The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2012

Nobel Prizes in Molecular Biology诺贝尔奖是当今科学界的最高奖励，是科学研究中最具杰出成就的象征。

获得诺贝尔奖的科学家都是科学界的精英，他们做出的贡献在人类整个社会发展中起着举足轻重的作用。

将与分子生物学有关的诺贝尔奖进行归纳和总结，有助于人们了解分子生物学的发展路程和重要性，并对后人起着激励作用。

SECTION ONE: 与阐明揭示遗传物质结构有关的诺贝尔奖1) 埃米尔·赫尔曼·费歇尔（Emil Hermann Fischer）德国化学家，他的贡献主要集中在对糖类、嘌呤类化合物以及多肽的研究。

他用不对称碳原子学说确定了全部已知单糖的立体化学构型，并正确预言了其他可能的异构体。

他指出是由一个环和一个环杂合的杂环化合物，是重要的代谢物之一，并用化学方法合成了150 多种嘌呤化合物及其衍生物。

他还提出了酶和底物的锁－匙学说，并首次合成了含18 个氨基酸的多肽。

他的成果为糖类、核酸和蛋白质的结构研究奠定了基础，并因此荣获1902 年诺贝尔化学奖.Hermann Emil FischerThe Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1902 was awarded to Emil Fischer "in recognition of the extraordinary services he has rendered by his work on sugar and purine syntheses".2) 阿尔贝雷特·科赛尔（Albrecht kossel）德国生理学家科赛尔因对核酸的化学研究获得1910年诺贝尔生理或医学奖。

他首先分离出胞嘧啶、胸腺嘧啶和腺嘌呤，指出胸腺嘧啶和胞嘧啶是一种由碳和氮原子组成的环状系统，腺嘌呤和鸟嘌呤的化学式是一种双环结构，即所谓嘌呤环。

他还首次提出了“核酸”的概念，并证实核酸分子除含氮部分外，还有 1 个碳水化合物分子和 1 个磷酸分子。

我钦佩的人屠呦呦英语作文北京高一全文共10篇示例，供读者参考篇1Title: The person I admire - Tu YouyouHello everyone, today I want to talk about the person I admire the most, Tu Youyou. She is a super cool scientist from China who won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2015 for her work in discovering artemisinin, a drug that has saved millions of lives.Tu Youyou is a very smart and hardworking person. She spent many years researching traditional Chinese medicine to find a cure for malaria. She faced many challenges and setbacks along the way, but she never gave up. She persevered and finally succeeded in isolating artemisinin from a plant called Artemisia annua.I think Tu Youyou is amazing because she used her knowledge and skills to help people all around the world. Thanks to her discovery, many lives have been saved and many families have been kept together. She is a true hero in my eyes.In addition to her scientific achievements, Tu Youyou is also a very humble and kind person. She always stays true to herself and never seeks fame or fortune. She is a role model for me and I hope to be as brave and determined as she is.In conclusion, Tu Youyou is a truly inspiring person who has made a huge impact on the world through her groundbreaking research. I admire her passion, dedication, and compassion, and I hope to follow in her footsteps one day. Thank you, Tu Youyou, for being such an incredible role model for all of us. Let's all strive to make a positive difference in the world, just like she did.篇2I really admire Tu Youyou! She is a scientist from China and won the Nobel Prize for Medicine. She discovered a treatment for malaria that has saved many lives. I think she is a hero!Tu Youyou is from Beijing, China. She is very smart and hardworking. She studied traditional Chinese medicine and used it to find a cure for malaria. She tested many different plants and finally found one that worked. Her discovery has helped people all over the world.I admire Tu Youyou because she never gave up. She worked for many years to find a cure for malaria, even when otherscientists didn't believe in her. She is very brave and determined.I want to be like her when I grow up.I think Tu Youyou is a role model for all kids. She shows us that we can do anything if we work hard and believe in ourselves.I want to learn more about her and her research. I hope one day I can help people just like she did.In conclusion, Tu Youyou is my hero. I admire her for her hard work, determination, and bravery. She is a great scientist and a great person. I hope to be like her one day. Thank you, Tu Youyou, for all that you have done!篇3My Admirable Person -- Tu YouyouHello everyone, I want to share with you about someone I really admire. Her name is Tu Youyou. She is a Chinese scientist who won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2015 for her work in discovering artemisinin, a drug used to treat malaria.Tu Youyou was born in 1930 in China. She studied pharmacy at a young age and later joined the China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences. In the 1960s, she was part of a team that wastasked with finding a treatment for malaria, a deadly disease that affects many people in the world.Tu Youyou and her team searched through ancient Chinese texts and discovered a plant called Artemisia annua, which had been used for centuries in traditional Chinese medicine to treat fevers. She extracted a compound from the plant and found that it was effective in killing malaria parasites.After years of hard work and dedication, Tu Youyou’s discovery of artemisinin revolutionized the treatment of malaria and saved millions of lives around the world. She is truly an inspiration to me and many others.I admire Tu Youyou for her determination, intelligence, and compassion. She never gave up, even when faced with challenges and obstacles. Her work has made a huge impact on global health, and she continues to be a role model for scientists and researchers everywhere.In conclusion, Tu Youyou is a remarkable person who deserves all the recognition and praise for her incredible contributions to the field of medicine. I hope to follow in her footsteps and make a difference in the world, just like she has. Thank you for listening!篇4Title: The Awesome Dr. Tu YouyouHello everyone! Today I want to talk about someone I really admire. Her name is Dr. Tu Youyou. She is a super cool scientist from China who won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2015. Wow!Dr. Tu Youyou discovered a medicine called artemisinin, which can cure malaria. Malaria is a very serious disease that many people in the world suffer from. Dr. Tu Youyou worked really hard to find a cure for this terrible illness, and she did it! She is like a superhero saving lives.I think Dr. Tu Youyou is awesome because she never gave up. She faced many challenges and obstacles, but she kept going. She is a great example for all of us to never stop trying, even when things are tough.I wish I could meet Dr. Tu Youyou one day and thank her for all the amazing work she has done. She is a true inspiration to me and to many other people around the world.In conclusion, Dr. Tu Youyou is my hero. I will always remember her bravery, determination, and kindness. Thank you, Dr. Tu Youyou, for being so awesome!篇5I really admire Tu Youyou so much! She’s a super cool scientist from China and she won the Nobel Prize for Medicine! She found a cure for malaria, which is a really super important disease that hurts a lot of people. Tu Youyou is like a superhero in real life!She worked really hard to find the cure for malaria. She studied a lot of traditional Chinese medicine and used it to come up with a new medicine that could help treat the disease. She went on lots of expeditions to find the right plants to make the medicine. It was like an adventure!Tu Youyou never gave up, even when things were tough. She kept trying and trying until she finally found the cure. She’s really brave and smart and she inspires me to keep going even when things are hard.I think Tu Youyou is a really awesome person and I want to be just like her when I grow up. She shows that anyone can make a difference in the world if they work hard and believe inthemselves. Thank you, Tu Youyou, for being such a great role model for all of us!篇6I really admire Tu Youyou! She is super cool and awesome!Do you know that Tu Youyou is a Chinese scientist who won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2015? She discovered a medicine called artemisinin, which is used to treat malaria. Malaria is a really bad disease that makes people sick, but thanks to Tu Youyou's discovery, many lives have been saved.Tu Youyou worked really hard to find this medicine. She spent many years studying and researching plants to find a cure for malaria. She didn't give up even when things were tough. She is so brave and determined!Tu Youyou is a role model for all of us. She showed us that with hard work and perseverance, we can achieve our goals. She is a hero in the field of medicine and an inspiration to us all.I hope I can be like Tu Youyou one day - smart, brave, and making a difference in the world. Thank you, Tu Youyou, for all that you have done!篇7Title: The Amazing Dr. Tu YouyouHi guys! Today I want to tell you about someone I really admire – Dr. Tu Youyou. She's a super cool scientist from China who won the Nobel Prize in Medicine for discovering a new malaria treatment. Let's learn more about her!Dr. Tu Youyou was born in 1930 in Zhejiang, China. She loved learning and studying plants from a young age. In the 1960s, she was asked to find a cure for malaria, a deadly disease spread by mosquitoes. Dr. Tu and her team worked hard to search for a treatment. After many experiments, they found a plant called Artemisia annua that could be used to cure malaria.Thanks to Dr. Tu's discovery, millions of people all over the world have been saved from this terrible disease. Her work has helped to improve the lives of many people in developing countries where malaria is common. Dr. Tu is a true hero!I think Dr. Tu Youyou is amazing because she never gave up, even when things were tough. She showed that with hard work and determination, we can achieve great things. She inspires me to keep learning and to always do my best. Thank you, Dr. Tu Youyou, for being such an incredible scientist!So, that's all for today, guys. I hope you enjoyed learning about Dr. Tu Youyou. Remember, no matter how small you are, you can still make a big difference in the world. Bye for now!篇8Title: The Person I Admire - Tu YouyouHello everyone! Today I want to share with you about a person I really admire. Her name is Tu Youyou. Have you heard of her before? She is a Chinese scientist who won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2015 for her work on a new malaria treatment. Cool, right?Tu Youyou was born in 1930 in China. She studied traditional Chinese medicine and later joined a research institute. When she was asked to find a cure for malaria, she worked tirelessly and discovered a new medicine called Artemisinin. This medicine has saved millions of lives around the world. Isn't that amazing?I admire Tu Youyou because she never gave up, even when things were tough. She worked hard and used her knowledge to help others. She is a true hero and an inspiration to me. I hope one day I can make a difference in the world just like she did.So, let's all remember Tu Youyou and her great achievements. Let's work hard and never give up on our dreams. Who knows, maybe one day we will be just as great as her!Thank you for listening. Have a great day!篇9"Oh my god, do you guys know Tu Youyou? She is so amazing! I really admire her a lot! She's like a superhero to me! Let me tell you all about her.Tu Youyou is a Chinese scientist who won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2015. She discovered artemisinin and dihydroartemisinin, which are used to treat malaria. Can you believe that? She found a cure for a deadly disease! How cool is that?She worked so hard to find the cure. She spent many years researching traditional Chinese medicine and eventually found the key ingredient in sweet wormwood that could be used to treat malaria. She even risked her own life to test the medicine on herself before using it on others. That's so brave!Tu Youyou's dedication to finding a cure for malaria has saved millions of lives around the world. She didn't give up, evenwhen things got tough. She kept going until she found a solution. That's so inspiring!I really look up to Tu Youyou because she is a true hero. She has made a huge difference in the world and her work will be remembered forever. I hope I can be as determined and courageous as she is when I grow up. Tu Youyou is my role model and I will always admire her for her incredible achievements."篇10I admire Tu YouyouI want to write about a super cool person – Tu Youyou. She isa super scientist who discovered a cure for malaria. She won the Nobel Prize for that! How amazing is that?Tu Youyou is from China and she worked really hard to find the cure for malaria. Malaria is a really bad disease and lots of people die from it. But thanks to Tu Youyou, now there is a medicine that can help cure it.She used a plant called sweet wormwood to make the medicine. It was really hard work, but she didn’t give up. Shekept trying until she found the right combination. And now, because of her, lots of people are healthy and happy.Tu Youyou is my hero because she never gave up. She worked really hard and helped so many people. I hope one day I can be like her – brave and smart and never giving up.I want to thank Tu Youyou for being such an awesome scientist. She is a true inspiration for me and for all kids who want to make a difference in the world. Thank you, Tu Youyou, for being so amazing!。

2017考研英语阅读：屠呦呦获诺贝尔医学奖刚刚过去的这个十一假期，如果说除了祖国华诞之外还有什么值得举国同庆的消息，恐怕就是屠呦呦教授获得诺贝尔医学奖了。

可以想象，此新闻一出，2017考研热点必将跟上。

今天给大家分享一篇纽约时报中文网对此事件的报道，希望能对你的2017考研英语有所帮助。

【正文】Eighty-five-year old Chinese pharmacologist Tu Youyou became China’s first medicine Nobel laureate when it was announced she was one of three scientists awarded the 2015 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their work in developing effective drugs against parasitic diseases.William C. Campbell and Satoshi mura were recognized for their novel therapy against infections caused by roundworm parasites.While Tu was honored for developing Artemisinin, a drug therapy for malaria that has saved millions of lives across the globe, especially in the developing world, the Nobel Assembly at Karolinska Institute disclosed on its website on Monday.Tu, a Chinese trained pharmacologist and a researcher at the China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences in Beijing, would like to go to Oslo, Norway in December to receive her award in person, according to Cao Hongxin, the science and technology department head of the State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine, and former director of the academy."She sounded calm and said she has received lots of congratulatory calls," Cao told China Daily on Monday after he telephoned Tu to congratulate her. "It’s an overdue honor for Tu and the world’s recognition of TCM," he said.Tu was honored for her work in isolating the active ingredient from the plant Artemisia apiacea Hance that protects against the malaria parasite and developing an extraction method for its therapeutic use."It was inspired by the ancient TCM classic Manual of Clinical Practice and Emergency Remedies by TCM master Ge Hong of the Eastern Jin Dynasty (AD 317- 340)," Cao said.The book says coldly squeezed southern wood juice could treat malaria.Her great findings spearheaded the exploration for the modernization of TCM as well, he added.In 1969, Tu started to chair a government project aimed at eradicating malaria.Tu and her colleagues experimented with 380 extracts in 2,000 candidate recipes before they finally succeeded in obtaining the pure substance qinghaosu, later known as artemisinin, which became the standard regimen for malaria in the World Health Organiz ation’s catalog o f essential medicines.In 2011, Tu was awarded the Lasker Debakey Clinical Medical Research Award, commonly referred to as "America’s Nobel Prize".【参考译文】2015年度诺贝尔生理医学奖已经公布，85岁高龄的中国药理学家屠呦呦和其他两位科学家共获这一殊荣，以表彰他们在研发对抗寄生虫疾病药物方面做出的贡献。

The Nobel PrizeThe Nobel Price is an international award given yearly since 1901 for achievements in physics, chemistry, medicine, literature and for peace. In 1968, the Bank of Sweden instituted (set up) the Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel, founder of the Nobel Prize.The Prize Winners are announced in October every year. They receive their awards (a prize amount, a gold medal and a diploma) on December 10, the anniversary of Nobel's death.诺贝尔奖包括金质奖章、证书和奖金支票。

包括物理学、化学、生理学(或医学)、文学、经济学、和平奖。

物理学奖和化学奖由瑞典皇家科学院评定，生理学或医学奖由瑞典皇家卡罗林医学院评定，文学奖由瑞典文学院评定，和平奖由挪威诺贝尔委员会选出。

1968年又增设了经济学奖，奖金由瑞典中央银行提供，委托瑞典皇家科学院评定。

The Nobel Price is an ______ ______given yearly since _____ for achievements in _____, _____,______, _____ and for _____. In 1968, the Bank of Sweden instituted the Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel, _____ of the Nobel Prize.Announcement time: __________Awards: ______, _______, _______December 10: the anniversary of ________.All Nobel Laureates777 individuals and 20 organizations have been awarded the Nobel Prize.Alfred Nobel - The Man Behind the Nobel PrizeSince 1901, the Nobel Prize has been honoring men and women from all corners of the globe for outstanding achievements in physics, chemistry, medicine, literature, and for work in peace. The foundations for the prize were laid in 1895 when Alfred Nobel wrote his last will, leaving much of his wealth to the establishment of the Nobel Prize. But who was Alfred Nobel? Articles, photographs, a slide show and poetry written by Nobel himself are presented here to give a glimpse of a man whose varied interests are reflected in the prize he established. Meet Alfred Nobel - scientist, inventor, entrepreneur, author and pacifist. Since ____, the Nobel Prize has been honoring _____ and _____ from all corners of the globe for outstanding achievements in _____, _____, _____, _____, and for work in _____. The foundations for the prize were laid in _____ when Alfred Nobel wrote his ____ _____, leaving much of his _____ to the ______ of the Nobel Prize. But who was Alfred Nobel? _____, _____, a _____ ____ and _____ written by Nobel himself are presented here to give a glimpse of a man whose _____ _____ are reflected in the prize he established. Meet Alfred Nobel - _____, _____, _____, _____ and _____.The Nobel Prize AwardersWho selects the Nobel Laureates? In his last will and testament, Alfred Nobel specifically designated the institutions responsible for the prizes he wished to be established:1. The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences forthe Nobel Prize in Physics and Chemistry 2. Karolinska Institute for the Nobel Prize inPhysiology or Medicine3. The Swedish Academy for the Nobel Prize inLiterature4. A Committee of five persons to be elected bythe Norwegian Parliament (Storting) for theNobel Peace Prize.5. In 1968, the Sveriges Riksbank establishedthe Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economics in Memory of Alfred Nobel. The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences was given the task toselect the Economics Prize Laureatesstarting in 1969.Nomination for the Nobel PrizesEach year the respective Nobel Committees send individual invitations to thousands of members of academies, university professors, scientists from numerous countries, previous Nobel Laureates, members of parliamentary assemblies and others, asking them to submit candidates for the Nobel Prizes for the coming year. These nominators are chosen in such a way that as many countries and universities as possible are represented over time.Each year the _____ Nobel Committees send individual invitations to thousands of _____ of academies, university ______, _____ from numerous countries, previous Nobel _____,_____ of parliamentary assemblies and _____, asking them to submit ______ for the Nobel Prizes for the _____ year. These ______ are chosen in such a way that as many countries and universities as possible are _represented_____ over time.Nobel Prize AnnouncementsThe announcement of the Nobel Laureates for the year is made on the same day that the Nobel Prize-Awarding Institutions choose from among the names recommended by the respective Nobel Committees. Immediately after the vote, a press conference is held by the concerned Nobel Prize Awarder.Announcements of the 2008 Nobel Prizes and The Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel will be held on the following dates:Physiology or Medicine - Monday, October 6, 11:30 a.m. CET at the earliestPhysics - Tuesday, October 7, 11:45 a.m. CET at the earliestChemistry - Wednesday, October 8, 11:45 a.m. CET at the earliestPeace - Friday, October 10, 11:00 a.m. CETEconomics - Monday, October 13, 1:00 p.m. CET at the earliestAccording to tradition, the Swedish Academy will set the date for its announcement of the Nobel Prize in Literature later.The _____ of the Nobel Laureates for the year is made on the _____ day that the NobelPrize-Awarding Institutions choose from among the names _____ by the respective Nobel Committees. Immediately after the _____, a press _____ is held by the concerned Nobel Prize Awarder.The Nobel Prize Award CeremoniesThe Nobel Laureates take center stage in Stockholm on 10 _____ when they receive the Nobel Prize _____, Nobel Prize _____ and _____ confirming the Nobel Prize amount from King Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden. In Oslo, the Nobel_____ Prize Laureates receive their Nobel _____ Prize from the Chairman of the Norwegian Nobel Committee in the presence of King Harald V of Norway. An important part is the presentation of the Nobel _____ by the Nobel _____. In Stockholm, the lectures are presented days_____ the Nobel Prize Award Ceremony. In Oslo, the Nobel Laureates deliver their lectures _____ the Nobel Peace Prize Award Ceremony.Summary & Translation of Nobel Prize诺贝尔奖是一项授予在物理、化学、医学、文学和和平界杰出贡献的国际奖项，奖项获得者每年10月份公布，获得的奖项包括奖金、金牌和证书，在12月10号--诺贝尔去世纪念日—颁奖。

《青蒿素：人类征服疾病的一小步》教案【素养目标】1.了解屠呦呦及其科学事迹。

2.学习在演讲中语言诚挚、在论文中措辞严谨的表达技巧。

3.了解中国古代医学典籍，了解中医药的重要作用。

4.培养学生心怀天下、为人类共同发展做出贡献的情怀。

【教学重难点】感受屠呦呦心怀天下、为人类共同发展做出卓越贡献的情怀。

【教学方法】自主探究法、合作探究法【教学过程】激趣导入“青蒿一握，水二升，浸渍了千多年，直到你出现。

为了一个使命，执着于千百次实验。

萃取出古老文化的精华，深深植入当代世界，帮人类渡过一劫。

呦呦鹿鸣，食野之蒿。

今有嘉宾，德音孔昭。

”2015年感动中国人物—屠呦呦的颁奖词，如上写道。

2015年12月10日，屠呦呦因开创性地从中草药中分离出青蒿素应用于疟疾治疗而获得当年的诺贝尔医学奖。

这一项震惊整个世界的发现为全人类的健康带来了又一份曙光。

今天，就让我们一起走进青蒿素的发现历程。

一、知人论世1.了解屠呦呦屠呦呦，女，汉族，中共党员，药学家。

1930年12月30日生于浙江宁波，1951年考入北京大学，在医学院药学系生药专业学习。

1955年，毕业于北京医学院（今北京大学医学部）。

毕业后曾接受中医培训两年半，并一直在中国中医研究院（2005年更名为中国中医科学院）工作，期间前后晋升为硕士生导师、博士生导师。

现为中国中医科学院的首席科学家，中国中医研究院终身研究员兼首席研究员，青蒿素研究开发中心主任，博士生导师，药学家，诺贝尔医学奖获得者，共和国勋章获得者。

2.了解诺贝尔医学奖诺贝尔生理学或医学奖（英语：Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine；瑞典语：Nobelpriset i fysiologi eller medicin）是根据诺贝尔（1833-1896）1895年的遗嘱而设立的五个诺贝尔奖之一，该奖旨在表彰在生理学或医学领域作出重要发现或发明的人。

1901年诺贝尔生理学或医学奖首次颁发。

诺贝尔生理学奖得主约翰·奥基夫在颁奖晚宴上英语演讲稿诺贝尔生理学奖得主约翰·奥基夫在颁奖晚宴上英语演讲稿Your Majesties,Your Royal Highnesses,Your Excellencies,Ladies and GentlemenOn behalf of my colleagues May-Britt and Edvard Moser, and myself, I would like to express ourgratitude to the Nobel Foundation for hosting this magnificent banquet. I would also like toexpress our gratitude to the Nobel Committee and Assembly for deeming our research worthyof this distinguished accolade. I th ink it’s fair to say that the Nobel Prize is the highest honorany scientist or artist can achieve. We are pleased and delighted.We see the awards as a recognition not only of ourselves and our accomplishments but also ofour collaborators in the study of the spatial functions of the hippocampus, and our colleagues inthe wider field of cognitive and behavioural neuroscience. Cognitive neuroscience is entering anexciting era in which new technologies and ideas are making it possible to study the neuralbasis of cognition, perception, memory and emotion at the level of networks of interactingneurons, the level at which we believe many of the important operations of the brain take place.We know a considerable amount about how individual neurons work and how two cells cancommunicate with each other but the way in which entire networks of hundreds andthousands of neurons cooperate, interact with each other, and are orchestrated to create ourideas and concepts is an underexplored area of neuroscience. It is probably at this level thatnetwork failure occurs and leads to some of our most disturbing and intractable diseases ofthe mind and brain.This new area of neuroscience has been made possible by the development of new optical,computer-based electronic, and molecular biological tools which will allow us tomonitor theactivity of many thousands of cells simultaneously and to manipulate their activity. We willmove from looking at correlations between brain activity and behaviour to studying how thebrain causes mental states and behaviour. It is fitting therefore that our fellow laureates thisyear in physics and chemistry are world’s leaders in providing us with some of these tools. Weare eager to begin to use some of the laser-based optical techniques being developed by ourchemistry co- laureates.We are also pleased to be receiving the prize with laureates from so many different countries.Science is the quintessential international endeavour and the sterling reputation of the Nobelawards is partly due to the widely-perceived lack of national and other biases in the selection ofthe laureates. We believe that the future great contributions to our understanding of thebiological and physical world can come from citizens of any country in any part of the world. It isto the credit of the Nobel committees that they have steadfastly endeavoured to follow AlfredNobel’s wishes that the prizes recognise contributions to the welfare of humanity regardless ofcountry of origin, gender, race or religious affiliation.I want to end by recognising and thanking our many collaborators and colleagues toonumerous to mention in this short speech, our universities, UCL and NTNU, and our generousfunders.Thank you for your attention. Tack.。

《青蒿素：人类征服疾病的一小步》教案【素养目标】1.了解屠呦呦及其科学事迹。

2.学习在演讲中语言诚挚、在论文中措辞严谨的表达技巧。

3.了解中国古代医学典籍，了解中医药的重要作用。

4.培养学生心怀天下、为人类共同发展做出贡献的情怀。

【教学重难点】感受屠呦呦心怀天下、为人类共同发展做出卓越贡献的情怀。

【教学方法】自主探究法、合作探究法【教学过程】激趣导入“青蒿一握，水二升，浸渍了千多年，直到你出现。

为了一个使命，执着于千百次实验。

萃取出古老文化的精华，深深植入当代世界，帮人类渡过一劫。

呦呦鹿鸣，食野之蒿。

今有嘉宾，德音孔昭。

”2015年感动中国人物—屠呦呦的颁奖词，如上写道。

2015年12月10日，屠呦呦因开创性地从中草药中分离出青蒿素应用于疟疾治疗而获得当年的诺贝尔医学奖。

这一项震惊整个世界的发现为全人类的健康带来了又一份曙光。

今天，就让我们一起走进青蒿素的发现历程。

一、知人论世1.了解屠呦呦屠呦呦，女，汉族，中共党员，药学家。

1930年12月30日生于浙江宁波，1951年考入北京大学，在医学院药学系生药专业学习。

1955年，毕业于北京医学院（今北京大学医学部）。

毕业后曾接受中医培训两年半，并一直在中国中医研究院（2005年更名为中国中医科学院）工作，期间前后晋升为硕士生导师、博士生导师。

现为中国中医科学院的首席科学家，中国中医研究院终身研究员兼首席研究员，青蒿素研究开发中心主任，博士生导师，药学家，诺贝尔医学奖获得者，共和国勋章获得者。

2.了解诺贝尔医学奖诺贝尔生理学或医学奖（英语：Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine；瑞典语：Nobelpriset i fysiologi eller medicin）是根据诺贝尔（1833-1896）1895年的遗嘱而设立的五个诺贝尔奖之一，该奖旨在表彰在生理学或医学领域作出重要发现或发明的人。

1901年诺贝尔生理学或医学奖首次颁发。

2025届浙江省宁波市名校联合体联考新高三入学摸底考试英语试题一、阅读理解Beautiful Guatemala is a land rich in diversity and cultural heritage. Whether you hope to summit a volcano, hike through the jungle or explore ancient ruins, Guatemala will not disappoint.Tikal National ParkTikal National Park is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and one of the most famous places in Guatemala. Tikal covers an estimated 46 miles (around 74 km) and is one of the most extraordinary archaeological sites in Central America. It is here, centuries ago, that the ancient Mayan civilisation boomed.Chichicastenango“Chichi,” as it’s known by the local Kiche population, hosts the largest market in Central America. The town comes alive on Thursdays and Sundays when vendors (小贩) come from surrounding areas to display their goods. The market bursts with varied colours and a lively atmosphere, stocking everything from vividly-colored cloth to traditional carved wooden masks.Guatemala CityBrightly graffitied (涂鸦) walls line the busy streets in Guatemala City where you’ll find trendy stores, relaxing bars, and diverse art galleries. Make sure to check out La Esquina, an indoor food market with some of the best food stalls in the city. The Museo Popol Vuh is a leading museum in the world of Mayan art. Here you will be able to spend a couple of hours appreciating the incredible and comprehensive collection of Mayan as well as colonial art.Acatenango VolcanoV olcano Acatenango towers almost 4,000 metres above the surrounding landscape just outside Antigua. The hike to the summit of this volcano is one of the toughest, yet most popular, in Guatemala. Not only will you get to appreciate the breathtaking views, but you will also have a bird’s-eye view of the nearby (and extremely active) V olcan Fuego.1．What’s the best choice for someone interested in Mayan history?A．Tikal National Park.B．Chichicastenango.C．Guatemala City.D．Acatenango V olcano.2．What do we know about Guatemala City?A．It hosts the largest market in Central America.B．It is a perfect destination for art lovers.C．You can buy vivid cloth and masks there.D．Museo Popol Vuh is a great food market.3．What is special about Acatenango V olcano?A．A bird view of Guatemala City.B．The highest tower in Guatemala.C．The hike to the volcano summit.D．It is an extremely active volcano.Port Lympne Reserve, which runs a breeding (繁育) programme, has welcomed the arrival of a rare black rhino calf (犀牛幼崽). When the tiny creature arrived on January 31, she became the 40th black rhino to be born at the reserve. And officials at Port Lympne were delighted with the new arrival, especially as black rhinos are known for being difficult to breed in captivity (圈养).Paul Beer, head of rhino section at Port Lympne, said: “Obviously we’re all absolutely delighted to welcome another calf to our black rhino family. She’s healthy, strong and already eager to play and explore. Her mother, Solio, is a first-time mum and she is doing a fantastic job. It’s still a little too cold for them to go out into the open, but as soon as the weather warms up, I have no doubt that the little one will be out and about exploring and playing every day.”The adorable female calf is the second black rhino born this year at the reserve, but it is too early to tell if the calves will make good candidates to be returned to protected areas of the wild. The first rhino to be born at Port Lympne arrived on January 5 to first-time mother Kisima and weighed about 32kg. His mother, grandmother and great grandmother were all born at the reserve and still live there.According to the World Wildlife Fund, the global black rhino population has dropped as low as 5500, giving the rhinos a “critically endangered” status.4．Which of the following best describes the breeding programme?A．Costly.B．Controversial.C．Ambitious.D．Successful. 5．What does Paul Beer say about the new-born rhino?A．She loves staying with her mother.B．She dislikes outdoor activities.C．She is in good condition D．She is sensitive to heat.6．What similar experience do Solio and Kisima have?A．They had their first born in January.B．They enjoyed exploring new placesC．They lived with their grandmothers.D．They were brought to the reserve young 7．What can be inferred about Porn Lympne Reserve?A．The rhino section will be open to the public.B．It aims to control the number of the animals.C．It will continue to work with the World Wildlife Fund.D．Some of its rhinos may be sent to the protected wild areas.Researchers at MIT created a high-tech pill that starts to vibrate (震动) once it makes contact with liquid in the user’s stomach and make him or her feel full. The pill was reportedly thought up by Shriya Srinivasan, currently an assistant professor of bioengineering at Harvard University.VIBES, short for Vibrating Ingestible BioEleotronic Stimulator, was only recently made public in a study published in the Science Journal, but it is already being announced by the media as the future of weight loss. Although it has yet to be tested on humans, trials on pigs have achieved very hopeful results. After about 30 minutes of VIBES activity, pigs consumed on average almost 40 percent less food in the next half hour than they did without the smart pill. Apparently, the revolutionary device works by activating stretch receptors in the stomach, modeling the presence of food. This in turn signals the hypothalamus (下丘脑) to increase the levels of hormones that make us feel full. The vibrating stimulator, which is about the size of a vitamin pill, is powered by an encased battery and activated either by the gastric fluid (胃液) breaking down a coat around the pill, or by an incorporated timer. After producing the desired effect, the pill exits the body with other solid waste:The good news is that it is expected to have a cost in the cents to one dollar range, and researchers say that it may eventually be possible to implant the stimulator and thus remove theneed for people to constantly swallow it.“Our study demonstrates the effectiveness of a low-cost, non-operative intervention to reduce food intake and ca lorie consumption. The device functions effectively in the stomach and leading to fullness,” said Giovanni Traverso, co-author of the study. “The device has the potential to revolutionize options for weight loss treatment. However, future studies will need to explore the physiological effects of the device before it’s available for patients.”Researchers are now exploring ways to scale up the producing of VIBES capsules which could enable clinical trials in humans.8．What is the outcome of taking the pill?A．Liquid production.B．Food storage.C．Sensation of fullness.D．Recovery of users.9．Which aspect of the device is mentioned in paragraph 2?A．Its working principle.B．Its intelligence.C．Its testing history.D．Its side effect.10．What is the researchers’ ultimate goal of the device?A．To produce gastric fluid with it.B．To destroy the coat around it.C．To fix it in human body.D．To remove solid waste from it.11．What is Giovanni Traverso’s attitude towards the future of the device?A．Worried.B．Cautious.C．Doubtful.D．Confused.The Nobel Prize is one of the most prestigious awards in the world. It was established by Alfred Nobel, a Swedish chemist, engineer, and inventor. Nobel was known for inventing dynamite. However, he was concerned about how his inventions could be used for destructive purposes in war. Thus, in his will, he stipulated that his fortune be used to establish prizes in physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, literature, and peace.The first Nobel Prizes were awarded in 1901. Since then, the Nobel Prize has been awarded to countless outstanding individuals who have made significant contributions to their respective fields. The Nobel Prize in Physics and Chemistry often recognizes revolutionary discoveries and advancements in science. The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine honors breakthroughs in the understanding and treatment of diseases. The Nobel Prize in Literature rewards outstandingliterary works that have a profound impact on humanity. The Nobel Peace Prize is given to those who have worked tirelessly to promote peace and resolve conflicts.Winning a Nobel Prize is not only a great honor but also brings attention to the important work being done in various fields. It inspires future generations of scientists, writers, and peacemakers to strive for excellence and make the world a better place.12．Who established the Nobel Prize?A．A Swedish physicist.B．A Swedish chemist.C．A Swedish engineer.D．A Swedish inventor.13．What was Alfred Nobel known for inventing?A．Gunpowder.B．Dynamite.C．Electricity.D．The telephone. 14．How many fields does the Nobel Prize cover?A．Three.B．Four.C．Five.D．Six.15．Which field does the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine honor?A．Discoveries in physics.B．Breakthroughs in treating diseases.C．Outstanding literary works.D．Efforts to promote peace.Personal Development For TeensTeenagers may face many challenges unique to them. Below are some steps to help you evolve and be a better person in your teens.Learn new skillSometimes, a side-skill you have gained along the way turns out the very thing that creates an opportunity for success. 16 You shouldn’t be forced to determine your future based on your grades and choices in high school, so learning new skills will definitely come in handy later.Try to socialize more17 Wherever you go and whatever you do, the ability to blend in and communicate with others can save you in tough times. Socializing, making friends, and forming healthy relationships can help you learn things you could never find out on your own.Have a better lifestyle.Your lifestyle forms your character, and the way you live defines who you are. 18On the other hand, having an unhealthy lifestyle may disturb you, put you under stress, and eventually harm you in the most unbelievable ways.Take care of your healthWithout health, it is almost impossible to enjoy life to its fullest. Money, grades, or events are replaceable; your health is not. And while it is very important to maintain good physical health, we cannot forget about our mental health. 19Embrace positivityTry to avoid people who ruin everything with negativity and befriend those who give you positive vibes(感应). 20 How can you improve your yourself if your surroundings keep telling you that changing for the better is useless? Negative people give up quickly because they can never see the light in the darkness.Every teenager should be taught and reminded of ways to improve themselves so that they can see a clearer picture of their future.A．Grasping new skills is an easy job.B．You need people who make you feel good about life.C．Force yourself to socialize—even if you don’t want to.D．Proper communication is crucial if you want to be a better person.E．Our mind is just as important, and we should give it the same amount of attention.F．Also, when you are in your teens, you hardly know what you want to do with your life. G．When you’re at peace with how you live your days, you can focus on improving yourself.二、完形填空Have you ever heard of and seen Canadian geese? Do you know that they 21 fresh grass and seeds?Canadian geese have a good 22 for their politeness. They always bow down to you whenever you walk by. However, I have recently found that they can sometimes be 23 to their peers, especially on occasions when they quarrel for food——yes, these 24 gentlemen do quarrel, just for something to eatYesterday I witnessed two Canadian Geese arguing 25 for a clump(草丛) of beautifulfresh grass. The clump was 26 right in the middle of them, while the two were shouting noisily, stretching their necks as long as they could to look aggressively at each other. It’s 27 to witness the “impolite” side of Canadian geese. Hence, I couldn’t help 28 my morning walk, standing still to watch these “gentlemen” quarreling. Interestingly, after a short while, a truck roared past their feast, disturbing their 29 conversation. The two geese were equally 30 by the massive “monster”, thus giving up their conversation.Would they start quarreling again? I stood still, 31 the ridiculous question and waited. Beyond my expectation, right after the truck’s passing by, the two geese immediately lost their 32 for quarreling as if they had forgotten all about what had happened. Even the two turned around and left the 33 in opposite directions as if nothing had happened. They left only me there, imagining what might have happened without the 34 .They got along harmoniously again. Sometimes it’s not that bad to be 35 . 21．A．draw on B．focus on C．feed on D．try on 22．A．desire B．reputation C．affection D．appetite 23．A．generous B．faithful C．weird D．rude 24．A．well-informed B．well-dressed C．well-behaved D．well-balanced 25．A．fiercely B．blindly C．cautiously D．gently 26．A．deserted B．located C．fixed D．laid 27．A．frequent B．rare C．common D．constant 28．A．restricting B．changing C．pausing D．speeding 29．A．desperate B．simple C．serious D．disharmonious 30．A．frightened B．annoyed C．crashed D．injured 31．A．finding out B．dealing with C．looking into D．wondering about 32．A．passion B．reason C．talent D．anxiety 33．A．scene B．destination C．landscape D．park 34．A．looker-on B．passer-by C．truck D．clump 35．A．upset B．forgetful C．mean D．greedy三、语法填空阅读下面短文，在空白处填入1个适当的单词或括号内单词的正确形式。

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine （1998-2008）1998NOBELFÖRSAMLINGEN KAROLINSKA INSTITUTETTHE NOBEL ASSEMBLY AT KAROLINSKA INSTITUTET October 12, 1998The Nobel Assembly at Karolinska Institutet has today decided to awardthe Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for 1998 jointly toRobert F. Furchgott, Louis J. Ignarro and Ferid Muradfor their discoveries concerning "nitric oxide as a signalling molecule in the cardiovascular system".SummaryNitric oxide (NO) is a gas that transmits signals in the organism. Signal transmission by a gas that is produced by one cell, penetrates through membranes and regulates the function of another cell represents an entirely new principle for signalling in biological systems. The discoverers of NO as a signal molecule are awarded this year's Nobel Prize.Robert F Furchgott, pharmacologist in New York, studied the effect of drugs on blood vessels but often achieved contradictory results. The same drug sometimes caused a contraction and at other occasions a dilatation. Furchgott wondered if the variation could depend on whether the surface cells (the endothelium) inside the blood vessels were intact or damaged. In 1980, he demonstrated in an ingenious experiment that acetylcholine dilated blood vessels only if the endothelium was intact. He concluded that blood vessels are dilated because the endothelial cells produce an unknown signal molecule that makes vascular smooth muscle cells relax. He called this signal molecule EDRF, the endothelium-derived relaxing factor, and his findings led to a quest to identify the factor.Ferid Murad, MD and pharmacologist now in Houston, analyzed how nitroglycerin and related vasodilating compounds act and discovered in 1977 that they release nitric oxide, which relaxes smooth muscle cells. He was fascinated by the concept that a gas could regulate important cellular functions and speculated that endogenous factors such as hormones might also act through NO. However, there was no experimental evidence to support this idea at the time.Louis J Ignarro, pharmacologist in Los Angeles, participated in the quest for EDRF's chemical nature. He performed a brilliant series of analyses and concluded in 1986, together with and independently of Robert Furchgott, thatEDRF was identical to NO. The problem was solved and Furchgott's endothelial factor identified.When Furchgott and Ignarro presented their conclusions at a conference in July, 1986, it elicited an avalanche of research activities in many different laboratories around the world. This was the first discovery that a gas can act as a signal molecule in the organism.BackgroundNitric oxide protects the heart, stimulates the brain, kills bacteria, etc. It was a sensation that this simple, common air pollutant, which is formed when nitrogen burns, for instance in automobile exhaust fumes, could exert important functions in the organism. It was particularly surprising since NO is totally different from any other known signal molecule and so unstable that it is converted to nitrate and nitrite within 10 seconds. NO was known to be produced in bacteria but this simple molecule was not expected to be important in higher animals such as mammals.Further research results rapidly confirmed that NO is a signal molecule of key importance for the cardiovascular system and it was also found to exert a series of other functions. We know today that NO acts as a signal molecule in the nervous system, as a weapon against infections, as a regulator of blood pressure and as a gatekeeper of blood flow to different organs. NO is present in most living creatures and made by many different types of cells.- When NO is produced by the innermost cell layer of the arteries, the endothelium, it rapidly spreads through the cell membranes to the underlying muscle cells. Their contraction is turned off by NO, resulting in a dilatation of the arteries. In this way, NO controls the blood pressure and its distribution. It also prevents the formation of thrombi.- When NO is formed in nerve cells, it spreads rapidly in all directions, activating all cells in the vicinity. This can modulate many functions, from behaviour to gastrointestinal motility.- When NO is produced in white blood cells (such as macrophages), huge quantities are achieved and become toxic to invading bacteria and parasites. Importance in medicine today and tomorrowHeart: In atherosclerosis, the endothelium has a reduced capacity to produce NO. However, NO can be furnished by treatment with nitroglycerin. Large efforts in drug discovery are currently aimed at generating more powerful and selective cardiac drugs based on the new knowledge of NO as a signal molecule. Shock: Bacterial infections can lead to sepsis and circulatory shock. In this situation, NO plays a harmful role. White blood cells react to bacterial products by releasing enormous amounts of NO that dilate the blood vessels. The bloodpressure drops and the patient may become unconscious. In this situation, inhibitors of NO synthesis may be useful in intensive care treatment. Lungs: Intensive care patients can be treated by inhalation of NO gas. This has provided good results and even saved lives. For instance, NO gas has been used to reduce dangerously high blood pressure in the lungs of infants. But the dosage is critical since the gas can be toxic at high concentrations.Cancer: White blood cells use NO not only to kill infectious agents such as bacteria, fungi and parasites, but also to defend the host against tumours. Scientists are currently testing whether NO can be used to stop the growth of tumours since this gas can induce programmed cell death, apoptosis. Impotence: NO can initiate erection of the penis by dilating the blood vessels to the erectile bodies. This knowledge has already led to the development of new drugs against impotence.Diagnostic analyses: Inflammatory diseases can be revealed by analysing the production of NO from e.g. lungs and intestines. This is used for diagnosing asthma, colitis, and other diseases.NO is important for the olfactory sense and our capacity to recognise different scents. It may even be important for our memory.NitroglycerinAlfred Nobel invented dynamite, a product in which the explosion-prone nitroglycerin is curbed by being absorbed in kieselguhr, a porous soil rich in shells of diatoms. When Nobel was taken ill with heart disease, his doctor prescribed nitroglycerin. Nobel refused to take it, knowing that it caused headache and ruling out that it could eliminate chest pain. In a letter, Nobel wrote: It is ironical that I am now ordered by my physician to eat nitroglycerin. It has been known since last century that the explosive, nitroglycerin, has beneficial effects against chest pain. However, it would take 100 years until it was clarified that nitroglycerin acts by releasing NO gas.1999THE NOBEL ASSEMBLY AT THE KAROLINSKA INSTITUTE11 October 1999The Nobel Assembly at Karolinska Institutet has today decided to awardthe Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for 1999 toGünter Blobelfor the discovery that "proteins have intrinsic signals that govern their transport and localization in the cell"SummaryA large number of proteins carrying out essential functions are constantly being made within our cells. These proteins have to be transported either out of the cell, or to the different compartments - the organelles - within the cell. How are newly made proteins transported across the membrane surrounding the organelles, and how are they directed to their correct location?These questions have been answered through the work of this year’s Nobel Laureate in Physiology or Medicine, Dr Günter Blobel, a cell and molecular biologist at the Rockefeller University in New York. Already at the beginning of the 1970s he discovered that newly synthesized proteins have an intrinsic signal that is essential for governing them to and across the membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum, one of the cell’s organelles. During the next twenty years Blobel characterized in detail the molecular mechanisms underlying these processes. He also showed that similar "address tags", or "zip codes", direct proteins to other intracellular organelles.The principles discovered and described by Günter Blobel turned out to be universal, operating similarly in yeast, plant, and animal cells. A number of human hereditary diseases are caused by errors in these signals and transport mechanisms. Blobel’s research has also contributed to the development of a more effective use of cells as "protein factories" for the production of important drugs.Several important functionsAn adult human being is made up of approximately 100,000 billion cells. A cell contains many different compartments, organelles, each surrounded by a membrane. The organelles are specialized to carry out different tasks. The cell nucleus, for instance, contains the genetic material (DNA) and thus governs all functions of the cell. The mitochondria are the "power plants" producing energy needed by the cell, and the endoplasmic reticulum is, together with the ribosomes, responsible for synthesizing proteins.Every cell contains approximately one billion protein molecules. The different proteins have a large number of important functions. Some constitute the building blocks for constructing the cell while others function as enzymes catalyzing thousands of specific chemical reactions. The proteins within a cell are constantly degraded and resynthesized. The number of amino acids - the building blocks making up all proteins - may in a single protein range from about 50 to several thousands, forming long, folded chains.How do proteins cross the barriers?Thus, it was for a long time a puzzle how large proteins could traverse the tightly sealed, lipid-containing, membranes surrounding the organelles. Some decadesago, it was also unknown how newly made proteins were directed to their correct locations in the cell.Günter Blobel was going to solve both of these puzzles. At the end of the 1960s he joined the famous cell biology laboratory of George Palade at the Rockefeller Institute in New York. Here, during two decades, scientists had studied the structure of the cell and the principles for the transport of newly synthesized proteins out of the cell. This work earned George Palade the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1974 (which he shared with the Belgian scientists Albert Claude and Christian de Duve)."The signal hypothesis"Günter Blobel’s research was built on the traditions of Palade´s laboratory. In particular, Blobel studied how a newly made protein, destined to become transported out of the cell, is targeted to a specialized intracellular membrane system, the endoplasmic reticulum. In 1971 he formulated a first version of the "signal hypothesis". He postulated that proteins secreted out of the cell contain an intrinsic signal that governs them to and across membranes.Based on elegant biochemical experiments, Blobel described in 1975 the various steps in these processes. The signal consists of a peptide, i.e. a sequence of amino acids in a particular order that form an integral part of the protein. He also suggested that the protein traverses the membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum through a channel (Fig. 1). During the next twenty years, Blobel and coworkers step by step characterized the molecular details of these processes. Eventually it was shown that the signal hypothesis was both correct and universal, since the processes operate in the same way in yeast, plant, and animal cells."Address tags" for organelle localizationIn collaboration with other research groups, Günter Blobel was soon able to show that similar intrinsic signals target the transport of proteins also to other intracellular organelles. On the basis of his results, Günter Blobel formulated in 1980 general principles for the sorting and targeting of proteins to particular cell compartments. Each protein carries in its structure the information needed to specify its proper location in the cell. Specific amino acid sequences (topogenic signals) determine whether a protein will pass through a membrane into a particular organelle, become integrated into the membrane, or be exported out of the cell.A range of signals that govern proteins to the different parts of the cell have now been identified (Fig. 2), showing that the principles formulated by Blobel are correct. These signals can be compared to address tags or zip codes which ensure that a traveler's luggage arrives at the correct destination, or a letterreaches its correct addressee. These signal sequences are in fact a chain of different amino acids present either as a short "tail" at one end of the protein, or sometimes located within the protein.Significance of Blobel's discoveryGünter Blobel's discovery has had an immense impact on modern cell biological research. When a cell divides, large amounts of proteins are being made and new organelles are formed. If the cell is to function correctly, the proteins have to be targeted to their proper locations. Blobel´s research has substantially increased our understanding of the molecular mechanisms governing these processes. Furthermore, knowledge about the topogenic signals has increased our understanding of many medically important mechanisms. For example, our immune system uses topogenic signals, e.g. in the production of antibodies. Blobel's research has helped explain the molecular mechanisms behind several genetic diseases. If a sorting signal in a protein is changed, the protein could end up in a wrong location in the cell. One example is the hereditary disease primary hyperoxaluria, which causes kidney stones already at an early age. In some forms of familial hypercholesterolemia, a very high level of cholesterol in the blood is due to deficient transport signals. Other hereditary diseases, e.g. cystic fibrosis, are caused by the fact that proteins do not reach their proper destination.Future applicationsIn the near future the entire human genome will be mapped. As a result one can also deduce the structure and topogenic signals of the proteins. This knowledge will increase our understanding of processes leading to disease and can be used to develop new therapeutic strategies. Already today drugs are produced in the form of proteins, e.g. insulin, growth hormone, erythropoetin and interferon. Usually bacteria are used for the production of the drug, but in order to be functional certain human proteins need to be synthesized in more complex cells, such as yeast cells. With the help of gene technology the genes of the desired proteins are provided with sequences coding for transport signals. The cells with the modified genes can then be efficiently used as protein factories. Increased knowledge about the process by which proteins are being directed to different parts of the cell also makes it possible to construct new drugs that are targeted to a particular organelle to correct a specific defect. The ability to reprogram cells in a specific way will also be important for future cell and gene therapy.Fig. 1. "The signal hypothesis". Proteins which are to be exported out of the cell are synthesized by ribosomes, associated with the endoplasmic reticulum. The genetic information from DNA is transferred via messenger RNA (mRNA). This information determines how the amino acids build up the proteins. First, a signal peptide is formed as a part of the protein. With the help of binding proteins, the signal peptide directs the ribosome to a channel in the endoplasmic reticulum. The growing protein chain penetrates the channel, the signal peptide is cleaved, and the completed protein is released into the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum. The protein is subsequently transported out of the cell.Fig. 2. Examples of directed transport mediated by topogenicsignals. The figure shows a schematic cell with some of its compartments, the organelles. (A chloroplast is an organelle thatis present in plant cells but not in animal cells). The organelleshave special functions and they are surrounded by membranes.Newly synthesized proteins are provided with special "addresstags", signal sequences or topogenic signals, which direct theproteins to a correct place within the cell and allow them to crossthe membranes of the organelles. The signal itself consists of achain of amino acids. It is an integral part of the protein, and it isoften located at one end of the protein.2000NOBELFÖRSAMLINGEN KAROLINSKA INSTITUTETTHE NOBEL ASSEMBLY AT THE KAROLINSKA INSTITUTE9 October 2000The Nobel Assembly at Karolinska Institutet has today decided to award The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for 2000 jointly toArvid Carlsson, Paul Greengard and Eric Kandelfor their discoveries concerning "signal transduction in the nervous system"SummaryIn the human brain there are more than hundred billion nerve cells. They are connected to each other through an infinitely complex network of nerve processes. The message from one nerve cell to another is transmitted through different chemical transmitters. The signal transduction takes place in special points of contact, called synapses. A nerve cell can have thousands of such contacts with other nerve cells.The three Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine have made pioneering discoveries concerning one type of signal transduction between nerve cells, referred to as slow synaptic transmission. These discoveries have been crucial for an understanding of the normal function of the brain and how disturbances in this signal transduction can give rise to neurological and psychiatric diseases. These findings have resulted in the development of new drugs.Arvid Carlsson, Department of Pharmacology, Göteborg University is rewarded for his discovery that dopamine is a transmitter in the brain and that it has great importance for our ability to control movements. His research has led to the realization that Parkinson's disease is caused by a lack of dopamine in certain parts of the brain and that an efficient remedy (L-dopa) for this disease could be developed. Arvid Carlsson has made a number of subsequent discoveries, which have further clarified the role of dopamine in the brain. He has thus demonstrated the mode of action of drugs used for the treatment of schizophrenia.Paul Greengard, Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Science, Rockefeller University, New York, is rewarded for his discovery of how dopamine and a number of other transmitters exert their action in the nervous system. The transmitter first acts on a receptor on the cell surface. This will trigger a cascade of reactions that will affect certain "key proteins" that in turn regulate a variety of functions in the nerve cell. The proteins become modified as phosphate groups are added (phosphorylation) or removed (dephosphorylation), which causes a change in the shape and function of the protein. Through this mechanism the transmitters can carry their message from one nerve cell to another.Eric Kandel, Center for Neurobiology and Behavior, Columbia University, New York, is rewarded for his discoveries of how the efficiency of synapses can be modified, and which molecular mechanisms that take part. With the nervous system of a sea slug as experimental model he has demonstrated how changes of synaptic function are central for learning and memory. Protein phosphorylation in synapses plays an important role for the generation of a form of short term memory. For the development of a long term memory a change in protein synthesis is also required, which can lead to alterations in shape and function of the synapse.Arvid CarlssonDopamine - an important transmitterArvid Carlsson performed a series of pioneering studies during the late 1950's, which showed that dopamine is an important transmitter in the brain. It was previously believed that dopamine was only a precursor of another transmitter, noradrenaline. Arvid Carlsson developed an assay that made it possible to measure tissue levels of dopamine with high sensitivity. He found that dopamine was concentrated in other areas of the brain than noradrenaline, which led him to the conclusion that dopamine is a transmitter in itself. Dopamine existed in particularly high concentrations in those parts of the brain, called the basal ganglia, which are of particular importance for the control of motor behavior.In a series of experiments Arvid Carlsson used a naturally occurring substance, reserpine, which depletes the storage of several synaptic transmitters. When it was given to experimental animals they lost their ability to perform spontaneous movements. He then treated the animals with L-dopa, a precursor of dopamine, which is transformed to dopamine in the brain. The symptoms disappeared and the animals resumed their normal motor behavior. In contrast, animals that received a precursor of the transmitter serotonin did not improve the motor behavior. Arvid Carlsson also showed that the treatment with L-dopa normalized the levels of dopamine in the brain.Drugs against Parkinson's diseaseArvid Carlsson realized that the symptoms caused by reserpine were similar to the syndrome of Parkinson's disease. This led, in turn, to the finding that Parkinson patients have abnormally low concentrations of dopamine in the basal ganglia. As a consequence L-dopa was developed as a drug against Parkinson's disease and today still is the most important treatment for the disease. During Parkinson's disease dopamine producing nerve cells in the basal ganglia degenerate, which causes tremor, rigidity and akinesia. L-dopa, which is converted to dopamine in the brain, compensates for the lack of dopamine and normalizes motor behavior.Antipsychotic and antidepressive drugsApart from the successful treatment of Parkinson's disease Arvid Carlsson's research has increased our understanding of the mechanism of several other drugs. He showed that antipsychotic drugs, mostly used against schizophrenia, affect synaptic transmission by blocking dopamine receptors. The discoveries of Arvid Carlsson have had great importance for the treatment of depression, which is one of our most common diseases. He has contributed strongly to the development of selective serotonin uptake blockers, a new generation of antidepressive drugs.Figure 1.Dopamine nerve pathways in the brain. Arvid Carlsson showed that there were particularly high levels of the chemical transmitter dopamine in the so called basal ganglia of the brain, which are of major importance for instance for the control of our muscle movements. In Parkinson's disease those dopamine producing nerve cells whose nerve fibers project to the basal ganglia die. This causes symptoms such as tremor, muscle rigidity and a decreased ability to move about.Figure 2.A message from one nerve cell to another is transmitted with the help of different chemical transmitters. This occurs at specific points of contact, synapses, between the nerve cells. The chemical transmitter dopamine is formed from the precursors tyrosine and L-dopa and is stored in vesicles in the nerve endings. When a nerve impulse causes the vesicles to empty, dopamine receptors in the membrane of the receiving cell are influenced such that the message is carried further into the cell. In the treatment of Parkinson's disease, the drug L-dopa is given, and is converted to dopamine in the brain. This compensates for the patient's lack of dopamine.Paul GreengardSlow synaptic transmissionTowards the end of the 1960's it was known that dopamine, noradrenaline and serotonin were transmitters in the central nervous system but knowledge about their mechanism of action was lacking. Paul Greengard receives the Nobel Prize for his discoveries of how they exert their effects at the synapse. Transmitters such as dopamine, noradrenaline, serotonin and certain neuropeptides transmit their signals by what is referred to as slow synaptic transmission. The resulting change in the function of the nerve cell may last from seconds to hours. This type of signal transmission is responsible for a number of basal functions in the nervous system and is of importance for e.g. alertness and mood. Slow synaptic transmission can also control fast synaptic transmission, which in turn enables e.g. speech, movements and sensory perception.Phosphorylation of proteins changes the function of nerve cellsPaul Greengard showed that slow synaptic transmission involves a chemical reaction called protein phosphorylation. It means that phosphate groups are coupled to a protein in such a way that the form and function of the protein is altered. Paul Greengard showed that when dopamine stimulates a receptor in the cell membrane this causes an elevation of a second messenger, cyclic AMP, in the cell. It activates a Protein Kinase A, which is able to add phosphate molecules to other proteins in the nerve cell.The protein phosphorylation affects a series of proteins with different functions in the nerve cell. One important group of such proteins form ion channels in the membrane of the cell. They control the excitability of the nerve cell and make it possible for the nerve cell to send electrical impulses along its axons and terminals. Each nerve cell has different ion channels, which determine the reaction of the cell. When a particular type of ion channel is phosphorylated the function of the nerve cell may be altered by, for example, a change in its excitability.DARPP-32 - a central regulatory proteinPaul Greengard has subsequently shown that even more complicated reactions occur in particular nerve cells. The effects of the transmitters are elicited by a cascade of phosphorylations and dephosphorylations (that is, phosphate molecules are added or removed from the proteins). Dopamine and several other transmitters can influence a regulatory protein, DARPP-32, which indirectly changes the function of a large number of other proteins. The DARPP-32 protein is like a conductor directing a series of other molecules. When DARPP-32 is activated it affects several ion channels altering the function of particular fast synapses.Paul Greengard's discoveries concerning protein phosphorylation have increased our understanding of the mechanism of action of several drugs, which specifically affects the phosphorylation of proteins in different nerve cells.Figure 3.Paul Greengard has shown how dopamine and several otherchemical transmitters exert their effects in the nerve cell. Whenreceptors in the cell membrane are influenced by a chemicaltransmitter, the levels of for example the messenger moleculecAMP are elevated. This activates so called protein kinases,which cause certain "key proteins" to become phosphorylated,that is phosphate molecules are added. These proteinphosphorylations lead to changes of a number of proteins withdifferent functions in the cell. When for instance proteins in ionchannels in the cell membrane are influenced, the excitability ofa nerve cell and its ability to send impulses along its brancheschanges.Eric KandelSea slug, a model system for learningA phosphorylation of proteins has great importance also for the discoveries for which Eric Kandel is rewarded, that is for revealing molecular mechanisms, important for the formation of memories. Eric Kandel started to study learning and memory in mammals, but realized that the conditions were too complex to provide an understanding of basic memory processes. He therefore decided to investigate a simpler experimental model, the nervous system of a sea slug, Aplysia. It has comparatively few nerve cells (around 20.000), many of which are rather large. It has a simple protective reflex that protects the gills, which can be utilized to study basic learning mechanisms.Eric Kandel found that certain types of stimuli resulted in an amplification of the protective reflex of the sea slug. This strengthening of the reflex could remain for days and weeks and was thus a form of learning. He could then show that learning was due to an amplification of the synapse that connects the sensory nerve cells to the nerve cells that activate the muscle groups that give rise to the protective reflex.Short and long term memoryEric Kandel showed initially that weaker stimuli give rise to a form of short term memory, which lasts from minutes to hours. The mechanism for this "short term memory" is that particular ion channels are affected in such a manner that more calcium ions will enter the nerve terminal. This leads to an increased amount of transmitter release at the synapse, and thereby to an amplification of the reflex. This change is due to a phosphorylation of certain ion channel proteins, that is utilizing the molecular mechanism described by Paul Greengard.A more powerful and long lasting stimulus will result in a form of long term memory that can remain for weeks. The stronger stimulus will give rise to increased levels of the messenger molecule cAMP and thereby protein kinase A. These signals will reach the cell nucleus and cause a change in a number of proteins in the synapse. The formation of certain proteins will increase, while others will decrease. The final result is that the shape of the synapse can increase and thereby create a long lasting increase of synaptic function. In contrast to short term memory, long term memory requires that new proteins are formed. If this synthesis of new proteins is prevented, the long term memory will be blocked but not the short term memory.Synaptic plasticity, a precondition for memoryEric Kandel thus demonstrated that short term memory, as well as long term memory in the sea slug is located at the synapse. During the 1990's he has also carried out studies in mice. He has been able to show that the same type of long。