经济学原理 (12.4)--通货膨胀与失业之间的短期权衡取舍、宏观经济政策的六个争论问题

16、菲利普斯曲线:通货膨胀与失业之间 的短期权衡取舍。

1、稀缺性：社会资源的有限性。

2、经济学:研究社会如何管理自己的稀缺资源. 17、经济周期：就业和生产等经济活动的 波动。

3、效率：社会能从其稀缺资源中得到最大利益的特性。

4、平等：经济成果在社会成员中公平分配的特性。

1、循环流向图：一个说明货币如何通过市场在家庭与企业之间流动的直观经济模型。

5、机会成本：为了得到某种东西所必须放弃的东西。

6、理性人：系统而有目的地尽最大努力实现起目标的人。

7、边际变动:对行动计划微小的增量调整。

8、激励:引起一个人做出某种行为的某种东西。

9、市场经济：当许多企业和家庭在物品与劳务市场上相互交易时，通过他们的分散决策配置资源的经济。

2、生产可能性边界：表示一个经济在可得到的生产要素与生产技术既定时所能生产的产量的各种组合的图形。

3、微观经济学：研究家庭和企业如何做出决策,以及它们在市场上的相互交易。

4、宏观经济学：研究整体经济现象，包括通货膨胀、失业和经济增长。

5、实证表述：企图描述世界是什么的观点。

10、产权:个人拥有并控制稀缺资源的能力。

6、规范描述:企图描述世界应该如何运行的观点。

11、市场失灵：市场本身不能有效配置资 源的情况。

12、外部性：一个人的行为对旁观者福利 的影响。

13、市场势力：一个经济活动者（或经济活动者的一个小集团）对市场价格有显著影响的能力。

14、生产率：一个工人一小时所生产的物 品与劳务量。

1、绝对优势：根据生产率在一种物品的生产者之间的比较。

2、比较优势：根据机会成本在一种物品的生产者之间的比较。

3、进口：在国外生产而在国内销售的物品.4、出口:在国内生产而在国外销售的物品。

15、通货膨胀:经济中物价总水平的上升。

第4章供给与需求的市场力量第一章经济学十大原理第2章像经济学家一样思考第3章相互依存性与贸易的好处1、市场：由某种物品或劳务的买者与卖者组成的一个群体。

2、竞争市场：有许多买者与卖者，以至于每个人对市场价格的影响都微乎其微的市场。

中级宏观经济学通货膨胀与失业通货膨胀与失业是宏观经济学中两个重要的经济现象。

本文将从宏观经济学的角度出发，探讨通货膨胀与失业之间的关系，并分析其对经济的影响。

一、通货膨胀的定义与原因通货膨胀是指货币供应量的持续增加，导致物价水平普遍上涨的经济现象。

其主要原因包括货币供应过多，需求过剩等。

1.1 货币供应过多当中央银行增加货币供应时，人们手中的货币增多，导致消费和投资的需求上升，从而推动物价上涨。

1.2 需求过剩当经济处于高就业水平和强大的消费力的时候，企业的生产能力会出现不足，导致物价上涨。

二、失业的定义与类型失业是指劳动力供大于求，有能力工作但不能找到工作的经济现象。

根据原因和性质划分，失业可以分为结构性失业、摩擦性失业和周期性失业。

2.1 结构性失业结构性失业是由于劳动力供需结构不匹配引起的失业现象。

例如，劳动力技能不符合市场需求，导致部分人员无法找到适合的工作。

2.2 摩擦性失业摩擦性失业是由于劳动力在转职或者寻找新的就业机会时的短期失业现象。

这种失业通常是暂时性的，随着信息传递和资源配置的改善，很快会得到解决。

2.3 周期性失业周期性失业是由经济周期性波动引起的失业现象。

当经济处于经济衰退期时，企业生产能力下降，需求减少，导致大量员工失业。

三、通货膨胀与失业之间的关系通货膨胀与失业之间存在一定的关系。

传统上，人们普遍认为通货膨胀与失业之间存在着一种权衡关系，也称为菲利普斯曲线。

3.1 菲利普斯曲线菲利普斯曲线揭示了通货膨胀与失业之间的关系。

曲线描述了通货膨胀率与失业率之间的负相关关系。

当失业率较高时，通货膨胀率较低；反之，当失业率较低时，通货膨胀率较高。

3.2 曲线的解释与批评菲利普斯曲线的解释主要有两种观点：供给派和需求派。

供给派认为通货膨胀是由于物价上涨导致的工资增长，从而导致企业减少雇佣人员。

需求派则认为通货膨胀会刺激经济增长，从而降低失业率。

然而，近年来，由于供求关系的变化和金融市场的复杂性，菲利普斯曲线的可靠性受到了一定程度的质疑。

Principles of Economics II (Spring 2013)Homework #6(Chapter 33-36, due on June 14th, 2013, submitted out of class)Note: All textbook problem numbers refer to “Problems and Application” part in corresponding chapter, the 6th Chinese/U.S. edition of the textbook.For Chapter 331.Textbook, Chapter 33, #33. a. The current state of the economy is shown in Figure 7. The aggregate-demandcurve and short-run aggregate-supply curve intersect at the same point on thelong-run aggregate-supply curve.Figure 7b. If the central bank increases the money supply, aggregate demand shifts tothe right (to point B). In the short run, there is an increase in output and theprice level.c. Over time, nominal wages, prices, and perceptions will adjust to this new pricelevel. As a result, the short-run aggregate-supply curve will shift to the left.The economy will return to its natural rate of output (point C).d. According to the sticky-wage theory, nominal wages at points A and B areequal. However, nominal wages at point C are higher.e. According to the sticky-wage theory, real wages at point B are lower than realwages at point A. However, real wages at points A and C are equal.f. Yes, this analysis is consistent with long-run monetary neutrality. In the longrun, an increase in the money supply causes an increase in the nominal wage,but leaves the real wage unchanged.2.Textbook, Chapter 33, # 55. a. The statement that "the aggregate-demand curve slopes downward because itis the horizontal sum of the demand curves for individual goods" is false. Theaggregate-demand curve slopes downward because a fall in the price levelraises the overall quantity of goods and services demanded through the wealtheffect, the interest-rate effect, and the exchange-rate effect.b. The statement that "the long-run aggregate-supply curve is vertical becauseeconomic forces do not affect long-run aggregate supply" is false. Economicforces of various kinds (such as population and productivity) do affect long-runaggregate supply. The long-run aggregate-supply curve is vertical because theprice level does not affect long-run aggregate supply.c. The statement that "if firms adjusted their prices every day, then the short-runaggregate-supply curve would be horizontal" is false. If firms adjusted pricesquickly and if sticky prices were the only possible cause for the upward slope ofthe short-run aggregate-supply curve, then the short-run aggregate-supplycurve would be vertical, not horizontal. The short-run aggregate supply curvewould be horizontal only if prices were completely fixed.d. The statement that "whenever the economy enters a recession, its long-runaggregate-supply curve shifts to the left" is false. An economy could enter arecession if either the aggregate-demand curve or the short-runaggregate-supply curve shifts to the left.3.Textbook, Chapter 33, # 88. a. People will likely expect that the new chairman will not actively fight inflationso they will expect the price level to rise.b. If people believe that the price level will be higher over the next year, workerswill want higher nominal wages.c. At any given price level, higher labor costs lead to reduced profitability.d. The short-run aggregate-supply curve will shift to the left as shown in Figure10.Figure 10e. A decline in short-run aggregate supply leads to reduced output and a higherprice level.f. No, this choice was probably not wise. The end result is stagflation, whichprovides limited choices in terms of policies to remedy the situation.Figure 114.Textbook, Chapter 33, # 99. a. If households decide to save a larger share of their income, they must spendless on consumer goods, so the aggregate-demand curve shifts to the left, as shown in Figure 11. The equilibrium changes from point A to point B, so theprice level declines and output declines.b. If Florida orange groves suffer a prolonged period of below-freezingtemperatures, the orange harvest will be reduced. This decline in the naturalrate of output is represented in Figure 12 by a shift to the left in both theshort-run and long-run aggregate-supply curves. The equilibrium changesfrom point A to point B, so the price level rises and output declines.Figure 12Figure 13c. If increased job opportunities cause people to leave the country, the long-runand short-run aggregate-supply curves will shift to the left because there arefewer people producing output. The aggregate-demand curve will also shift tothe left because there are fewer people consuming goods and services. Theresult is a decline in the quantity of output, as Figure 13 shows. Whether theprice level rises or declines depends on the relative sizes of the shifts in theaggregate-demand curve and the aggregate-supply curves.5.Textbook, Chapter 33, #1111. a. If firms become optimistic about future business conditions and increaseinvestment, the result is shown in Figure 18. The economy begins at point Awith aggregate-demand curve AD1 and short-run aggregate-supply curve AS1.The equilibrium has price level P1 and output level Y1. Increased optimismleads to greater investment, so the aggregate-demand curve shifts to AD2.Now the economy is at point B, with price level P2 and output level Y2. Theaggregate quantity of output supplied rises because the price level has risenand people have misperceptions about the price level, wages are sticky, orprices are sticky, all of which cause output supplied to increase.Figure 18b. Over time, as the misperceptions of the price level disappear, wages adjust, orprices adjust, the short-run aggregate-supply curve shifts up to AS2 and theeconomy gets to equilibrium at point C, with price level P3 and output level Y1.The quantity of output demanded declines as the price level rises.c. The investment boom might increase the long-run aggregate-supply curvebecause higher investment today means a larger capital stock in the future,thus higher productivity and output.6.Textbook, Chapter 33, # 1212. Economy B would have a more steeply sloped short-run aggregate-supply curvethan would Economy A, because only half of the wages in Economy B are “sticky.”A 5% increase in the money supply would have a larger effect on output inEconomy A and a larger effect on the price level in Economy B.7.True or false? Keynes's primary message in The General Theory was that short-run economicfluctuations were the result of inadequate aggregate demand that could be corrected by using government policy.TrueFor Chapter 348.Textbook, Chapter 34, # 11. a. When the Fed’s bond traders buy bonds in open-market operations, themoney-supply curve shifts to the right from MS1 to MS2, as shown in Figure 1.The result is a decline in the interest rate.Figure 1 Figure 2b. When an increase in credit card availability reduces the cash people hold, themoney-demand curve shifts to the left from MD1 to MD2, as shown in Figure 2.The result is a decline in the interest rate.c. When the Federal Reserve reduces reserve requirements, the money supplyincreases, so the money-supply curve shifts to the right from MS1 to MS2, asshown in Figure 1. The result is a decline in the interest rate.d. When households decide to hold more money to use for holiday shopping, themoney-demand curve shifts to the right from MD1 to MD2, as shown in Figure3. The result is a rise in the interest rate.Figure 3e. When a wave of optimism boosts business investment and expands aggregatedemand, money demand increases from MD1 to MD2 in Figure 3. The increasein money demand increases the interest rate.Figure 49.Textbook, Chapter 34, # 22. a. The increase in the money supply will cause the equilibrium interest rate todecline, as shown in Figure 4. Households will increase spending and willinvest in more new housing. Firms too will increase investment spending. Thiswill cause the aggregate demand curve to shift to the right as shown in Figure5.Figure 5b. As shown in Figure 5, the increase in aggregate demand will cause an increasein both output and the price level in the short run (point B).c. When the economy makes the transition from its short-run equilibrium to itslong-run equilibrium, short-run aggregate supply will decline, causing the pricelevel to rise even further (point C).d. The increase in the price level will cause an increase in the demand for money,raising the equilibrium interest rate.e. Yes. While output initially rises because of the increase in aggregate demand,it will fall once short-run aggregate supply declines. Thus, there is no long-runeffect of the increase in the money supply on real output.10.Textbook, Chapter 34, # 3Figure 63. a. When fewer ATMs are available, money demand is increased and themoney-demand curve shifts to the right from MD1 to MD2, as shown in Figure6. If the Fed does not change the money supply, which is at MS1, the interestrate will rise from r1 to r2. The increase in the interest rate shifts theaggregate-demand curve to the left, as consumption and investment fall.b. If the Fed wants to stabilize aggregate demand, it should increase the moneysupply to MS2, so the interest rate will remain at r1 and aggregate demand willnot change.c. To increase the money supply using open market operations, the Fed shouldbuy government bonds.11.Textbook, Chapter 34, #88. a. The initial effect of the tax reduction of $20 billion is to increase aggregatedemand by $20 billion × 3/4 (the MPC) = $15 billion.b. Additional effects follow this initial effect as the added incomes are spent. Thesecond round leads to increased consumption spending of $15 billion × 3/4 =$11.25 billion. The third round gives an increase in consumption of $11.25billion × 3/4 = $8.44 billion. The effects continue indefinitely. Adding them allup gives a total effect that depends on the multiplier. With an MPC of 3/4, themultiplier is 1/(1 – 3/4) = 4. So the total effect is $15 billion × 4 = $60 billion.c. Government purchases have an initial effect of the full $20 billion, becausethey increase aggregate demand directly by that amount. The total effect of anincrease in government purchases is thus $20 billion × 4 = $80 billion. Sogovernment purchases lead to a bigger effect on output than a tax cut does.The difference arises because government purchases affect aggregatedemand by the full amount, but a tax cut is partly saved by consumers, andtherefore does not lead to as much of an increase in aggregate demand.d. The government could increase taxes by the same amount it increases itspurchases.12.Textbook, Chapter 34, # 99. If the marginal propensity to consume is 0.8, the spending multiplier will be 1/(1 – 0.8) = 5. Therefore, the government would have to increase spending by $400/5 = $80 billion to close the recessionary gap.13.Textbook, Chapter 34, 1111. a. Expansionary fiscal policy is more likely to lead to a short-run increase ininvestment if the investment accelerator is large. A large investmentaccelerator means that the increase in output caused by expansionary fiscalpolicy will induce a large increase in investment. Without a large accelerator,investment might decline because the increase in aggregate demand will raisethe interest rate.b. Expansionary fiscal policy is more likely to lead to a short-run increase ininvestment if the interest sensitivity of investment is small. Because fiscalpolicy increases aggregate demand, thus increasing money demand and theinterest rate, the greater the sensitivity of investment to the interest rate thegreater the decline in investment will be, which will offset the positiveaccelerator effect.For Chapter 3514.Textbook, Chapter 35, #11. Figure 8 shows two different short-run Phillips curves depicting these four points.Points A and D are on SRPC1 because both have expected inflation of 3%. Points Band C are on SRPC2 because both have expected inflation of 5%.Figure 815.Textbook, Chapter 35, #4Figure 144. a. Figure 14 shows the economy in long-run equilibrium at point A, which is onboth the long-run and short-run Phillips curves.b. A wave of business pessimism reduces aggregate demand, moving theeconomy to point B in the figure. The unemployment rate rises and theinflation rate declines. If the Fed undertakes expansionary monetary policy, itcan increase aggregate demand, offsetting the pessimism and returning theeconomy to point A, with the initial inflation rate and unemployment rate.c. Figure 15 shows the effects on the economy if the price of imported oil rises.The higher price of imported oil shifts the short-run Phillips curve up fromSRPC1 to SRPC2. The economy moves from point A to point C, with a higherinflation rate and higher unemployment rate. If the Fed engages inexpansionary monetary policy, it can return the economy to its originalunemployment rate at point D, but the inflation rate will be higher. If the Fedengages in contractionary monetary policy, it can return the economy to itsoriginal inflation rate at point E, but the unemployment rate will be higher. Thissituation differs from that in part (b) because in part (b) the economy stayedon the same short-run Phillips curve, but in part (c) the economy moved to ahigher short-run Phillips curve, which gives policymakers a less favorabletrade-off between inflation and unemployment.Figure 1516.Textbook, Chapter 35, #6Figure 166. If the Fed acts on its belief that the natural rate of unemployment is 4%, when thenatural rate is in fact 5%, the result will be a spiraling up of the inflation rate, asshown in Figure 16. Starting from a point on the long-run Phillips curve, with anunemployment rate of 5%, the Fed will believe that the economy is in a recession,because the unemployment rate is greater than its estimate of the natural rate.Therefore, the Fed will increase the money supply, moving the economy along theshort-run Phillips curve SRPC1. The inflation rate will rise and the unemploymentrate will fall to 4%. As the inflation rate rises over time, expectations of inflationwill rise, and the short-run Phillips curve will shift up to SRPC2. This process willcontinue, and the inflation rate will spiral upwards.The Fed may eventually realize that its estimate of the natural rate ofunemployment is wrong by examining the rising trend in the inflation rate.17.Textbook, Chapter 35, #77. a. If wage contracts have short durations, a recession induced by contractionarymonetary policy will be less severe, because wage contracts can be adjustedmore rapidly to reflect the lower inflation rate. This will allow a more rapidmovement of the short-run aggregate-supply curve and short-run Phillipscurve to restore the economy to long-run equilibrium.b. If there is little confidence in the Fed's determination to reduce inflation, arecession induced by contractionary monetary policy will be more severe. Itwill take longer for people's inflation expectations to adjust downwards.c. If expectations of inflation adjust quickly to actual inflation, a recessioninduced by contractionary monetary policy will be less severe. In this case,people's expectations adjust quickly, so the short-run Phillips curve shiftsquickly to restore the economy to long-run equilibrium at the natural rate ofunemployment.18.Textbook, Chapter 35, #9Figure 179. a. As shown in the left diagram of Figure 17, equilibrium output and employmentwill fall. However, the effects on the price level and inflation rate will beambiguous. The fall in aggregate demand puts downward pressure on prices,while the decline in short-run aggregate supply pushes prices up. The diagramon the right side of Figure 17 assumes that the inflation rate rises.b. The Fed would have to use expansionary monetary policy to keep output andemployment at their natural rates. Aggregate demand would have to shift toAD3.c. The Fed may not want to pursue this action because it will lead to a rise in theinflation rate as shown by point C.19.选举周期与经济波动：一个经济某一年的菲利普斯曲线由下列的关系式确定：π = πe - (u - 4%)。

曼昆的十大经济学原理曼昆（N. Gregory Mankiw）是一位知名的经济学家，他在其著作《宏观经济学原理》中提出了十大经济学原理，这些原理不仅对经济学领域有着重要的指导意义，也对我们理解经济运行规律有着重要的启示。

接下来，我们将逐一介绍这十大经济学原理。

第一条原理是“人们面临权衡取舍”。

这个原理告诉我们，在资源有限的情况下，人们需要在各种选择之间进行权衡取舍。

任何决策都意味着放弃其他选择，这就是经济学中的“机会成本”概念。

第二条原理是“某种东西的成本是为了得到它所放弃的东西”。

这一原理与第一条原理相呼应，它强调了机会成本的概念。

在做出决策时，我们需要考虑到放弃某种东西所带来的成本。

第三条原理是“理性人考虑边际量”。

边际量指的是一种额外的量，理性人会比较边际量与边际成本来做出决策。

这一原理对于理解人们的决策行为有着重要的启示作用。

第四条原理是“人们会对激励作出反应”。

激励是人们行为的重要驱动力，人们会对各种激励作出反应，这一原理对于理解市场经济中的行为有着重要的意义。

第五条原理是“贸易可以使每个人的状况都变得更好”。

贸易能够让每个人更好地利用自己的优势，从而实现互利互惠，这一原理是国际贸易理论的基础。

第六条原理是“市场通常是组织经济活动的一种好方法”。

市场机制能够有效地调节资源配置，实现资源的有效利用，这一原理是市场经济制度的基础。

第七条原理是“政府有时可以改善市场结果”。

尽管市场能够有效地调节资源配置，但有些时候政府的干预也是必要的，比如修正市场失灵和提供公共产品等。

第八条原理是“一国的生活水平取决于它生产物品和服务的能力”。

经济增长是提高生活水平的根本途径，这一原理强调了生产力的重要性。

第九条原理是“当政府发行了过多货币时，物价上升”。

通货膨胀是货币供应过多的结果，这一原理强调了货币政策对于通货膨胀的影响。

第十条原理是“社会面临通货膨胀和失业之间的短期权衡取舍”。

通货膨胀和失业之间存在一种短期的权衡取舍关系，这一原理对宏观经济政策的制定有着重要的指导意义。

经济学十大原理解析
经济学十大原理是哈佛大学经济学教授格里高利·曼昆在其著作《经济学原理》中提出的，这些原理包括：
1.人们面临权衡取舍：稀缺性意味着人们必须在不同的目标之间进行权衡取舍，比如时间、金钱、资源等。

2.某种东西的成本是为了得到它所放弃的东西：机会成本是指为了得到某种东西而放弃的其他东西的价值。

3.理性人考虑边际量：理性人在做决策时会考虑边际成本和边际收益，即增加一个单位的某种资源所带来的成本和收益。

4.人们会对激励做出反应：人们的决策和行为受到激励的影响，他们会根据激励做出相应的反应。

5.贸易能使每个人状况更好：贸易可以使不同的人在不同的领域发挥优势，从而提高整个社会的福利。

6.市场通常是组织经济活动的好方法：市场可以通过价格机制来调节资源的分配，提高经济效率。

7.政府有时可以改善市场结果：政府可以通过干预市场来纠正市场失灵，提高社会福利。

8.一国的生活水平取决于其生产率：生产率决定了资源的利用效率，从而影响生活水平。

9.当政府发行了过多货币时，物价上升：过多发行货币会导致通货膨胀，物价上升。

10.社会面临通货膨胀与失业之间的短期权衡取舍：在短期内，增加就业可能导致通货膨胀，而抑制通货膨胀可能导致失业率上升。

这些原理是经济学的基础，对于理解经济现象和制定经济政策具有重要意义。

[经济学]第35章通货膨胀和失业之间的短期权衡取舍第三十五章通货膨胀与失业之间的短期权衡，菲利普斯曲线，菲利普斯曲线运动:预期效应，通货膨胀与失业之间的短期权衡，菲利普斯曲线运动:供给冲击，降低通货膨胀成本，结论，顺序，执行摘要，菲利普斯曲线描述了通货膨胀与失业之间的负相关关系。

与此同时，降低失业率的政策导致了更高的通货膨胀率以及通货膨胀与失业之间的负相关。

只有在短期内，不利的供应冲击才会改变短期菲利普斯曲线。

当美联储收紧货币供应以降低通货膨胀时，它将使经济沿着短期菲利普斯曲线运行，这将导致暂时的高失业率。

反通胀的成本取决于通胀预期的下降速度。

一些经济学家认为，可信的低通胀承诺可以通过调整预期来降低反通胀成本。

通货膨胀和失业之间的短期权衡。

依次，通货膨胀和失业是人们经常关心的两个指标。

一些经济学家称通货膨胀率和失业率之和为社会的“痛苦指数”。

从长远来看，最低工资法、工会力量、效率工资和求职的有效性决定了失业率。

货币供应量的增长决定了通货膨胀率。

短期内情况完全不同。

当决策者使用财政或货币政策来扩大总需求时，他们可以在短期内扩大产出并降低失业率，但这会导致价格快速上涨。

当决策者采取紧缩的财政或货币政策时，通货膨胀和失业之间的短期权衡可以在短期内减少，但代价是暂时的低产出和高失业率。

在本章中，我们将进一步研究通货膨胀和失业之间的短期权衡。

1958年，英国经济学家菲利普斯首次发现了通货膨胀和失业之间的负相关关系(当时他用名义工资的变化来表示通货膨胀)。

两年后，美国经济学家萨缪尔森(Samuelson)和索洛(Solow)用美国数据显示了通胀和失业之间的负相关性。

此外，得出的结论是，这种相关性是由于低失业率和高总需求之间的相关性。

两人指出，菲利普斯曲线为决策者提供了一个可能的经济结果菜单。

通过改变货币或财政政策，决策者可以选择曲线上的任何一点，通货膨胀和失业之间的短期权衡，菲利普斯曲线和菲利普斯曲线为决策者提供了一个可能的经济结果菜单。

宏观经济学十大原理
宏观经济学十大原理是由经济学家尼高拉斯·格里高利·曼昆在他的著作《宏观经济学原理》中提出的。

这些原理是用来解释宏观经济学中的基本概念和现象的。

以下是宏观经济学十大原理的简要介绍：
1、人们面临权衡取舍的原理：人们在资源有限的情况下需要做出选择，因为资源的供给是有限的。

2、某种东西的成本是为了得到它所放弃的东西的价值：也被称为机会成本，指的是为了得到某种东西而放弃的其他可行选择的价值。

3、理性人考虑边际量：理性人在做决策时，会考虑每个额外单位的成本和收益。

4、人们会对激励作出反应：人们对激励做出反应，激励可以是奖励或惩罚，会影响人们的行为。

5、贸易可以使每个人的状况都变得更好：通过贸易，人们可以充分利用各自的比较优势，从而提高整体福利。

6、市场通常是组织经济活动的一种好方法：市场机制可以有效地分配资源和决定价格。

7、政府有时可以改善市场结果：政府可以通过干预市场来解决市场失灵的问题，例如调节外部性和提供公共物品。

8、一国的生活水平取决于它生产物品和服务的能力：一个国家的生活水平取决于它的生产能力，即它能够生产出多少物品和服务。

9、当政府发行过多货币时，物价上升：货币供给的增加会导致通货膨胀。

10、社会面临通货膨胀和失业之间的短期权衡取舍：政府在短期内面临通货膨胀和失业之间的权衡取舍，政策的选择会影响社会的整体福利。