胡壮麟语言学教程课件Part8

胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记第8-9章Chapter 8 Language in Use1. 语义学与语用学的区别1.1 语用学（Pragmatics）Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used.（语用学是研究语言实际运用的学科，集中研究说话人意义、话语意义或语境意义。

）1.2 区别Pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with semantics, which deals with meaning without reference to the users and communicative functions of sentences.（语用学主要研究在特定的语境中说话人所想要表达的意义，语义学研究的句子的字面意义，通常不考虑语境。

）2. 合作原则及其准则（Herbert Paul Grice）2.1. 合作原则(Cooperative Principle)说话人经常在话语中传达着比话语表层更多的信息，听话人也能够明白说话人所要表达的意思。

格莱斯认为一定存在一些管理这些话语产生和理解的机制。

他把这种机制称作合作原则。

2.2. 准则(maxims)数量准则(quantity)①使你的话语如（交谈的当前目的）所要求的那样信息充分。

②不要使你的话语比要求的信息更充分。

质量准则(quality)设法使你的话语真实①不要讲明知是虚假的话②不要说没证据的话关系准则(relation)所谈内容要密切相关方式准则(manner)要清晰。

①避免含糊不清②避免歧义③要简练（避免冗长）④要有序3. 言语行为理论（Speech Act Theory）---John Austin3.1. 施为句&叙事句(Performatives & Constatives)施为句是用来做事的，既不陈述事实，也不描述情况，且不能验证真假；叙事句要么用于陈述，要么用于验证，可以验证真假。

Chapter 8 Language in Use1. 语义学与语用学的区别1.1 语用学（Pragmatics）Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used.（语用学是研究语言实际运用的学科，集中研究说话人意义、话语意义或语境意义。

）1.2 区别Pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with semantics, which deals with meaning without reference to the users and communicative functions of sentences.（语用学主要研究在特定的语境中说话人所想要表达的意义，语义学研究的句子的字面意义，通常不考虑语境。

）2. 合作原则及其准则（Herbert Paul Grice）2.1. 合作原则(Cooperative Principle)说话人经常在话语中传达着比话语表层更多的信息，听话人也能够明白说话人所要表达的意思。

格莱斯认为一定存在一些管理这些话语产生和理解的机制。

他把这种机制称作合作原则。

2.2. 准则(maxims)数量准则(quantity)①使你的话语如（交谈的当前目的）所要求的那样信息充分。

②不要使你的话语比要求的信息更充分。

质量准则(quality)设法使你的话语真实①不要讲明知是虚假的话②不要说没证据的话关系准则(relation)所谈内容要密切相关方式准则(manner)要清晰。

①避免含糊不清②避免歧义③要简练（避免冗长）④要有序3. 言语行为理论（Speech Act Theory）---John Austin3.1. 施为句&叙事句(Performatives & Constatives)施为句是用来做事的，既不陈述事实，也不描述情况，且不能验证真假；叙事句要么用于陈述，要么用于验证，可以验证真假。

Chapter 8 Language in Use一、Some basic notions in pragmatics(1) Context:a basic concept in the study of pragmatics. It is generally considered as constituted knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer, such as cultural background, situation, and the relationship between the speaker and the hearer, etc. The relevant constraints of the communicative situation that influence language use. For example, my bag is heavy.(2) Pragmatics vs. semanticsSemantics studies the literal meaning of a sentence. (without taking context into consideration) Pragmatics studies the intended meaning of a speaker. (taking context into consideration)(3) Sentence meaning and utterance meaning 句子意义和话语意义二、Speech act theoryThe first major theory in pragmatics, proposed by Austin. It is a theory which analyzes the role of utterances about the behavior of the speaker and the hearer in interpersonal communication. It aims to answer the question “What do we do when using language?” According to this theory, we are performing different kinds of acts when we are speaking.(1) Two types of utterances:① Performatives: sentences that don’t state a fact or describe a state and are not verifiable. It performs an act, including non-conventional acts such as promising, requesting and suggesting. E.g.:“I name this ship Elizabeth.”“I bet you six pounds it will rain tomorrow.”① Constatives: statements that either state or describe and are verifiable.Felicity conditions for performatives to be appropriate:A. (i) there must be a relevant conventional procedure,(①) the relevant participants and circumstances must be appropriate.B. The procedure must be executed(①) correctly and(①) completely.C. The relevant participants must(①) have the requisite thoughts, feelings and intentions, and(①) follow it up with actions as specified.(2) Austin’s new model of speech acts:Austin suggests that a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking:①The first one is locutionary act: an act of saying something, that is, an act of making a meaningful utterance. It is an act of making the sentence and it is a description. For example, when someone says”It is cold here”, its locutionary act is the saying of it with its literal meaning the weather is cold here.①The second one is illocutionary act: an act performed in saying something, that is, in saying X, I was doing Y. And it indicates the speakers’ intention. For example, when we say”It is cold here”, its illocutionary act can be a request of the hearer to shut the window.①The third one is perlocutionary act: an act performed as a result of saying something, and the act is not related with the speaker’s intention. For example, “The weather is cold here.” Its perlocutionary act can be the hearer’s shutting the window or his refusal to comply with the request.Of the three acts, what speech act theory most concerned with is the illocutionary act. It trys to explain the ways by which speakers can mean more than what they say.Analyze the illocutionary acts of the following conversation between a couple:——— (the telephone rings)——— H: That’ the phone. (1)——— W: I’ m in the bathroom. (2)——— H: Okay. (3)This seemingly incoherent conversation goes on successfully because the speakers understand each other’s illocutionary acts:1) Asking his wife to go and answer the phone.2) A refusal to comply with the request; asking her husband to answer the phone instead.3) Accepting the wife’s refusal and accepting her request, meaning “all right, I’ll answer it.”(3) Searle’s classification of illocutionary acts:Searle has made great contribution to the development of the speech act theory. According to Searle, speech act are divided into five general categories. That is, five general types of things we do with language. Each type has a common, general purpose. They are representatives, directives, commsives, expressives, declarations. (阐述类、指令类、承诺类、表达类、宣告类）三､The theory of conversational implicature 会话含义理论The second major theory in pragmatics. Proposed by Grice.In daily communication, people are observing a set of basic rules of cooperating with each other so as to communicate effectively through conversation. He calls this set of rules the cooperative principle elaborated in four maxims.(1) Cooperative principle (CP)In making a conversation, all participants are expected to observe a general principle: Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.Four maxims of CP:1) The maxim of quantity1) Make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purposes of the exchange).2) Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.2) The maxim of qualityTry to make your contribution one that is true.1) Do not say what you believe to be false.2) Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.3) The maxim of relationBe relevant.4) The maxim of mannerBe perspicuous.1) Avoid obscurity of expression.2) Avoid ambiguity.3) Be brief.4) Be orderly.(2) Conversational implicatureAccording to Grice, it refers to the extra meaning not contained in the utterance, but understandable to the listener. Only when he shares the speakers’ knowledge or he knows why and how, he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of CP.The following provides different circumstances of the violation of CP and its maxims.1) Violation of the maxim of quantityA:When is Lucy’s birthday party?B:Sometimes next month.A:Where is X?B:He’s gone to the library. He said so when he left.2) Violation of the Maxim of qualityHe is made of iron. (Metaphor)Every nice girl loves a sailor.3) Violation of the maxim of relationA: How do you like my painting?B: I’m afraid I don’t have any eye for beauty. A: What time is it?B: The postman has just arrived.4) Violation of the maxim of mannerA: Shall we get something for the kids?B: Yes. But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.A:Where is your mother?B: She is either in the room or at the market. (3) Characteristics of implicature(4) Politeness Principle (PP)Leech suggests that CP can’t explain why people are often so indirect in conveying what they mean. Conversational interaction is a social behaviour. Choice of linguistic codes is central in language use. There are social and psychological factors that determined the choice.Besides being cooperative, participants try to be polite. And the speakers consider the matter of face for themself and others. Based on this observation, Leech proposed PP, which contains six maxims.1.Tact 策略Minimize cost to other.Maximize benefit to other.2.Generosity 宽宏Minimize benefit to self.Maximize cost to self.3.Approbation 赞扬Minimize dispraise of other.Maximize praise of other.4.Modesty 谦虚Minimize praise of self.Maximize dispraise of self.5.Agreement 赞同Minimize disagreement between self and other.Maximize agreement between self and other.6.Sympathy 同情Minimize antipathy between self and other.Maximize sympathy between self and other.四、Post-Gricean Developments3.Levinson’s Q- , I- and M- principles。

2. What is this course about?Chapter 1 Invitations to LinguisticsChapter 2 Speech SoundsChapter 3 LexiconChapter 4 SyntaxChapter 5 MeaningChapter 6 Language and cognitionChapter 7 Language, Culture, and SocietyChapter 8 Language in useChapter 9 language and literatureChapter 10 language and computerChapter 11 linguistics and foreign language teachingChapter 12 Theories and schools of modern linguistics1. languageDefinitionFeaturesFunctions1) Definition:Sapir, 1921: Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.(语言是纯粹人为的、非本能的、用任意制造出来的符号系统来传达观念、情绪和欲望的方法。

）Hall, 1968: Language is "the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols." （语言是人们通过惯用的任意性的口头-听觉符号进行交际和互动的惯例。