ______.has been typical of rich and leisured societiesadvocates that women are the same as menbegan in nineteenth-century Provencelooks down on extremely refined behaviourThe ideals of chivalry demanded that ______.a knight should never have physical relationships with womena knight should inspire his lady to valiant deedsa knight should dedicate his valiant deeds to a womanromantic people should influence literatureThe rules of etiquette in Renaissance Italy ______.were chiefly concerned with the correct use of one's sword or handkerchiefwere practiced by the majority of societydid not apply to a large section of societywere fairly simple to followThe average working man in fifteenth-century Italy ______.spent all his life outdoorsspent all his life in his own poor huthad better social manners than workers todaywas unlikely to have possessed a swordConsideration for the old and weak and the avoidance of giving unnecessary offence to others are ______.the essential basis of all systems of good mannersnot a universal feature of etiquettetaught to the lower classes by the upper classesoften neglected by polite societyPassage 2One day Mr Kerry was walking along the Strand in London, killing time, when his eye was caught by an enormous picture displayed upon the wall of a house. It represented a human figure covered with long, dark hair, with huge nails upon his hands and a most fearful expression. On coming nearer, he heard a man call out "Walk in, ladies and gentlemen, the most wonderful curiosity ever exhibited --only five pence the wild man from Africa -- he eats raw food, and many other pleasing and surprising performances." Mr kerry paid his money and was admitted. At first the crowd prevented his seeing anything, for the place was full to suffocation (窒息), and the noise awful. At last, Mr Kerry obtained, by means of squeezing and pushing, a place in the front, when to his horror, he saw a figure that was far worse than the portrait outside.It was a man, nearly naked, covered with long, shaggy hair, that grew even over his nose and cheekbones. He sprang about, sometimes on his feet, sometimes on all-fours, but always uttering the most fearful yells, and glaring upon the crowd in a manner that was really dangerous. Mr Kerry did not feel exactly happy at the whole proceeding, and began heartily to wish himself outside. Suddenly, the savage gave a more frightening scream than before and seized a piece of raw beef which a keeper extended to him on a long fork. This he tore to pieces eagerly, and ate in the most voracious (贪婪的) manner, among great clapping of hands and other evidence of satisfaction from the audience. "I'll go now," thought Mr Kerry, "for who knows whether, in his hungry moods, he might not fancy finishing his dinner with me." Just at this instant, some sounds struck his ear that surprised him.He listened more attentively and, to his amazement, found that among the most fearful cries and wild yells, the savage was talking Irish. Now, Mr Kerry had never heard of an African Irishman so he listened very closely, and by degrees, not only the words were known to him, but the very voice was familiar, so turning to the savage, he addressed him in Irish, at the same time fixing him with a severe look."Who are you " said Mr Kerry."Billy McCabe, sir.""And what do you mean by playing your tricks here, instead of earning your living like an honest man ""Well," said Billy, "I'm earning the rent to pay you. One must do many strange things to pay the kind of rent you charge."Mr Kerry was walking along the Strand because ______.he had nothing else to dohe was late for an appointmenthe was looking for something to dohe was reluctant to go homeInside the house, at first, Mr Kerry ______.was nearly suffocatedcould see nothingwas pushed aboutcouldn't hear anythingThe wild man gave the impression of being dangerous by ______.the way he movedthe way he dressedthe looks he gavethe cries he madeMr Kerry decided to leave the house because ______.he flt extremely frightenedhe was worried what might happenhe didn't wish to eat with the savagehe feared he might have a heart attackThe wild man surprised Mr Kerry by speaking Irish since ______.he was on show in Londonhe was a primitive savagehe previously spoke gibberishhe was thought to be AfricanPassage 3Having reached the highest point of our route according to plan, we discovered something the map had not told us. It was impossible to climb down into the Kingo valley. The river lay deep between mountain sides that were almost vertical. We couldn't find any animal tracks, which usually show the best way across country, and the slopes were covered so thickly with bushes that we could not see the nature of the ground. We had somehow to break through to the river which would give us our direction out of the mountains into the inhabited lowlands.Our guide cut a narrow path through the bushes with his long knife and we followed in single file. Progress was slow. Then, when we thought we had really reached the river, we found ourselves instead on the edge of a cliff with a straight drop of 1000 feet to the water below. We climbed back up the slope and began to look for another way down. We climbed, slipped, sweated and scratched our hands to pieces and finally arrived at the river. Happily we strode downhill along its bank without having to cut our way. However, after a few miles theriver entered a steep-sided gap between rocks and suddenly dropped thirty-five feet over a waterfall. There was no path alongside it and no way round it.Then one of the guides saw a way of overcoming the difficulty. There was a fallen tree lying upside down over the waterfall with its leafy top resting on the opposite bank below the falls. Without hesitation he climbed down the slippery trunk to show us how easy it was. Having got to the fork of the tree, he moved hand over hand along a branch for four or five feet with his legs hanging in space, then he dropped onto the flat bank on the other side, throwing his arms in the air like a footballer who has scored a goal, and cheerfully waving us on.Having reached the highest point on their route, the travelers expected to be able to ______.A. track animals to the riverB. put away the maps they had been usingC. approach the river from different directionD. get down to the river without much difficulty22.The travelers wanted to get to the river because ______.A. it would lead them to the waterfallB. it would show them which way to goC. it was the only possible route out of the mountainsD. it was a quicker route than going over the mountains23. One reason why the travelers took so long to get to the river was that ______.A. it was too hot to move quicklyB. there was no proper pathC. they all tried to go in different waysD. they could not follow the animal tracks24. The travelers were happy when they reached the river because ______.A. they had a sense of achievementB. the going was much easier thenC. they were eager to see the waterfallD. they knew they were near their destination25. To get past the waterfall the guide had to ______.A. use a fallen tree as a kind of bridgeB. cross the river above the waterfallC. slide down a steep river bankD. swing across the river from a high branchPassage 4Will you be watching 'Horizon' on Monday evening, or is that when you're down at the local HILARY MACASKILL suggests here that tuning in may be advisable.This week's Horizon: How Much Can You Drink Addresses itself to the practical issue of the dividing line between harmless normal drinking and the "serious drinking problem" that troubles an estimated 700 000 people in this country. Too much drinking can have terrible effects on health: in the next 12 months 10 000 people may die prematurely from the effects of drink. Advertisements can no longer characterize alcohol as beneficial. Guinness is not now projected as "good for you". Nevertheless, social drinkers cling hopefully to that scrap of half-remembered research that suggests that a little drink is good for you.Well, perhaps it is. Darts (a game) players can draw comfort from the evidence in the programme that hand shaking lessens after a few drinks. Though it must be added that next day's hand shaking was greater than normal. Moderate drinking, because of the effect of alcohol on the blood, may give some protection against heart disease.But people's bodies vary hugely in their reactions to alcohol. The less fortunate drinkers may get cirrhosis (a kind of disease) of the liver after a far smaller alcohol amount than another drinker.So how much can you drink The answer, if you are a woman, is less that a man. The reason is not another example of rough discrimination but that women, unfair though it may be, are more at risk from alcohol. Doctors recommend a daily limit of six units for a man, four units for a woman.That limit is the aim of those who attend Drink Watchers, formed 18 months ago, which works on similar lines to Weight Watchers. After an initial screening to ensure that they aren't physically damaged by alcohol, Drink Watchers meet weekly to analyze ant discuss the daily records they keep of their drinks. "The aim is to provide a social base as much as anything," says National co-ordinator Geraldine Wilson. "We replace the pub life with a different social life."Enjoying sensible drinking is the goal of Drink Watchers and Geraldine has some useful tips to help people stick to the limit: "Make the first drink a soft one to quench the thirst. Alternate alcohol with mineral water. Put the glass on the table between sips. Distance the glass so you have to make a conscious effort to reach it. Make one drink last 40 minutes. Most important, plan how much to drink in an evening, count the drinks and then stop."26. Based on what do you think this article is writtenA. A magazineB. A newspaperC. A medical journal.D. A TV program.27. Can alcohol ever be good for youA. Yes, in moderate amount.B. No, even in moderate amount.C. Maybe, in moderate amount.D. Never, even in moderate amount.28. How can Drink Watchers help youA. By checking your health.B. By providing social base.C. By helping you cut down on your drinking.D. All the above.29. What do you think the word "soft" in the third line of paragraph 7 meansA. gentleB. non-alcoholicC. mildD. calm30. Which of the following is NOT true according to the textA. 700 000 people in Britain are seriously affected by alcohol.B. 10 000 people are likely to die in the next year because of alcohol.C. Six units of beer for men and 4 units for women everyday is 'safe'.D. Different people react almost the same to alcohol.TranslationSection A From English into Chinese (15%)Directions: Translate the following three underlined parts from English into Chinese and write your translation on the answer sheet.People could land on Mars in the next 20 to 30 years provided scientists can find water on the red planet, the head of NASA's (美国国家宇航局) surface exploration mission said on September 16.Two partially solar-powered "robot geologists" -- Mars Exploration Rovers, or MERs –(机器人地质学者——火星探测漫游者) have been trundling across 3 miles of the planet and into craters since January, beaming back data about the makeup of what scientists believe is Earth's sister planet.1. Asked how long it could be before astronauts land on Mars, Arthur Thompson, mission manager for MER surface operations said, "My best guess is 20 to 30 years, if that becomes our primary priority."The two MER robots, dubbed Spirit and Opportunity, have found ancient evidence that water was once plentiful -- important for scientists hoping to know if there was once -- or could still be -- life on Mars.Without water, the dream of sending astronauts to the often dusty planet, which has rust-colored rocks and where the sky is red and sunsets are blue, couldn't unravel."If we cannot find water,it really makes it difficult to send humans. Water is the key," said Thompson, who was attending a mining engineers' conference.2. Such a mission would take 11 to 12 months to get to Mars and it would be impossible to carry enough water for the astronauts, plus the water needed to make rocket fuel for the return journey, to cool the spacecraft and to generate energy.Thompson said scientists had found a canyon on Mars "that makes the Grand Canyon look like a small canyon," where water could still be present."There are indications that there is actually water that seeps out the side of the canyon, and going down the side it evaporates. We believe it's an ongoing process," he said.3. Three satellites now orbiting Mars are constantly gathering information, and Thompson said, "If there is water, we believe the chances of finding life are greatly increased."Section B From Chinese into English (15%)Directions: Translate the following three underlined parts from Chinese into English and write your translation on the answer sheet.自从1843年第一张圣诞贺卡在伦敦印刷,销售以来,公务贺卡已经成为政治家们节日活动中不可缺少的一部分.1. 德高望众的亚伯拉罕•林肯(Abraham Lincoln)是第一位发现圣诞贺卡中蕴藏着政治效力的美国总统,在此过程中,圣诞老人的形象永远留在了人们心中.美国内战期间,奴隶们控制的南方政权与北方的联邦政府相抗衡,当时林肯总统要求政治漫画家托马斯•纳斯特在圣诞老人的画像上配上联邦军队,旨在鼓舞士兵的士气.托马斯•纳斯特是第一个让胖胖的圣诞老人穿上现在看来传统的红色外套和宽大皮带的人.2. 据说看到这个活泼可爱的家伙站在北方联邦军队一边,南方军队的士气大大的受挫.没过多久,他们就战败了.二战期间,同盟国政府同样用圣诞祝词来鼓舞占领区的战士们,幽默的贺卡给战士们带来了充满希望的援助.3. 事实上,正是从这个阶段开始,圣诞节寄贺卡的传统在美国总统中流传起来——至今他们都是世界上最认真的寄卡人之一.Writing(20%)Directions: You are going to write about 200 words on the following topic "Learning is a life-long profession". You are required to write in three paragraphs. Write your essay on the answer sheet.2005年秋季华中科技大学博士研究生英语入学考试试题I. Cloze (0.5x20=10%)Directions: In this part you are asked to choose the best word for each blank in the passage. Write your answers on the answer sheet.Today, the Tower of London is one of the most popular tourist (1) ___ and attracts over three million visitors a year. It was occasionally used as a Royal Palace for the Kings and Queens of England (2) ____ the time of James I who (3) ____ from 1603 to 1625, but is (4) ____ known as a prison and execution place. Within the walls of the Tower, princes have been murdered, traitors (5) ____, spies shot, and Queens of England beheaded. One of the most famous executions was that of Anne Boleyn in 1536. She was the second wife of Henry VIII. He wanted to (6) ____ her because she could not give him a son, so he accused her of adultery. She was tried and found guilty. She asked to be beheaded with a sword, (7) ____ the usual axe, which can still be seen in the Tower. The sword and executioner were (8) ____ over specially from France and with one (9) ____ the executioner cut off her head.The Tower was also the (10) ____ of one of London's most famous mysteries. King Edward IV died in 1843. His elder son, Edward, became king (11) ____ his father's death. Young Edward lived in the Tower, and the Duke of Gloucester, (12) ____ protector, persuaded Edward's brother, Richard, to come and live there so that they could play together. But then the Duke (13) ____ that he was the new king, and he was crowned instead of the twelve-year-old Edward, (14) ____ himself Richard III.After that, the boys were seen less and less and eventually disappeared. (15) ____ said that they were suffocated in bed by pillows being (16) ____ their mouths. It is believed that Richard ordered their deaths, (17) ____ it has never been proved. In 1674, workmen at the Tower discovered two (18) ____ which were taken away and buried in Westminster Abbey in 1678. The (19) ____ were examined in 1933 and were declared to be those of two children, (20) ____ the age of the Princes.1. A. seats B. scenes C. grounds D. sights2. B. until B. by C. to D. at3. A. reined B. reigned C. powered D. controlled4. A. hardly B. little C. best D. well5. A. ruined B. destroyed C. tortured D. wounded6. A. get the worst of B. get rid of C. get the best of D. get done with7. A. apart from B. besides C. together with D. rather than8. A. brought B. taken C. got D. won9. A. knock B. hit C. shot D. stroke10. A. spot B. scent C. place D. view11. A. on B. at C. with D. by12. A. their B. the C. his D. a13. A. announced B. published C. advertised D. revealed14. A. naming B. calling C. declaring D. giving15. A. That is B. This is C. They are D. It is16. A. forced into B. squeezed forth C. pressed over D. put on17. A. so that B. since C. as D. although18. A. skeletons B. boys C. remains D. dead bodies19. A. ashes B. bones C. corpses D. sketches20. A. definitely B. certainly C. roughly D. possiblyII. Reading comprehension (20x2=40%)Directions: There are four passages in this part. After each passage, there are five questions. You are to choose the best answer for each question. Write your answers on the answer sheet.Passage OneWe all know the situation----a good friend recommends you a restaurant and you are looking forward to a nice quiet dinner, but the meal turns out to be less peaceful than expected as you are joined, in sound, by a number of uninvited guests---- James Last, the Beatles, Mireille Mathieu, Mozart ---- depending on the landlord's fancy. You can count yourself lucky if you happen to like what you hear coming over the loudspeakers. But what about the customers who cannot stand James Last or simply want peace and quiet There is nothing they can do. Radio sets at home can be switched off, but not restaurant loudspeakers. Customers simply become the captive audience of sounds they do not want. Some wine bars in Austria, the home of café music, make a charge known as Schrammelmusik (music cover), which everyone has to pay. But the word is quite misleading ---- payment of the music toll gives no cover ---- quite the opposite.Music has become omnipresent. The selection in restaurants may still be a matter of chance, though it generally reflects nothing more than the doubtful taste of piped-music suppliers. However, in other areas music has long been a means of stepping up profits. An entire branch of industry thrives on this, assembling music by the most sophisticated methods with the customer in mind ---- department store music to produce a demonstrable increase in turnover; office music to improve the working atmosphere; airport and hotel music with its soothing effect; even cowshed music with its impact on milk production.These various forms of music, however different in function, have one thing in common ---- the way in which they are produced. The ancient, venerable concepts of composition and arrangement are naturally ruled out from the start. All musical extremes are deliberately debarred. The music issuing from department store loudspeakers must have a steady volume and avoid sudden effects, notes that are too high or too low and the human voice. With one exception ---- during the Christmas rush children's choirs may be heard encouraging sales by singing 'Silent Night', 'Jingle Bells' and so on.This music is more effective when turned low. The aim of this drizzle of canned sound is not conscious assimilation and it represents something quite new in the history of music. For thousands of years music was made to be listened to. But department store music is meant only to create a warm background. There is no contradiction in the fact that Mozart may sometimes find his way into department store music tapes, though his compositions were not meant as background jingles. But department store wallpaper music is not Mozart ---- it only appears to be. And anything unusual in classical composers, anything that lends character, is simply cut ---- development sections, accents, daring harmonies, provocative instrumentation. All we have left is a melody with no backbone which might just as well have come from a pop-song producer ---- plastic music as it were, whose components all sound exactly the same.The music is not meant to be listened to and that may explain the fact that, while we have associations and action groups against air pollution and the pollution of drinking water, so far no one has got up in arms about damage to our acoustic environment. And so our musical sensitivity will continue to be subtly and gently attacked by the piped music in department stores and offices ---- music which we hear without listening to. Its strategy takes advantage of one simple fact ---- you cannot just close your ears.21. Why does the author describe the customers as a 'captive audience'They usually like the music thrown at them.Because they can't escape the music.He wants to show how easy they are to please.Because they've paid a special charge called a 'music toll'.22. Piped music in restaurants is different from that heard in department stores because ____.it's usually very tastefulit's chosen very carefully by the ownerit tries to create a soothing atmosphereit doesn't aim to increase profits23. According to the writer, what does all piped music always avoidHappy songs.Certain instruments.Children's choirs.Any extremes.24. From what the writer says, it's reasonably clear that he or she ____.loves pop musiclikes music in public placesenjoys classical musicis keen on Christmas carols25. The writer of the passage would probably like to ____.join an 'air pollution action group'get rid of music just in restaurantsstart a movement against 'canned music'make people listen to the piped music in public placesPassage TwoThe teacher of reading is involved, whether this is consciously realized or not, in the development of a literate society. And every teacher, therefore, needs to determine what level of literacy is demanded by society, what role he or she should take in achieving the desired standard of literacy, and what the implications of literacy are in a world context.The Unesco report presents a world view of literacy. Too often we limit our thoughts to the relatively small proportion of illiterates in our own country and fail to see it in its international context.The problems facing developing nations are also facing industrialized nations. Literacy, as the report points out, is 'inextricably intertwined with other aspects of national development (and) national development as a whole is bound up with the world context'. Literacy is not a by-product of social and economical development - it is a component of that development. Literacy can help people to function more effectively in a changing environment and ideally will enable the individual to change the environment so that it functions more effectively.Literacy progammes instituted in different countries have taken and are taking different approaches to the problem: for example the involvement of voluntary non-governmental organizations, which underlines the importance of seeing literacy not as a condition imposed on people but as a consequence of active participation within society. People can learn from the attempts of other countries to provide as adequate 'literacy environment'.Who are the 'illiterates' and how do we define them At what point do we decide that illiteracy ends and literacy begins Robert Hillerich addresses these questions. An illiterate, he finds, 'may mean anything from one who has no formal schooling to one who has attended four years or less, to one who is unable to read or write at the level necessary to perform successfully in his social position.' Literacy, he points out, is not something one either has or has not got: 'Any definition of literacy must recognize this quality as a continuum, representing all degrees of development.'An educational definition - i.e. in terms of grades completed or skills mastered - is shown to be inadequate in that educationally defined mastery may bear only minimal relation to the language proficiency needed in coping with environmental demands. From a sociological / economic viewpoint the literacy needs of individuals vary greatly, and any definition must recognize the needs of the individual to engage effectively and to act with responsible participation.Such a broadened definition excludes assessment based on a 'reading-level type'; assessment must, rather, be flexible to fit both purpose and population.。