Preparation, structural and luminescent properties of Ba2Gd2Si4O13 Eu3+ for white LEDs

J OURNAL OF RARE EARTHS,Vol.28,No.1,Feb.2010,p.16Found at ion item:Project supported by National Natural Science Foundati on of China (10774140)，Knowledge Innovation Project of the Chinese Academy of Sci-(K X YW M ),S z R F f D f (6355)S F f T f ,(Z )YIN M (y @;T +65536)DOI 6S ()6Synthesis and luminescent proper ties of Ce 3+doped LuAG nano-sized powders by mixed solvo-ther mal methodWANG Linxiang (王林香)1,2,3,YIN Min (尹民)1,2,GUO Changxin (郭常新)2,ZHANG Weiping (张慰萍)2(1.Hefei Nati onal Laboratory for Physical Sciences at Microscale,Chinese Academy of Sciences,Hefei 230026,China;2.Physics Department,University of Science and Technology of C hina,Hefei 230026,China;3.School of Mathemati cs ,Physics and Information S ciences ,X injiang N ormal Univers ity,Urumqi 830054,China)Received 31April 2009;revised 8September 2009Abstract:Polycrystalline LuAG:Ce 3+(cerium 3+-doped lutetium aluminum garnet)powders were prepared by mixed solvo-thermal method.Fourier-transform IR spectroscopy (FTIR)and X-ray diffraction (XRD)measurements showed that the precursors were ethanol derivatives AlO(OH)crystal with hydroxyl and carbonate group.XRD results showed that phase of Lu 2O 3disappeared with the precursors were annealed at 400°C,cubic phase LuAG:Ce 3+appeared but only one diffraction peaks of LuAP (LuAlO 3)at calcination temperature to 700°C,and thepurified crystalline phase of LuAG:Ce 3+was obtained at 1000°C.The scanning electron microscopy (SEM)analysis revealed that the synthe-sized LuAG:Ce 3+powders were uniform and had good dispersivity with an average particle size about 100nm.Excitation and emission spec-tra of Ce 3+doped LuAG phosphors were measured.Many factors of affecting the intensity of emission spectra were discussed.Keywords:LuAG:Ce 3+phosphors;hydrothermal;mixed solvo-thermal method;photoluminescence;rare earthsAn inorganic scintillator plays an important role in radia-tion detection in many sectors of research concerning almost all medical diagnostic imaging modalities that use X-ray or gamma rays,dosimetry,nuclear medicine,high energy physics and also in many industrial measuring systems [1,2].For these different applications,scintillator is the primary radiation sensor,and scintillator material can absorb high-energy photons and then emit different energy photons [3].Recently,lutetium aluminum garnet (Lu 3Al 5O 12),because of its high density (6.73g/cm 3,94%of BGO),high lumi-nescent efficiency,and good chemical radiation stability,has been known to be one of the promising host crystals for scin-tillating materials.In rare earth ions doped Lu 3Al 5O 12host lattice,cerium (Ce 3+)as luminescent activators can yield fast decay with 5d-4f allowed transitions of the Ce 3+ion,so LuAG:Ce 3+is a fast efficient response scintillator materi-als [4–6].However,the growth of high optical quality LuAG:Ce 3+single crystal is an arduous process with high costs and long production cycle [7,8].Instead of this goal,for achieving the luminescent properties,synthesizing high density,fine dispersive and less agglomerative LuAG:Ce 3+powder is re-quired.Many methods have been used to synthesize rare earth (RE)-doped LuAG such as combustion method [8],high temperature solid-state method [9,10],sol-gel method [11],and precipitation method [12,13].However,hydrothermal method is scarcely used to synthesize LuAG:RE phosphors.In this paper,LuAG:Ce 3+nano-phosphors were synthesized by mixed solvo-thermal method.The structures and photolu-minescent properties of LuAG:Ce 3+phosphors were inves-tigated.1Experimental1.1PreparationFig.1shows the schematic flow chart for the synthesis of LuAG:Ce 3+nano-sized powders.The synthesis procedure of LuAG:Ce 3+phosphors can be divided into three steps.Firstly,lutetium oxide (Lu 2O 3,99.99%)dissolved in dilute nitric acid (HNO 3)under continuously stirring and heating.Alu-minum nitrate (Al(NO 3)39H 2O,99.99%)and cerium nitrate (Ce(NO 3)36H 2O,99.99%)were dissolved in deionized wa-ter.Then the solutions of Lu(NO 3)3,Al(NO 3)3and Ce(NO 3)3were mixed to yield a composition with general formula(Lu 1–x Ce x )3Al 5O 12(x mol.%Ce 3+),and then proper ethanol was added as dispersant.The mixture was stirred for hours at room temperature.Mixed solution was dripped into the pre-cipitation agent solution at a titration speed of 2ml/min,and stirred continuously.Three precipitants,AHC+AW (ammonium hydrogen carbonate and ammonia water),AW (ammonia water)and urea were used respectively.After the titration finished,proper amount of ammonium was dripped into the mixture to adjust the pH value (pH ≈8–9)of suspen-sion.After continuously stirring and aging for hours,the white precipitation was washed four times with distilled wa-ter and collected by filtrating.Proper amount of the resultante nc es JC 2--11pec iali ed esea rch und or the octoral Program o H ighe r Educ ation 2000804and pecia l oundati on or ale nts o A nhui Province China 2007021Corre sponding a uthor :in E-m ai l:inmi n el.:8-1-07412:10.101/1002-0721090041-7WANG Linxiang et al.,Synthesis and luminescent properties of Ce3+doped LuAG nano-sized powders by mixed solvo-thermal…17Fig.1Schematic flow chart for the synthesis of LuAG:Ce3+pow-ders by mixed solvo-thermal methodprecipitate,mixed with a certain proportion of alcohol and water,was sealed in a50ml autoclave,and then put into an oven at250°C for20h.The precursor powder was obtained by filtrating and drying at100°C,and was annealed at a higher temperature ranging from400to1100°C in a muffle furnace for2h in air.In addition,for the sake of contrast,the part of the above mentioned white precipitation was respec-tively washed four times with distilled water and anhydrous ethanol,without hydrothermal treatment,and then dried at 100°C.The obtained powders were crushed and directly calcined at800°C for2h in air.1.2Charact erizationThe phase evolution of the product was identified by X-ray diffraction(XRD,MAC Science Co.Ltd. MXP18AHF)with Cu Kαradiation in the range of2θ= 10°–70°.FTIR spectra were measured with Magra-IR750 (Nicolet Instrument Co.U.S.A)Fourier transform infrared spectrometer.The microstructure and morphology of pre-cursor and calcined powders were examined by scanning electron microscope(SEM,Sirion200,FEI Co.,Ltd.,Hol-land).The excitation and emission spectra of the samples were measured by a HITACHI(JAPAN)M850fluorospec-trophotometer using an Xe lamp as the excitation source.All the measurements were carried out at room temperature.2Results and discussions2.1FTIR analysisThe FT-IR spectra of the precursor(1)and powders(2) calcined at1000°C for2h are shown in Fig.2.In precursor (1),the peaks at488,618,737cm–1are corresponding to the Lu–OH,Al–OH and the Al–O vibration absorption[13–16].Asf,–O–f[5,],5–f Fig.2FTIR spectra of the precursor(1)and powders(2)calcined at 1000°C for2hC–H deformation mode that is attributed to coupling of O–H planar deformation angle vibration and C–OH stretching vi-bration[15,17],and the broad band from3310to3330cm–1is typical absorption caused by hydroxyl group[15,17,18].Those organic characteristic absorption peaks indicate that precur-sor powders contain a certain amount of organic ingredients. The peak at3090is assigned to the stretching and bending mode of O–H bands in pseudoboehmite[15,17,18],which refer to the poorly crystallized Al3+compound of composition Al2O3nH2O(1.0<n<2.0)[15,19].In addition,there are some weak peaks,such as the peak at about840cm–1,which is associated with the out-of-plane bending of CO32–[16],the peak at about1630cm–1from the bending of H–O–H,which overlaps the O–C–O stretching band[20,21],the absorption peaks of CO2at2350cm–122],and the weak peaks at2850 and2925cm–1corresponding to the vibrations of–CH3and –CH2–,respectively[23].As temperature increases,all the above peaks become weaker or finally disappear because of the decomposition of the precursor.As shown in the sample (2),at1000°C,the characteristic peaks of organic ingredi-ents disappear and are replaced by the fingerprint vibrations of the isolated[AlO4]tetrahedral and[AlO6]octahedral at 809,742,708,575,519and460cm–1[14,15],which indicates that pure LuAG phase is formed[15].This result well coin-cides with the XRD patterns in Fig.3.2.2XRD patternsXRD patterns of the precursor and powders calcined at different temperatures are shown in Fig.3.For the precursor, the part of diffraction peaks were in agreement with the data of AlO(OH),which indicates that hexa-coordinate octahe-dral structure crystalline materials are formed in hydrother-mal process[24,25].It is reported that the LuAG powders obtained by co-precipitation or sol-gel combustion method were all found to be amorphous until calcined temperature to800°C[12,14].As seen in Fig.3,at calcined temperature to 800°C powders without hydrothermal treatment are stillT yff y y zf I x,fcharacteristic peaks o ethanol the strong absorption peak at 1070cm1is due to H stretching vibration o ethanol117 two absorption peaks at1420and140cm1originate rom amorphous phase.his illustrates that the h drothermal process can e ectivel reduce the cr stalli ation temperature or the precursor.n this e periment a ter precursor isannealed18JOURNAL OF RARE EARTHS,Vol.28,No.1,Feb.2010Fig.3XRD patterns of the precursor and powders calcined at vari-ous temperatures for2hat400°C for2h,phase of Lu2O3(JCPDS card86-2475)ap-pears.At600°C,diffraction peak intensities of Lu2O3be-come stronger.Until calcined temperature reaches700°C, cubic phase LuAG appears and the data are all in good agreement with those of JCPDS card(73-1368),but only one peak at2θ=34.59°is characteristic diffraction peaks of LuAP (LuAlO3).With the calcined temperature increasing,the in-tensity of LuAP diffraction peaks decreases.At calcined temperature of1000°C,pure cubic phase LuAG is ob-tained.At calcined temperature from1000to1100°C,the phase of LuAG has no change,but the width of diffraction peaks becomes narrower.It indicates that the particle di-ameter grows.2.3SEM imagesFig.4shows SEM micrograph of the precursor(a),pow-ders calcined at1000°C(b)and1100°C(c)for LuAG:Ce3+ powders.SEM result showed that the precursors(a)are crys-tal with octahedral structure,which is consistent with the XRD results seen in Fig.3.In Fig.4(b),the morphology of LuAG:Ce powders calcined at1000°C is uniform and near spherical,with an average particle size of about100nm and good dispersivity,which is generally beneficial to improving the powers luminescence efficiency and producing transpar-ent polycrystalline ceramics.When the calcined temperature reaches1100°C,agglomeration of particles becomes serious, and the average particle size of a polycrystalline material grows up,which are consistent with analysis results of XRD.2.4Formation mechanisms analysis of LuAG:CeIn the experimental process,we found that pure LuAG was relatively easy to obtain only in volume ratio from3to5 for alcohol and water in the same hydrothermal condition. When mixed ethanol was too much or too little,pure LuAG was difficult to get in the same condition.Through infrared spectra,we can obtain qualitative analy-sis of the chemical composition and molecular structure. Based on the above analysis,the formation mechanism of LuAG crystals and the effect of hydrothermal on synthesis of LuAG are as follows.The first,in the hydrothermal condi-tion,suspensions dissolve and generate Lu3+,A13+ions,and then Lu3+,A13+and OH–1will form anion coordination polyhedron[Al-(OH)6]3–,[Lu-(OH)6]3–,[Lu-(OH)9]6–,that is crystal growth units[24,25].At the same time,hydroxyl oxy-gen atoms of ethanol molecule have higher electronegativity, easily connect with above mentioned growth units,and form relevant alcohol derivatives with low stability.The alcohol derivatives and ethanol prevent OH–intervention and avoid the formation of the Boehm mine[25].With the temperature increase,alcohol derivatives molecules can be easily separated from derivatives[26,27]and the part of the OH–1is replaced by oxygen atoms.OH–1,O and A13+will constitute a hexa-coordinate octahedral AlO3(OH)3[20,24,25],which is in agreement with analysis results of XRD patterns for precur-sor.It indicates that weak crystallization has existed in the precursor.When the precursor powders are calcined at high temperature,and the weak bond Al-OH leads to dehydration of Al-(OH)6octahedral until O and Al3+form isolated[AlO4]tet-rahedral and[AlO6]octahedral.Meanwhile Lu3+will be lo-cated in dodecahedron consisted of aluminum oxygen tetrahe-dron and aluminum oxygen octahedron which indicate that pure cubic phase lutetium aluminum garnet is generated[14,24,25].2.5Luminescence properties of LuAG:CeFig.5shows the excitation spectrum and emission spec-trum of LuAG:Ce3+powders calcined at1100°C for2h.It F S M f()°()°(),yig.4E micrograph o the precursor a and powders calcined at1000C b and1100C c respectivelWANG Linxiang et al.,Synthesis and luminescent properties of Ce 3+doped LuAG nano-sized powders by mixed solvo-thermal (19)can be seen that excitation spectrum of Ce 3+contains two bands,a weak band with maximum peak at 347nm and a strong broad band with a maximum at 450nm.These excita-tion bands result from the absorption of the incident radia-tion by Ce 3+ions,which lead to the excitation of electrons from the 4f 1ground state (2F 5/2,2F 7/2)to the excited 5d 1level (2D)[8,28,29].The emission spectra display an apparent broad band covering from 450to 650nm with a maximum at 510nm,which is well in agreement with the room temperature spectra of the LuAG:Ce single crystal films [11,30,31].Accord-ing to the Gaussian fitted curves for emission spectra for λex =450nm,the photoluminescence spectra consist of two bands of Ce 3+emission centered at about 500and 534nm,respectively,which is also observed in the luminescence spectrum of the LuAG:Ce 3+single crystal films at 9K [30].This emission is ascribed to the electron transitions from the lowest crystal-splitting component of the 5d level (2D)to the ground state of Ce 3+(2F 5/2,2F 7/2)[11,30].At room temperature,two emission bands overlap.Fig.6shows intensity dependence of 5d →4f emission on concentration of Ce 3+for LuAG phosphors.As shown in Fig.6,the maximum intensity of 5d →4f emission was obtained at 1%Ce 3+doped LuAG phosphors.With doped concentration of Ce 3+gradually increase,the emission intensity of Ce 3+re-duced.Fig.7shows the emission spectrum of 1%Ce 3+doped LuAG using different precipitator.In this experiment,theFig.5Excitation spectrum and emission spectrum of 1%Ce 3+-doped LuAG phosphors calcined at 1100°C for 2hF 6I y f 5→f f3+f L G °f mixture of NH 4HCO 3and NH 3H 2O ，NH 3H 2O or urea respectively as precipitator,it is found that using mixture precipitator of NH 4HCO 3and NH 3H 2O,the emission spec-trum intensity of Ce 3+is stronger compared with using other two precipitator,and the obtained powders using mixture precipitator of NH 4HCO 3and NH 3H 2O are more loosely agglomerated and uniform.The relative large values of the solubility constants of NH 3H 2O or urea may cause rapid and thorough reaction of the precipitation,resulting in a fast growing rate and uncontrolled severe agglomeration of the resultant crystallites [32,33].It can be concluded that precipi-tant plays an important role in the morphology of the final powders.Thereby,the particle size distribution and ag-glomeration will further affect luminescent properties of powders [32].The emission spectra of 1%Ce 3+-doped LuAG phosphors sintered at different temperatures were obtained as shown in Fig.8.The emission intensity increases with increasing sin-tering temperature below 1000°C.The crystallite growth and the defects which decrease with temperature were proba-bly the reason for the above-mentioned factor [4],while the sintered temperature reaches 1100°C,the emission intensityof Ce 3+is weakened,and this may be ascribed to the oxy-genation of certain Ce 3+ions at this temperature.According to the above analysis,there are many factors that could affect the emission intensity of rare earth ion,Fig.7Emission spectrum (λex =450nm)for 1%Ce3+doped LuAG phosphors calcined at 1000°C for 2h using different pre-cipitationagentF f %3+LG f f ig.ntensit dependence o d 4emission on concentration o Ce or uA phosphors calcined at 1000C or 2hig.8Emission spectrum o 1Ce -doped uA calcined at di -erent temperatures20JOURNAL OF RARE EARTHS,Vol.28,No.1,Feb.2010such as the concentration of the solution,pH values of the solution,the speed of titration,the different precipitation agent and effect of titration sequence.In this study,the ex-periments have been repeated several times under strictly controlled conditions,although the results of each experi-ment come out a bit different.The detailed mechanism de-serves to be further investigated.Additionally,the emission spectra match well with the sensitivity curve of Si photodiode and CCD arrays that may be a good candidate as scintillation sensors in digital appli-cation under X-ray or blue-green light excitation[34–36].3ConclusionsThe Polycrystalline LuAG:Ce3+powders with an average particle size of about100nm were synthesized by mixed solvo-thermal method.FTIR,XRD measurements showed that the precursors were hexa-coordinate octahedral structure ethanol derivatives crystal with hydroxyl and carbonate group.The purified crystalline phase of LuAG:Ce3+was formed from the precursors materials calcined at1000°C for 2h.Intensity dependence of5d→4f emission on concentra-tion of Ce3+,different precipitation agent and sintering tem-perature was measured.It was found that the emission inten-sity reached the maximum for1%Ce3+-doped LuAG using the mixture precipitator of NH4HCO3and NH3H2O at cal-cined temperature to1000°C by mixed solvo-thermal method.The emission spectra of Ce3+doped LuAG phos-phors were located in the range of450–650nm consisting of two emission bands,because of transition from the lowest5d excited state(2D)to the4f ground state of Ce3+,which matched well with the sensitivity curve of the Si-photodiode. 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材料科学与工程专业英语词汇1. 物理化学物理化学是研究物质结构、性质、变化规律及其机理的基础科学，是材料科学与工程的重要理论基础之一。

物理化学主要包括以下几个方面：热力学：研究物质状态和过程中能量转换和守恒的规律。

动力学：研究物质变化过程中速率和机理的规律。

电化学：研究电流和物质变化之间的相互作用和关系。

光化学：研究光和物质变化之间的相互作用和关系。

表面化学：研究物质表面或界面处发生的现象和规律。

结构化学：研究物质分子或晶体结构及其与性质之间的关系。

统计力学：用统计方法处理大量微观粒子行为，从而解释宏观物理现象。

中文英文物理化学physical chemistry热力学thermodynamics动力学kinetics电化学electrochemistry光化学photochemistry表面化学surface chemistry结构化学structural chemistry统计力学statistical mechanics状态方程equation of state熵entropy自由能free energy化学势chemical potential相平衡phase equilibrium化学平衡chemical equilibrium反应速率reaction rate反应级数reaction order反应机理reaction mechanism活化能activation energy催化剂catalyst电池battery电极electrode电解质electrolyte电位potential电流密度current density法拉第定律Faraday's law腐蚀corrosion中文英文光敏材料photosensitive material光致变色photochromism光致发光photoluminescence光催化photocatalysis表面张力surface tension润湿wetting吸附adsorption膜membrane分子轨道理论molecular orbital theory晶体结构crystal structure点阵lattice空间群space group对称元素symmetry element对称操作symmetry operationX射线衍射X-ray diffraction2. 量子与统计力学量子与统计力学是物理学的两个重要分支，是材料科学与工程的重要理论基础之一。

材料试验大纲英文Material Testing Outline.Introduction.The material testing outline serves as a comprehensive guide for conducting rigorous and reproducible material testing. It outlines the various stages involved in the testing process, from planning and preparation to execution and analysis. This outline aims to ensure consistency, accuracy, and safety throughout the testing procedure, ensuring reliable results that can be used for various applications, such as product development, quality control, and research.1. Testing Objectives.Before commencing the testing process, it is crucial to establish clear objectives. These objectives should be specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound(SMART). They guide the testing team and ensure that the efforts are focused on achieving the desired outcomes. For example, the objective may be to determine the mechanical properties of a material under specific conditions or to assess the material's durability and reliability over time.2. Testing Plan.The testing plan outlines the specific steps and procedures that will be followed during the testing process. It includes information on the testing equipment and instrumentation, the test setup, the test environment, and the testing schedule. The plan also details the safety measures to be taken, ensuring the safety of the testing personnel and equipment.3. Sample Preparation.Sample preparation is a crucial step in material testing. It involves selecting the appropriate material samples, ensuring their homogeneity and consistency, and preparing them for testing. The samples should berepresentative of the material being tested and should be handled, stored, and transported according to specific guidelines to prevent any alterations in their properties.4. Test Execution.During the test execution phase, the testing plan is implemented, and the material samples are subjected to various tests. These tests may include tensile testing, compression testing, flexural testing, impact testing, fatigue testing, and more, depending on the objectives and requirements of the testing. The testing personnel should be well-trained and follow strict procedures to ensure accurate and reproducible results.5. Data Collection and Analysis.Data collection and analysis are essential for obtaining meaningful results from material testing. The testing equipment typically records various parameters, such as load, displacement, strain, stress, and time, during the testing process. These data are then analyzedusing statistical and engineering principles to derive meaningful insights about the material's properties and behavior. The analysis should be conducted by qualified personnel and should be validated to ensure its accuracy and reliability.6. Test Report and Documentation.After the completion of testing and data analysis, a detailed test report is prepared. This report summarizes the testing objectives, methods, procedures, results, and conclusions. It also includes any safety considerations, equipment calibration details, and any other relevant information. The report should be written in a clear and concise manner, enabling others to understand the testing process and results easily.7. Quality Assurance and Improvement.Quality assurance and improvement are ongoing processes in material testing. They involve monitoring the testing process, identifying any issues or discrepancies, andimplementing corrective actions to improve the accuracy and reliability of the results. Regular audits and reviews of the testing procedures and equipment are conducted to ensure their continued compliance with industry standards and best practices.In conclusion, the material testing outline provides a structured and systematic approach to material testing. It ensures that the testing process is conducted in a consistent, accurate, and safe manner, leading to reliable results that support various applications in product development, quality control, and research. By following this outline, organizations can improve their material testing capabilities, enhance product quality, and reduce risks associated with material failure.。

An elasto-plastic damage model for reinforced concrete with minimum number of material parametersWilfried B.Kr€a tzig a,Rainer P€o lling b,*a Institute for Statics and Dynamics,Ruhr-University Bochum,44780Bochum,Germanyb Building Contractors of Mesenbrock,Welter Straße4,48249D€u lmen,GermanyReceived1November2002;accepted4March2004Available online20April2004AbstractBased on a fully3-D elasto-plastic damage theory,the material behavior of all reinforced concrete components––concrete,reinforcement and bond––is,for biaxial loading,realistically modelled,including cyclic action.Thereby emphasis is layed on concrete in tension and compression.The presented model contains a minimum number of material parameters.It further enables to map exact uniaxial stress–strain curves as proposed by modern codes of practise,like the EC2.All material parameters of the model can be readily interpreted and determined by few standard experiments,or approximated from concrete compression strength.Finally,the concrete model is verified by numerical simulation of experiments.Ó2004Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.Keywords:Concrete;Reinforced concrete;Material damage;Plasticity;Crushing energy;Material model;Softening1.IntroductionIn structural engineering,reinforced concrete is considered as a2-phase composite of uniaxial steel and multi-dimensional concrete components.Hardened concrete itself,predominantly a mixture of aggregates and a cementitious matrix,exhibits a rather complicated deformation behavior,mainly because of initiation and growth of micro-cracking in the matrix.Constitutive models for concrete,the central concern of this treatise,exist on very different quality levels.Even the most advanced structural codes of practice[1]offer mainly elastic behavior,at most some monotonic non-linear stress–strain curves without any rheo-mechanical specification.On the other(research)extreme,wefind highly sophisticated constitutive attempts with few relations to engineering design practice.But for com-puter simulation of advanced structural problems,like failure analyses or life-cycle assessments,constitutive models are required,improved compared to those from codes of practice and more exact,nevertheless of lowest possible complication.Severe deficiencies of code mod-els are their uniaxial formulation and the lack of infor-mation for cyclic processes.If one attempts to set up a constitutive model for cyclic behavior of concrete as pictured in Fig.6or7,one observesfirst the residual strains after complete unloading.These generally are interpreted as‘plastic’deformations,although in concrete there will be cer-tainly no plastic slip like in metal plasticity.The second observation is the stiffness degradation along the cycles which requires a‘damage’component in the model. Obviously in constitutive modeling of concrete,an elasto-plastic component has to be combined with an elasto-damaging one.Hence the key aim here is a3-dimensional elasto-plastic description of mechanical responses of reinforced*Corresponding author.Tel.:+49-2548-9193-883;fax:+49-2548-1085.E-mail address:rainer.poelling@(R.P€o lling).0045-7949/$-see front matterÓ2004Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/pstruc.2004.03.002Computers and Structures82(2004)1201–1215/locate/compstrucconcrete,supplemented by a damage component.Be-cause of few cyclic experiments for concrete and the problem of reproductivity of results,a minimum number of well-defined,experimentally identifiable material parameters shall control the model[2].Classical elasto-plastic material theories[3,4]are standard in engineering,they need no explanation here. They are‘stress-based’since their yield conditions and yield potentials are formulated in stress-space.‘Strain-based’plasticity theories,with plastic stresses as internal thermodynamic variables and consequently yield con-ditions in strain-space,have their origins in the works [5,6].Remarkably early,Dougill[7]proposed a‘frac-turing theory’for concrete under compression,in our terminology a‘strain-based’damage concept.Opposite to plasticity,its basic idea required that inelastic defor-mations result merely in stiffness degradations,thus all unloading paths cross through the origin of the stress–strain diagram,and no residual strains remain after unloading.In a re-work Dougill and Rida[8]defined‘micro-fracturing’materials,equipped with stiffness degrada-tion from micro-crack evolution,linear-elastic behavior during un-/reloading,and without strain/stress residuals after complete unloading.Hence they laid the basis of ‘strain-based’continuum damage theories[9,10],in which the material stiffness tensor itself acts as internal damage variable.If instead of this theflexibility(com-pliance)tensor is applied,‘stress-based’continuum damage theories can be established[11,12].In order to properly model the constitutive behavior of concrete in compression or tension,both constitu-ents––plasticity as well as continuum damage theory––have to be combined,both either in‘stress-based’or ‘strain-based’alternatives.Suchfirst coupling work was due to Ba z ant and Kim[13].Their‘stress-based’plas-ticity combined with‘strain-based’damage theory led to an‘elasto-plastic fracturing’concept with a total of26 material parameters.Coupling concepts of both con-stituents in stress-space are due to[14],a work specified by[15]to isotropic damage of concrete under com-pression.[16]therein unified both limit surfaces for yielding and fracturing to one.Han and Chen[17]first combined both constituents in complete tensorial manifold in strain space.In order to reduce the number of material constants,they united yield and damage surface,an idea repeated in[10]. Further,[18]offered a scalar coupling of plasticity and damage theories introducing again a unified yield/dam-age condition with the key argument that micro-crack-ing in the cementitious matrix is the single source for both inelastic phenomena.Finally we mention the survey over all basic condi-tions of coupling alternatives in[19].We stress,that there only elasto-plastic-damage concepts are listed with a sound basis in continuum mechanics.Empirical models of reinforced concrete which all combine the mentioned constituents are legion[2];a prominent concept leading to excellent results is that one of Darwin and Pecknold[20].All mentioned constitutive models call,in principle, for the ability to describe material failure in compression as well as in tension,obviously both strongly localized phenomena[21].To avoid mesh sensitivity of a partic-ular FE-solution,such localized fracture processes re-quire special treatment[22].The intended constitutive law of this work is aimed to the analysis of complete structures,such that the classical‘smeared crack’con-cept shall be maintained[23].Such concept avoids the immense numerical effort of modeling hundreds of single cracks,presently to be mastered only by parallel com-puting techniques,in view of the physical irreproduc-ibility of crack-patterns in concrete structures,even under laboratory conditions.So in order to avoid modelling of localization bands or surfaces as weak or strong discontinuities,or to avoid enhancements by non-local kinematics,the use of crushing respectively fracture energy is chosen here[2]. Advantageously,such regularization requires only the determination of2additional material constants, namely the crushing and the fracture energy.Consequently,in this paper a‘stress-based’elasto-plastic damage model for reinforced concrete will be derived.It will be demonstrated,that not only the fun-damental ideas of micro-fracturing and damage theories are equal,but that both concepts lead to identical material descriptions[18],if the material stiffness tensor itself is used as internal thermodynamic variable.It hence is obvious that both phenomena––damage by tension cracks as well as by compressive micro-crack-ing––follow a unified elasto-plastic damage theory.The final constitutive law will possess a minimum number of material parameters,an important aspect for applica-tion.For this reason,the model is adapted without exact description of the response under highly triaxial com-pression.2.Theoretical basis of the elasto-plastic damage theoryThe fundamental framework of the presented con-cept is the‘stress-based’elasto-plastic damage theory. An excellent summary of this theory with the compli-ance tensor as internal variable has been given by Govindjee et al.[12]in complete analogy to plasticity theory.Recently a scalar combination of both damage and plasticity theory has been performed by[16].We start with a brief summary of the underlying concept.As in[12]our starting point is the assumption of a Helmholtz-free energy W and the definition of internal thermo-dynamical variables.To consider both,plastic deformation and stiffness reduction,we introduce as1202W.B.Kr€a tzig,R.P€o lling/Computers and Structures82(2004)1201–1215internal thermo-dynamical variables the plastic strain e plas in ordinary plasticity theory and the change D da of the compliance tensor like in [12].Then the Helmholtz-free energy reads:q 0W ðe ;e pl ;D da ;q Þ¼1ðe Àe pl Þ:ðD 0þD da|fflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflffl}DÞÀ1:ðe Àe plÞþq 0W inðq Þ;ð1Þwhere r and e denote the stress and strain tensors,respectively.D 0abbreviates the initial compliance ten-sor,and q as further internal variable describes the hardening/softening behavior of the material.W in ðq Þcontains the free energy associated with progressive degradation and plastic deformations.Finally,with q 0as initial density we identify the thermodynamically associated variables Àr ¼q 0o W =o e pl ;Àa ðq Þ¼q 0o W =o q ;ð2ÞÀ12r r ¼q 0o W =o D da :ð3ÞApplying the C LAUSIUS –D UHEM inequality q 0_W6r :_e ,we arrive on one hand at the compliance rela-tione ¼ðD 0þD da Þ:r þe pl !r ¼ðD 0þD da ÞÀ1:ðe Àe pl Þ;ð4Þand on the other hand at the inequality of dissipation P dis ¼12r :_D da :r þr :_e pl þa _q P 0:ð5ÞAfter introducing the elastic region E in the space of the associated variables (stresses):E :¼fðr ;a Þj U ðr r ;a Þ60g ;ð6Þwe deduce from the principle of maximum inelastic dissipation the following normality rules:_epl :o r o ðr r Þþ12_D da ¼o U o ðr r ÞÁ_k ;ð7Þ_a¼Ào U Á_k :ð8ÞAt this point we have to separate the inelastic strains into those of plastic and damaged origin.Because of few available cyclic experiments for later parameter fitting,the use of just one scalar b ,as proposed in [16]for separation of plastic from damaged parts,is adopted.Thus we assume _Dda ¼2_kb o U o ðr r Þand_epl ¼_k ð1Àb Þo U o r:ð9ÞObviously with (34),the normality rule (7)is fulfilled.With the consistency condition _U¼0one finally derives the tangential stiffness relation and the evolution equa-tions for the internal variables as summarized in Table 1.3.Unified elasto-plastic damage model for reinforced concrete3.1.Concrete under compression3.1.1.Yield/damage potentialA yield/damage potential of Drucker–Prager-type has been selected for description of concrete in com-pression.Such type of potential can be handled rela-tively easy,it enables a sufficient modelling quality at least for uniaxial and biaxial proportional loading.This potential reads U c ðr ;a c Þ¼11ffiffi3p Àl l I 1ÂþffiffiffiffiJ 2p ÃÀa c ðq c Þ;ð10Þwith I 1and J 2as first invariant of r and as secondinvariant of its deviator s ,respectively.The parameter l herein controls the influence of the hydrostatic stress on damage or yield.Further,the term left of the brackets guarantees that during plastic/damage loading a c always corresponds to the negative uniaxial compression stress.Differentiation of this potential with respect to r deliversTable 1Tangential stiffness relation and evolution equations of internal variables of the stress-based elasto-plastic damage theoryElastic loading/unloading _k ¼0Plastic-damaging loading k>0,U ¼0Tangential stiffness relation:_r ¼D À1:_e _r ¼ D À1ÀD À1:o U o r o Uo r:D À1o U :D :o U Ào U a ;q o U!:_e Equations of evolution of internal variables:_D da ¼0_D da ¼2b o U Á_k or ð_D da :r Þ¼b o U _k _e pl ¼0_e pl ¼ð1Àb Þo U o rÁ_k _q¼0_q¼o U o aÁ_k with _k ¼o Uo r:D À1o U:D :o U Ào Ua ;q o U:_eW.B.Kr €a tzig,R.P €o lling /Computers and Structures 82(2004)1201–12151203o U c o r ¼11ffiffi3p Àl l o I 1o r þ12ffiffiffiffiJ 2p o J 2o r¼11ffiffi3p Àl l I þs þs T4ffiffiffiffiJ 2p :ð11Þ3.1.2.Modification of the internal variable,yield anddamage ruleWe now introduce a new internal variable q Ãc ,replacing the original one q c :_q Ãc ¼À2b w ðr Þ_q c ¼2b w ðr Þ_k c with w ðr Þ¼21ffiffi3p Àl l1þ1ffiffiffi2p:ð12ÞThen a c in (10)shall be only a function of q Ãc .Due toSection 3.1.4this transformation allows an analytical solution for the hardening/softening function a c ðq Ãc Þfrom a given uniaxial stress–strain curve [2],one of our goals.The rate of this variable a c reads_a c ¼d a c Ãc _q Ãc ¼d a c Ãc 2b _k c :ð13ÞFurthermore we assume,that the parameter b ,which separates plastic from damage parts,shall also be a function of q Ãc .The equations of evolution of the plastic strain _epl and the strain _eda ¼_D da :r can directly be determined from the potential (10).With respect to (11)and (12)we gain:_e pl ¼ð1Àb ðq Ãc ÞÞo U c o r _k c ð14Þ¼w ðr Þ121b ðq Ãc Þ À111ffiffi3p Àl l I þ14ffiffiffiffiJ 2p s Àþs TÁ _q Ãc ð15Þand_e da ¼_D da :r ¼b ðq ÃcÞo U c o r _k c ð16Þ¼b ðq Ãc Þ11ffiffi3p Àl l I þ14ffiffiffiffiJ 2p s Àþs T Á_k c :ð17ÞAssuming now an isotropic damage evolution due to compression,we find the following compliance evolu-tion law,the correctness of which can be verified by an double scalar contraction with r :_Dda ;c ¼b ðq Ãc Þ1ffiffi3p Àl l 1 À16ffiffiffiffiJ 2p I I þ14ffiffiffiffiJ 2p ðI þI Þ!Á_k c ð18Þ¼w ðr Þ1211ffiffi3p Àl l I 1À16ffiffiffiffiJ 2pI I þ14ffiffiffiffiJ 2p ðI þI Þ!Á_q Ãc :ð19ÞThe tensor D da ;c describes the compliance evolution and can be represented by two scalars in the isotropic case.Consequently,we replace the fourth-order tensor D da ;cin the set of internal variables by D da ;c s1and D da ;cs2as fol-lows:D da ;c ¼D da ;c s1I I þD da ;c s2ðI þI Þ:ð20ÞBy comparison with the coefficients in (18)and (20),onearrives at evolution equations for D da ;c s1and D da ;cs2:_D da ;c s1¼b ðq Ãc Þ1ffiffi3p Àl l 1 À16ffiffiffiffiJ 2p _k c ;ð21Þ_D da ;c s2¼b ðq ÃcÞ1ffiffi3p Àl14ffiffiffiffiJ 2p_k c :ð22Þ3.1.3.Tangential stiffness relationBecause of all above assumptions the tangential stiffness relation slightly differs from the standard form in Table 1,and one arrives with q Ãc at:_r ¼D À1"ÀD À1:o U c o r o U c o r:D À1o U c o r :D À1:o U c o r þd a c d q ÃcÃc w ðr Þ#:_e ð23Þin the case of plastic-damaging loading.3.1.4.Concept of determination of the hardening/softeningfunctionWe now consider uniaxial loading with respect to an orthogonal cartesian frame,where the unit base vector i 1coincides with the loading direction.Then the compli-ance relation (4)becomese ¼1E cþD da ;c !r þe pl with e ¼e 11;e pl ¼e pl 11;r ¼r 11;1E c¼D 1111;D da ;c ¼D da ;c 1111ð24Þand the evolution equation (19)for the compliance boilsdown to_D da ;c ¼w ðr Þ1ffiffi3p Àl l r "À16ffiffi3p r !þ14ffiffi3p r Á2#Á_q Ãc ¼_q Ãc :ð25ÞBy integration of this relation one arrives at theimportant statement D da ;c ¼q Ãc ;ð26Þinterpreting the internal variable q Ãc as the uniaxial change of the compliance due to damage.Furthermore we assume the split of inelastic strains into plastic and damaging parts by the scalar parameter b ,as illustrated in Fig.1.From all previous transformations follows for the plastic strain e pl :1204W.B.Kr €a tzig,R.P €o lling /Computers and Structures 82(2004)1201–1215e pl¼b e pl h þD da ;cÁ rðe Þi!e pl ¼b1ÀbD da ;c Á rðe Þ¼b1Àb q ÃcÁ r ðe Þ:ð27ÞWe then obtain by substituting (26)and the latter identity into (24)e ¼1c þ1q Ãc ! r ðe Þ;ð28Þwhich equation solves with given function rðe Þfor e as e ¼e ðq Ãc Þ,yielding together with the stress–strain instruction finally to a c ðq Ãc Þ¼ r ðe ðq Ãc ÞÞ:ð29ÞFurthermore we need the differential quotient d a c =d q Ãcand findd a c d q Ãc ¼Àd r de d e d q Ãc ¼a c d r d e ð1Àb Þ1À1E c þq Ãc 1Àb dr d eh i ;ð30Þwith d e =d q Ãc gained by total differentiation of Eq.(28).Finally we need the explicit form of b ðq Ãc Þ.Starting point is the evolution equation (15),which reduces under uniaxial loading conditions to_e pl¼1Ãc À1r Á_q Ãc ;ð31Þfrom which we find directly b ðq Ãc Þ¼11þo e =o q cc c :ð32ÞFor further transformation we can conclude from (27)o e pl o q Ãc ¼b 1Àb a c ðq Ãc Þþq Ãcd a c d q Ãc !;ð33Þleading finally to b ðq Ãc Þ¼11þb 1þq Ãcc Ãcd a cÃchi :ð34Þ3.1.5.Mapping to uniaxial stress–strain curveFor convenience the uniaxial stress–strain curve of concrete,assumed here as given function,shall be sub-divided into three parts as illustrated in Fig.2.Region 1:Elastic.Below the initial yield/damage stress f c y we assume linear-elastic behavior,defined by Young’s modulus E c and Poisson’s ratio m c .The initial yield stress f c y is taken as one third of the failure strength f c ,such that we obtain the initial conditiona c ðq Ãc ¼0Þ¼f c y ¼13f c :ð35ÞRegion 2:Hardening.In this region the stress grows until failure strength f c ,consequently the tangential stiffness decreases from initial stiffness to zero (hori-zontal tangent).An analytical function of this behavior,which fits well with experiments is found in [2].Eq.(2.1-18)therein readsr2ðe Þ¼E ci e cþe c21ÀE ci e c fcÀ2e e cf c ;ð36Þwith f c and e c as failure stress and accompanying strain,respectively.The modulus E ci ;originally denotes the initial modulus of elasticity.But in order to guarantee the stress–strain curve to cross the point ðÀe c y ;Àf c y Þ,we define E ci ;with respect to (35)as secant modulus[2]Fig.1.Definition of material parameter b.Fig.2.Assumed uniaxial stress–strain curve of concrete undercompression.W.B.Kr €a tzig,R.P €o lling /Computers and Structures 82(2004)1201–12151205E ci¼12E cf ce c2Àf ce cþ32E c:ð37ÞRegion3:Softening.After exceeding the compression strain e c,localization of damage occurs in this softening region.A suitable concept to overcome possible ill-po-sedness there,originally derived for tension softening in smeared crack idealization,is the use of fracture energy: Then the softening branch depends on the fracture en-ergy,a material parameter,and on the characteristic length l eq[24].Use of fracture energy as material parameter instead of a softening function is generally accepted for tension cracks.The transfer of this concept to softening under compression has beenfirst proposed by Feenstra[25] and accepted since that,i.e.[26].To distinguish fracture energy under tension from that one under compression, the latter will be denoted as‘crushing energy’.But one should notice,that because of nonlinear hardening also a diffuse crushing energy g cu;exists[27],not included in the presently described localized one.Thus one sets thevolume specific localized crushing energy gÃcl (compareFig.2)equal to G cl=l eq,where G cl is the material parameter‘crushing energy’and l eq the characteristic length of the respective FE integration point.Clearly,l eq depends on type,quadrature rule and form of the ele-ment[28].Consequently,the following function has been cho-sen for the softening branch of region3:rðeÞ¼À12þc c f c e ccþc c eþc ccÁe2with c c>0ð38Þin which c c is the only free parameter controlling thearea under the stress–strain curve,corresponding to gÃcl .Note,that this area isfinite.Determination delivers the following relation to the localized crushing energy G cl,as explained in detail in[19]:c c¼p2f c e c2G cleq À1f c e cð1ÀbÞþb f cch i2:ð39ÞRemark.If the term in square brackets becomes nega-tive,the above equation renders invalid,since this would describe a‘snap-back’-behavior in the considered material point.To avoid this,one should elude elements leading tol eq6G clf c e cð1ÀbÞþb f cE c:ð40ÞFor determination of a cðqÃc Þ(29)from re-branches,seeAppendix A.3.2.Concrete under tensionFor description of concrete behavior in tension we apply the stress-based continuum damage theory again. But for simplicity,all inelastic deformations shall be due to pure damaging,i.e.b¼1.Also,opposite to com-pression,we exclude nonlinear hardening before soft-ening.Thus the initial damage surface and the failure surface are identical.3.2.1.Damage potentialFor tension failure,we use the widely accepted damage potential of Rankine type,a criterium in good accordance with biaxial experiments[29].To allow for softening in different directions to model cracks in dif-ferent directions at least a kinematic softening rule is required.Hence introducing the back-stress a t of the stress state r as internal variable,the damage potential readsU tð1Þðr;a tÞ¼nð1ÞÀf ct60;ð41Þabbreviating with nð1Þthefirst eigenvalue of n¼rÀa t.The derivatives of this potential with respect to r and a t areo U to r¼Mð1Þnando U to a t¼ÀMð1Þn;ð42Þwhere Mð1Þndenotes the eigenvalue basis of thefirst eigenvalue of n.3.2.2.Modification of internal variable,kinematic soften-ing and damage ruleIf one follows strictly the thermodynamic concept of the continuum damage theory,one has to introduce asecond-order tensor qt,thermodynamically conjugate to a t.Furthermore one has tofind an evolution law as normality condition for this tensor and a tensor-valued function a tðq tÞas softening rule.The evolution law then reads_a t¼o a t=o q t:_q t.Instead of such complexity determination,we replace the fourth-order tensoro a t=o q t by a scalar function Zða1t nÞ,with a1t n¼a t:Mð1Þnas normal component of the back-stress in crack-direction.Introduction of an explicit conjugate variable q1t ncan be omitted,because no hardening regime has been as-sumed,and the function q1t nða1t nÞtherefore is bijective. These simplifications lead to the softening rule,illus-trated in Fig.3:_a t¼Zða1t nÞo U to a t_ktð1Þ¼À_k tð1ÞZða1t nÞMð1Þnð43Þcorresponding to Prager’s hardening law.(43)guaran-tees crack formation in each principal stress direction, independent of other existing cracks.Now the normality rule can be derived from the potential U tð1Þ(41)reading1206W.B.Kr€a tzig,R.P€o lling/Computers and Structures82(2004)1201–1215_e da ;t :¼_D da ;t :r ¼_k t ð1Þo U t ð1Þ¼_k t ð1ÞM ð1Þn :ð44ÞThe anisotropic damage rule:_Dda ;t ¼1n_k t ð1ÞM ð1Þn M ð1Þnwithr 1n¼M ð1Þn:r ð45Þhas been taken over from [12].This rule guarantees the accomplishment of (44),and preserves symmetry of the compliance tensor.3.2.3.Consideration of further cracksAs well known,a second crack in 2D-plane and a third one in 3D-space can appear,each orthogonal to the existing ones.Therefore two more damage potentials are introduced analogously to the original one (41):U t ð2Þðr ;a t Þ¼n ð2ÞÀf ct ;60;ð46ÞU t ð3Þðr ;a t Þ¼n ð3ÞÀf ct ;60:ð47ÞThe complete theory thus develops to a non-smoothmulti-surface continuum damage theory.According to Koiter’s rule [30],we then obtain _at ¼ÀX 3i ¼1_k t ði ÞZ ða i t nÞM ði Þn ;ð48Þ_Dda ;t ¼X 3i ¼11r i n _k t ði ÞM ði Þn M ði Þn with r i n ¼M ði Þn :r :ð49ÞLoading conditions have to been introduced for each crack direction separately:_kt ði ÞP 0;U t ði Þ60;_kt ði ÞÁU t ði Þ¼0:ð50Þ3.2.4.Closure of cracksCrack closures results in instantaneous local re-stiff-ening of the concrete,where the cracks remain as ‘pas-sive’ones.Following an idea of Ortiz [11]we thusdisregard in the compliance tensor D the constituent D da ;t ,which represents all cracks,but maintain D da ;ta of all ‘active’cracks:D ¼D 0þD da ;c þD da ;ta :ð51ÞKraj c inovi c [31]obtained the following relation between D da ;ta and D da ;t ,assembling only those active cracks in principal directions,which belong to positive principal stresses:D da ;ta ¼P þ:D da ;t :P þ;ð52Þwhere P þdenotes a fourth-order projection tensor.According to [31],one possible form of P þwith H ðÞas Heaviside-function is:P þ¼X 3i ¼1H r ði ÞÀÁM ði Þr M ði Þr :ð53Þ3.2.5.Tangential stiffness relationWith all these assumptions the tangential stiffness relation will expectedly slightly differ from that one in Section 2.For its evaluation,we determine the consis-tency parameters by use of the consistency condition _Ut ði Þ¼0,the damage rule (49)and the kinematic soft-ening rule (48),finally arriving at:_r ¼D À1"ÀX 3i ¼1H _k t ði Þ D À1:M ði Þn M ði Þn :D À1M ði Þn :D À1:M ði ÞnÀZ a i t n ÀÁ#:_e :ð54Þ3.2.6.Assumed uniaxial stress–strain curve of concreteunder tensionIn order to relate our theory to experiments,the softening function Z a it n ÀÁwill be determined directly from a given uniaxial curve analogously to the proce-dure in Section 3.1.5.Due to Fig.4we hence distinguish:Region 1:Elastic region.Below the tension strength,the initial damage stress f ct ,linear-elastic behavior isassumed.Fig.3.Illustration of the assumed kinematic softening rule.W.B.Kr €a tzig,R.P €o lling /Computers and Structures 82(2004)1201–12151207。

Solid materials have been conveniently grouped into three basic classifications: metals, ceramics, and polymers. This scheme is based primarily on chemical makeup and atomic structure, and most materials fall into one distinct grouping or another, although there are some intermediates. In addition, there are three other groups of important engineering materials—composites, semiconductors, and biomaterials.译文：固体材料被便利的分为三个基本的类型：金属，陶瓷和聚合物。

这个分类是首先基于化学组成和原子结构来分的，大多数材料落在明显的一个类别里面，尽管有许多中间品。

除此之外，有三类其他重要的工程材料－复合材料，半导体材料和生物材料。

Composites consist of combinations of two or more different materials, whereas semiconductors are utilized because of their unusual electrical characteristics; biomaterials are implanted into the human body. A brief explanation of the material types and representative characteristics is offered next.译文：复合材料由两种或者两种以上不同的材料组成，然而半导体由于它们非同寻常的电学性质而得到使用；生物材料被移植进入人类的身体中。

Teaching physical education to students is a crucial aspect of their overall development.It not only helps in building a strong physique but also in fostering teamwork,discipline,and a competitive spirit.Here are some key points to consider when writing an essay on teaching physical education to students:1.Introduction to Physical Education:Begin by explaining the importance of physical education in a students life.Discuss how it contributes to their physical,mental,and social wellbeing.2.Curriculum Design:Describe the structure of a typical physical education curriculum. Include activities such as team sports,individual sports,gymnastics,dance,and fitness training.3.Skill Development:Highlight the various skills that students can learn through physical education,such as coordination,balance,agility,and strength.4.Health Benefits:Discuss the longterm health benefits of regular physical activity, including improved cardiovascular health,weight management,and prevention of chronic diseases.5.Mental Health Aspects:Explain how physical education can help reduce stress, improve mood,and increase selfesteem among students.6.Social Skills:Emphasize the role of physical education in teaching students social skills like communication,cooperation,and leadership.7.Inclusivity and Adaptability:Address the need for physical education programs to be inclusive,catering to students of all abilities and adapting activities to suit individual needs.8.Safety Measures:Mention the importance of safety in physical education classes, including the use of appropriate equipment,warmup exercises,and injury prevention techniques.9.Technological Integration:Discuss how technology can be integrated into physical education to enhance learning experiences,such as using fitness trackers or virtual reality for simulations.10.Assessment and Feedback:Explain the methods of assessment used in physical education,including both physical performance and personal development,and theimportance of constructive feedback.11.Challenges and Solutions:Identify common challenges faced in physical education classes,such as lack of interest,physical limitations,or inadequate facilities,and propose solutions to overcome these issues.12.Conclusion:Conclude by reiterating the significance of physical education in holistic student development and the role of educators in making it an engaging and beneficial part of the school curriculum.Remember to use descriptive language and provide examples to illustrate your points effectively.Additionally,ensure that your essay is wellstructured,with a clear introduction,body,and conclusion.。

Advanced Structural Analysis Advanced structural analysis is a complex and crucial aspect of engineering and construction. It involves the study and evaluation of the behavior of structures under different loads and environmental conditions. This field requires a deep understanding of structural mechanics, material properties, and mathematical modeling. Engineers and researchers use advanced structural analysis to design and optimize structures for safety, durability, and cost-effectiveness. One of the key perspectives in advanced structural analysis is the importance of understanding the behavior of materials under different loading conditions. This includes the study of stress, strain, and deformation characteristics of materials such as steel, concrete, and composites. By understanding how materials respond to different loads, engineers can design structures that can withstand the forces they will be subjected to during their service life. This is crucial for ensuring the safety and reliability of buildings, bridges, and other infrastructure. Another important perspective in advanced structural analysis is the use of advanced computational tools and software. Finite element analysis (FEA) and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) are widely used to simulate and analyze the behavior of complex structures and systems. These tools allow engineers to model the behavior of structures under various loading conditions, and optimize their designs to meet specific performance criteria. This approach enables engineers to explore a wide range of design options and identify the most efficient and cost-effective solutions. From a practical perspective, advanced structural analysis plays a crucial role in the design and construction of modern infrastructure. Engineers use advanced analysis techniques to optimize the design of buildings, bridges, and other structures, reducing material usage and construction costs while ensuring safety and reliability. This is particularly important in the context of sustainable development, where the efficient use of resources and the reduction of environmental impact are key considerations. Furthermore, advanced structural analysis also plays a critical role in the assessment and retrofitting of existing structures. Aging infrastructure and the need for retrofitting to meet changing environmental and safety regulations require advanced analysis techniques to evaluate the structural integrity of existing buildings and bridges. By usingadvanced analysis methods, engineers can assess the performance of existing structures and develop retrofitting solutions to extend their service life and enhance their safety. In conclusion, advanced structural analysis is a multifaceted field that encompasses the study of material behavior, the use of advanced computational tools, and the practical application in the design, construction, and assessment of structures. This field is essential for ensuring the safety, reliability, and cost-effectiveness of modern infrastructure. As technology continues to advance, the role of advanced structural analysis will only become more important in shaping the future of engineering and construction.。

STRUCTURAL TESTINGPart I: Mechanical Mobility MeasurementsByOle Døssing, Brüel & KjæSee page Noise and Vibration: Cause and Effect (3)Signal vs. System Analysis (5)Trouble-shooting (6)Treating Dynamic Problems (8)Modal Analysis (10)Mathematical Dynamic Models (11)Application of Modal Data (12)Verification of an Analytical Mathematical Model (13)The Frequency R esponse Function (14)Mobility Measurements-Definitions (16)Estimation of the FR F (17)The Dual Channel FFT Analyzer (21)Errors (23)Choice of Optimal FR F Estimator (25)See page Excitation (26)Implementing the Excitation (28)R esponse Measurements (30)Random Excitation (33)Pseudo-R andom Excitation (34)Impact Excitation (35)Impact Testing and the Coherence Function (36)Window Techniques for Impact Testing (39)The Transient Window (40)The R esponse Window (41)Comparison between Excitation Forms (42)Calibration (43)Case History: Vibrations in a Gantry Crane (45)Revision April 19881PrefaceA comprehensive understanding of structural dynamics is essential to the design and development of new structures, and to solving noise and vibration problems on existing structures.Modal analysis is an efficient tool for describing, under- standing, and modeling structural behaviour. The study of modal analysis is an excellent means of attaining a solid understanding of structural dynamics.Structural Te ting consists of a comprehensive introduction to the theoretical background to modal analysis and struc- tural dynamics. If the text is read and truly understood, we believe that the student, armed with a simple set of mea- surements and an intelligent interpretation, will be able to solve around 90% of noise and vibration problems met with in industry.2 We have assumed that the reader is familiar with the funda- mental techniques of vibration measurement and signal analysis. A clear distinction has been made between analyt- ical and experimental approaches, while concentrating on the experimental techniques. Mathematics has been used only on a limited basis, and in support of intuitive introduc- tions. Emphasis has been placed on the broadband testing technique, supported by dual-channel T analyzers, al- though the basic theory applies to any testing method.Structural Testing is divided into two parts:Part 1: Mechanical Mobility MeasurementsPart 2: Modal Analysis and SimulationNoise and Vibration: Cause and EffectNoise and vibration in the environment or in industry are caused by particular processes where dynamic forces ex- cite structures.The effects of noise and vibration range from annoyance, fatigue and reduced comfort, to safety and even health haz- ards. On machines, vehicles and buildings the effect may be wear, reduced performance, faulty operation or any de- gree of irreversible damage.Vibration and noise (defined here as unwanted sound) are closely related. Noise is simply part of the vibrational ener- gy of a structure transformed into air pressure variations.Most noise and vibration problems are related to resonance phenomena. Resonance occurs when the dynamic forces in a process excite the natural frequencies, or modes of vi- bration, in the surrounding structures. This is one reason for studying modes.A second reason for studying modes is that they form thebasis for a complete dynamic description of a structure.• Does a problem exist?Some level of noise and vibration will always be a side- effect of any dynamic process. Measurements of noise can be compared with international standards to determine whether they are within acceptable limits. In some cases, vibration measurements can be checked against the manu- facturer's specification, but more often a vibration problem could be indicated by failure in a machine, or by poor per-formance.3If excessive noise or vibration levels are found, who is re- sponsible for the problem?In any given situation there are always three factors:• Source - where the dynamic forces are generated• Path - how the energy is transmitted• Receiver - how much noise/vibration can be toleratedAny of these may contain the cause of the problem, and can be investigated to find the corresponding optimal solu- tion.Consider a car driver who feels that the vehicle noise level is too high. In this case the source is the vehicle transmis- sion, the path is the car body, and the receiver is the driv- er's ear.It is unlikely that the driver's ear is too sensitive, although a symptomatic treatment of the ears - using ear protectors - is possible, though unacceptable. The problem is therefore limited to the car body and the transmission; who is re- sponsible for the problem?The designers of the car body, and the designers of the transmission may claim that their individual components behave satisfactorily. The fact remains that interaction be- tween the components causes a serious problem.4Signal vs. System AnalysisBefore setting out on our quest to solve noise and vibration Array problems, we must make a clear distinction between thetwo roads which can be followed, signal analysis and sys-tem analysis.Signal analysis is the process of determining the responseof a system, due to some generally unknown excitation, andof presenting it in a manner which is easy to interpret.System analysis deals with techniques for determining theinherent properties of a system. This can be done by stimu-lating the system with measurable forces and studying theresponse/force ratio (sensitivity). F or linear systems this ra-tio is an independent, inherent property which remains thesame whether the system is excited or at rest.The quality of your hi-fi system lies in its frequency charac-teristics, which are the same whether you play Bach orBeatles. The characteristics determine how well the set willreproduce the signal on the record.Your car has the same mode shapes and natural frequen-cies whether it is parked in your garage or driving at100 km/h on the highway. The modal parameters are ameasure of the dynamic characteristics of the car, and de-termine the comfort and safety of your drive.If you take any example of a linear system, it is the systemcharacteristics which determine what signal we will sensefrom a process under some operating condition.5Trouble-shootingLet us investigate what information can be obtained from the measurement, and analysis, of response signals from a car under operating conditions. We can mount an acceler- ometer somewhere inside the passenger compartment - possibly at the point that appears to radiate most of the noise.Studying the acceleration time history does not give much helpful information. A transformation to the frequency do- main yields the acceleration spectrum. This spectrum often has distinct features which might show that the energy is concentrated around one or more discrete frequencies (tones).A knowledge of the system mechanics enables distinct fre-quency components to be related to specific mechanical components, thus identifying the source of the noise or vi- bration.In our example, a discrete component in the acceleration spectrum may be found to correspond with the rotational speed of a particular shaft in the transmission system. This would give strong evidence that this component is the source of the vibration and noise.Once the source has been located new questions arise:"Does the source have a high level of free dynamic energy, forcing the structure to vibrate?"Or"Is the structure 'dynamically weak' or compliant, at this particular frequency, and responding excessively to other- wise normal forces?"6Once the vibration source has been located, we can con-centrate on the system. The properties of the transmissionpath, between the source and receiver, represent the inher-ent dynamic characteristics of the combined systems.A first step towards describing path properties is to make arun-up/coast-down test, during which the response (accel-eration) is measured for different speeds. The response isthen plotted against speed. This plot will give a qualitativeindication of significant resonances in the operating fre-quency range, since excitation frequency is proportional tospeed.The run-up/coast-down technique can be extended to givethree-dimensional plots. These can be plots of the spec-trum vs. the speed (waterfall display), or the vibration leveland frequency, for a number of harmonics, as a function ofspeed (Campbell diagrams).If, as in our example, peaks are found in the plot of re-sponse vs. speed, then it is reasonable to conclude thatresonances exist in the system. However, since the forcingfunction is unknown, this conclusion is not necessarily cor-rect. The peaks may be present in the forcing function.In the run-up/coast-down test, only the response to varyingexcitation frequency is measured, and the level of the exci-tation force varies without control. Our measurements canonly therefore give coarse qualitative information about thesystem properties.7Treating Dynamic Problems Array In order to treat the problem we must understand how the structure behaves dynamically. This means we must deter- mine the deformation of the structure at the critical fre- quency. Once again we can choose one of two approaches:• Signal analysis = operational deflection shape measure-ment• System analysis = modal testing• Operational deflection shape measurementThe aim of operational deflection shape measurement is to determine the forced dynamic deflection at the operating frequency.The simplest and most accurate technique is to mount an accelerometer at some point as a reference; and then to attach a roving accelerometer at other points and, if neces- sary, in different directions. The measurement points should be chosen sufficiently closely spaced to obtain good spatial resolution. At all points, the magnitude and phase differ- ences between the roving and reference accelerometers are measured during steady state operation. The instrumenta- tion used can be two individual single-channel systems or a dual-channel FFT analyzer.The measurements are then plotted to obtain an impression of how the individual parts of the structure move, both ab- solutely and in relation to each other.8The operational deflection shape represents the absolutedeflection of a structure due to the unknown but real forces.The deflection shape does not give any information aboutthe independent dynamic properties of the system. Informa-tion cannot therefore be obtained about deflections due toother forces, or at other frequencies.In our example, the deflection shape shows that the trans-mission system and the engine move in a vertical 'pitch'fashion. F rom this information it would appear that a goodsolution to the noise problem could be to constrain thetransmission/engine against this motion. This could bedone by adding some stiffness - optimally between thepoints where the deflection difference is greatest - wherethe points move with opposite phase.The effect of the stiffening is that the natural frequency in-creases, hopefully beyond the operational frequency range.The amount of stiffening required can only be determinedby trial and error, guided by engineering experience.9• Modal propertiesMost practical noise and vibration problems are related to resonance phenomena, where the operational forces excite one or more of the modes of vibration. Modes of vibration which lie within the frequency range of the operational dy- namic forces, always represent potential problems.An important property of modes is that any forced or free dynamic response of a structure can be reduced to a dis- crete set of modes.The modal parameters are:• Modal frequency• Modal damping• Mode shapeThe modal parameters of all the modes, within the frequen- cy range of interest, constitute a complete dynamic de- scription of the structure. Hence the modes of vibration represent the inherent dynamic properties of a free struc- ture (a structure on which there are no forces acting).Modal analysis is the process of determining all the modal parameters, which are then sufficient for formulating a mathematical dynamic model. Modal analysis may be ac- complished either through analytical or experimental tech- niques.10Mathematical Dynamic ModelsMathematical models are desired, or are necessary, for anumber of reasons:• To understand and communicate how structures behaveunder dynamic loads,• To use in data reduction and smoothing techniques(curve fitting),• To simulate or predict the response to assumed externalforces,• To simulate changing dynamic characteristics, due tophysical modifications.Mathematical models are generally not models of the struc-ture itself. Rather they are models of the structure's dynam-ic behaviour, constrained by a set of assumptions andboundary conditions.Analytical mathematical models are based on calculatedmass and stiffness distributions of a specific set of bound-ary conditions. These calculations are usually made by theF inite Element Method (F EM), and the model produces anenormous set of coupled differential equations, which canonly be solved by using large computers.Experimental mathematical models can be constructedfrom measured modal data, which represent the system un-der the measured conditions. The model normally consistsof a set of independent differential equations, one for eachmode in the measurement. This model is often referred toas the "Modal Model".11Application of Modal DataWe shall now look at the application of modal data ob- tained through experimental modal analysis.The result of an experimental modal test may be of any degree of sophistication ranging from:• A single F requency Response Measurement (F RF) show- ing weak structural dynamic conditions in terms of mod- al frequencies, to a set of F RF measurements giving modal frequencies and the associated mode shapes;• The mode shape data and subsequent animation of the mode shapes, to the creation of a concise mathematical dynamic modal model.12 The range of applications for modal data is vast and in- cludes:• Checking modal frequencies• F orming qualitative descriptions of the mode shapes - as an aid to understanding dynamic structural behaviour for trouble-shooting• Verifying and improving analytical models• Making computer simulations (based on the modal mod- el) for prototype development, or advanced trouble- shooting, where we need to:- Predict the response to assumed excitations, and check the dynamic performance- Predict the change in dynamic properties due to physi- cal modifications, such as adding pay load, or stiffness.- Predict the necessary physical modifications required to obtain a desired dynamic property- Predict the combined behaviour when two or more structures are coupled together as a unit.Verification of an Analytical Mathematical ModelAs an example, we will examine the design stages for askyscraper, a building designed to withstand earthquakesand complex wind loads.An analytical mathematical model is first created and load-ed with the design forces. The results show satisfactory dy-namic behaviour.After the building is constructed, the design must beproved. The mathematical model contains some ideal iner-tia and stiffness distributions, which cannot be measureddirectly. A "full-scale" test is out of the question, so whatcan be done?Modal analysis on both the structure and the model pro-vides the solution. The top of the building is excited by anattached electrodynamic shaker, or an eccentric mass ex-citer. A known force is then applied, in the frequency rangeof interest, and the response measured at a number of se-lected points. F rom these measurements the modal para-meters are determined.The modal parameters found from both analytical and ex-perimental methods are directly comparable. If the resultsdo not agree, the analytical model is adjusted and refineduntil sufficient agreement is achieved. F inally, the analyticalcomputations are repeated with the modified model, andthe response to the design forces can then be predicted.If the analytical dynamic behaviour satisfies the design cri-teria, the results are then considered to be proof of safedynamic properties for the skyscraper.The analytical model also provides the means for evaluatingthe comfort of the occupants of the building. Any suggesteddynamic improvements may then be simulated and refined.13The Frequency Response Function One very efficient model of a linear system is a frequency domain model, where the output spectrum is expressed as the input spectrum weighted by a system descriptorX(ω) = H(ω) · F(ω)This system descriptor H(ω) is called the Frequency Re- sponse Function (FRF), and is defined as:H(ω) ≡ X(ω)F(ω)It represents the complex ratio between output and input, as a function of frequency ω. By complex we mean that the function has a magnitude |H(ω)| and a phase H(ω) = φ(ω).The physical interpretation of the F RF is that a sinusoidal input force, at a frequency ω, will produce a sinusoidal out- put motion at the same frequency. The output amplitude will be multiplied by |H(ω)|, and the phase, between output and input, will be shifted by H(ω).As we have limited ourselves to dealing with linear systems, any input/output spectrum can be considered to be the sum of sinusoids. The F RF describes the dynamic properties of a system independent of the signal type used for the mea- surement. The F RF is therefore equally applicable to har- monic, transient and random excitation.14The definition of the F RF means that, in measuring a spe- Array cific function, the measurements can be made sequentiallyat discrete frequencies or simultaneously at several fre-quencies. A useful technique is to use a wide frequencybandwidth for the excitation force. This gives a dramaticreduction in measurement time, as compared to sinusoidalexcitation where one frequency is measured at a time.In our example of an F RF measurement, between the refer-ence accelerometer and the excitation force at the gearbox,there is a second natural frequency close to the 30 Hz oper-ational shaft speed. This leads to dynamic amplification ofthe response, and results in the high noise level in the pas-senger compartment.Resonances in the operational frequency range may beconsidered as structural weaknesses. The severity of a res-onance depends on the magnitude of the F RF between thepoint where the operational forces act on the structure, andthe point where the response is observed.15Mobility Measurements - DefinitionsThe basis for one specific class of experimental modal analysis is the measurement of a set of F requency Re- sponse Functions (FRFs).Motion can be described in terms of displacement, velocity or acceleration. The corresponding F requency Response F unctions are compliance, mobility and accelerance. In a general sense the term "mobility measurement" is used to describe any form of FRF.For modelling, the F RF most commonly used is compliance. The F RF generally used for measurements is accelerance, since the most convenient motion transducer is the acceler- ometer.Compliance, mobility and accelerance are algebraically re- lated, the measurement of any one of them can be used for calculation of the others.16Estimation of the FRFIdeally a mobility measurement should simply involve excit- ing the structure with a measurable force, measuring the response, and then calculating the ratio between the force and response spectra. In practice however, we are faced with a number of problems:• Mechanical noise in the structure, including non-linear behaviour• Electrical noise in the instrumentation• Limited analysis resolutionTo minimize these problems we have to apply some statisti- cal methods to decide how to estimate an F RF from our measurements. Estimation from data containing random noise generally involves some form of averaging.What techniques can we use for averaging the output/input ratio?• Can we take the sum of n response spectra and divide by the sum of n force spectra?No we cannot. If the force has a random character, it may be zero at any frequency in individual spectra. The corresponding frequency lines of the R will then be undefined. H(ω)= Σ X(ω)Σ F(ω)No we cannot. Spectra are complex quantities, and the sums will converge to zero since the phase between the individual spectra is random.• Can we take the sum of n ratios between response and force divided by n?17• Noise in the output measurementor the measurement, the test structure is suspended by some means. The force signal is measured by a force transducer directly connected at the point where the force is applied. Apart from some very low level electrical noise in the instrumentation the true excitation can be measured.Other dynamic processes - machines, wind, footsteps etc. - may, together with sound and internal dynamic processes, result in mechanical noise producing vibration in the test object. The response signal not only contains the response due to the measured excitation, but also the response due to the ambient random excitation. We can therefore charac- terize this typical measurement as having nois e in the mea- sured output signal.Using the principle of least squares, to minimize the effect of noise at the output, we find that the best F RF estimator isAn analysis of a practical measurement may lead us to an useful estimator.^ Σ F* · XH = Σ F* · FThis estimator we will call H 1. It can be seen that it is equal to the Cross Spectrum, between the response and force, divided by the Autospectrum of the forceG FX (ω)H 1(ω) ≡ G FF (ϖ)The terms Autospectrum and Cross Spectrum are de- scribed in the section on the dual-channel analyzer. 18output is removed during the averaging process of theCross Spectrum. As the number of averages is increased,H1 converges to the true H.• Noise in the input measurementIn practical measurements on a structure, another noisesource may appear when a vibration exciter is used. At itsnatural frequencies the structure becomes very compliant,which results in high vibration amplitudes. The exciter maythen use all the available energy to accelerate its own me-chanical components, leaving no force with which to drivethe structure. The signal-level of the force may then droptowards the normal noise-level in the instrumentation, incontrast to the response which is at a maximum and likelyto drown any noise.This situation can be characterized as having nois e at theinput. The estimator which minimizes this noise effect isG XX(ω)H2(ω) ≡G XF(ω)By using H2, the input noise is removed from the CrossSpectrum during the averaging process. As the number ofaverages is increased, H2 converges to the true H.When noise is present at both output and input, H1 and H2generally form the confidence interval for the true H.19The Coherence F unction provides us with a means of as- sessing the degree of linearity between the input and output signals. The Cross Spectrum inequalityQ XF(ω) 2≤ G XX(ω) · G FF(ω)states that if any of the Autospectra contains non-coherent noise, then the magnitude of the Cross Spectrum squared is smaller than the product of the Autospectra. This is be- cause non-coherent noise contributions are averaged out of the Cross Spectrum. This relationship gives rise to the defi- nition of the Coherence FunctionG FX(ω) 2γ(ω)2≡G XX(ω) · G FF(ω)where0 ≤γ(ω)2≤ 1The bounds for the Coherence F unction are 1, for no noise in the measurements, and 0 for pure noise in the measure- ments. The interpretation of the Coherence F unction is that for each frequency ω it shows the degree of linear relation- ship between the measured input and output signals. The Coherence F unction is analogous to the squared correlation coefficient used in statistics.When making mobility measurements, we will use this pow- erful property of the Coherence F unction to detect a num- ber of possible errors.20The Dual-channel FFT Analyzerand H2. The analyzer can be treated as a "black-box" bythe user, who simply needs to provide the analog excitationand response signals, and then press the "F RF button". Letus however, briefly review of the principles of spectrumanalysis and discuss a few definitions.A) The analog input signals are filtered, sampled, and digi-tized to give a series of digital sequences or records.Over a finite time these records represent the time his-tory of the signals. The sampling rate and the recordlengths determine the frequency range, and the resolu-tion, of the analysis.B) Each record from a continuous sequence may be multi-plied (weighted) by a window function. This tapers thedata at both the beginning and end of each record tomake the data more suitable for block analysis.C) The weighted sequence is transformed to the frequencydomain as a complex spectrum, by the use of a DiscreteFourier Tran s formation. This process is reversible - aninverse transformation will give the original time se-quence. To estimate the spectral density of a signal,some averaging technique has to be used to removenoise and improve statistical confidence.21by its complex conjugate (opposite phase sign), and by averaging a number of independent products.E) When the complex conjugate of one spectrum is multi-plied by a different spectrum we obtain the Cross Spec- trum. The Cross Spectrum is complex, showing the phase shift between the output and input, and a magni- tude representing the coherent product of power in the input and output.The Autospectra of the force and the response, together with the Cross Spectrum between the force and response are exactly the quantities we need for our F RF and Coher- ence estimates.22ErrorsWhen making mobility measurements we need to be famil- iar with a number of possible errors, so that we can recog- nise them and minimize their effect. These errors can be divided into two classes.The first class are random errors. They are observed asrandom scatter in the data, caused by noise.The second class are bias errors. They are systematic er- rors which appear with the same magnitude and phase at each observation.Estimators contaminated by random errors can be im- proved by averaging. Bias errors can only be minimized by using a different estimator.The table shows the classification of typical error sources, which estimators can be used to minimize particular errors, and when the Coherence F unction can (+), or cannot (0), indicate the error. Error EstimatorH1H2γ2 Noise at the output(response to unmeasuredexcitation forces)R B+Noise at the input B R+ RandomExcitationB/R B/R+Non-linear SystemDeterministicExcitationB B0Scatter of impactpoint/directionR R+RandomExcitationB(B)+ LeakageDeterministic(impact)B B0B = Bias error (systematic)R = Random error (minimized by averaging)23。

Structural mecha nics 中的专业词汇PREFACE AND CHAPTER 1Structural mecha nics 结构力学Structural an alysis 结构分析Statically determ in ate structures 静定结构Statically in determinate structures 超静定结构Matrix an alysis of structures 结构矩阵分析Plastic an alysis of structures 结构塑性分析Dyn amic an alysis of structures 构动力分析Illustrative example Problems 习题In civil con structi on 设中Geometric dime nsion结例题在土木工程建几何尺度Framed structure 杆系结构Cross-secti on 横截面Rectan gular cross-sect ion 矩形截面Radius半径Diameter 直径Slab 板Shell 壳Thi n-walled structure 薄壁结构Massive structure 块体结构The same order of magn itude 大小同量级Theory of Elasticity 弹性力学Aspect 方面Application of loads 荷载的作用Forces and deformati ons 力和形变In ternal forces 内力Reaso nable simplicity 合理的简化Computi ng model 计算模型In structural engin eeri ng 在结构工程中Dead loads 静荷载Live loads 活荷载Dy namic loads 动力荷载Movable loads 移动荷载Movi ng loads 运动荷载Static loads 静力荷载Resp onse of a structure 结构响应Blast loads 爆炸荷载Impact loads 冲击荷载Ce ntrifugal force 离心力External effect 外部作用Flexural member 受弯构件Support settleme nt 支座沉陷Tran sverse force 横向力Manu facture discrepa ncy 制造误差Frame框架Shrin kage of material 材料收缩Bend 弯2In gen eralized sense 在广义上Behavior of a structure 结构的行Shear 剪为Tense 拉Members 构件Compress 压Arch 拱Bending moment 弯矩Reacti on 反力Sheari ng force 剪力Truss桁架Normal force 轴力Composite structure 组合结构In ternal force comp onent 内力分Superpositi on prin ciple 叠加原理量Be subjected to 承受……Lateral dime nsion 横向尺寸Lin early 线性地Rein forced con crete beam 钢筋砼Lin early elastic 线弹性的梁In creme nt 增量Engin eeri ng structure 工程结构Be proporti onal to 与…成正比Three dime nsional 三维的Stress 应力Pla nar(pla ne) structure 平面结构Strai n 应变To lie in the same pla ne 处在同CHAPTER 2一平面Geometric stability 几何稳定性Space structure 空间结构Geometrically stable 几何稳定的Simplificati on of supports 支座Un stable system 不稳定体系的简化Degrees of freedom 自由度Restrai nt 约束By defi nition 根据定义Stati onary foun dati on 固定的基础In depe ndent coord in ate 久独立坐标Roller support 辊柱支座（链杆支Pla nar coord in ate system 平面坐标系座）Three dimensional coord in ate system Link support 链杆支座三维（空间）坐标系Perpe ndicular to 垂直于…Rigid body 刚体Hinge support 固疋铰支座Joi nt 节（结）点Horizo ntal 水平的Mutual (relative )displacement 相对Vertical 竖直的位移Be parallel to each other 相互平Be equivale nt to 等价于…行Multiple hi nge 多重铰Displaceme nt 位移Multiple rigid joint 多重刚结点Links 链杆Imposed restra int 施加的约束Rotation 转角，转动In sufficie nt 不足的A couple 一个力偶Sufficie nt 足够的Fixed support 固定支座Redundant多余的Tran slati on 平移Redundant restraint多余约束Isometrically 等距地Arran geme nt of restra ints 约束的布置Respectively 分别地Necessary con dition必要条件Simplificatio n of joi nts 节点的Sufficie nt con dition充分条件简化Geometric con structi on an alysis 几何Hi nge joi nt 铰结构造分析Rigid joi nt 刚结Defin ite con clusion确定的结论Mo nolithic body 整体，一体Substitute into 代入…Beam 梁Assembly 集合Kin ematic an alysis 机动分析A hin ged trian gle 一个铰接三角形Lying on the same straight line 位于同一直线Infin itesimal displaceme nt 无穷小位移Infin itesimal rotati on 无穷小转角In sta ntan eously un stable system 瞬变体系Joi nted pairwise 两两相连的Statically determ in ate multi-spa n beam多跨静定梁In ternal stable 内部稳定的In ternal stability 内部稳定性Disregard 忽视，不考虑AB and CDIntersecting at point O AB 和CD相交于点OInstantaneous centre of rotation 瞬时转动中心In sta ntan eous hinge 瞬铰Static determ inacy 静力确定性Static equilibrium equati on 静力平衡方程Arbitrary cross section 任意横截面Isolated free body 脱离（隔离）体Un ique solution 唯一的解Coupled equation 耦合的方程Con tradictory 矛盾的Infin ite nu mber of soluti ons 无穷多个解Simulta neous equati ons 联立方程In qua ntitative sense 在数量上Project ion equilibrium equati on 投影平衡方程Determi nant method 行列式法则（克莱母法则）Determ inant 行歹U式Coefficie nt of the equati ons 方程未知量的系数Static characteristic 静力特性Space system 空间体系Infin itely far away 无穷远处CHAPTER 3Fun dame ntal基础，基本原理In dividual member 单一的构件Element 单元Resulta nt 合力Axial directi on 轴向3 Axial ten sion 轴向拉伸To the immediate left and tight of P P Positive 正的的左邻和右邻Negative 负的Abrupt cha nge 突变Compression in the upper fibers Abruptly 突然地上边受压In tegral relati on 积分关系Tension in the lower fibers 下边Difference betwee n A and B A 禾口B的差受拉Sum of A and B A 和B 的和Normal direct ion 法向Figure 图形Axis轴线Con struct ion of sheari ng force diagram Clockwise mome nt 顺时针力矩剪力图的绘制Coun ter clockwise mome nt 反时钟Terminal point 终点力矩End couple 杆端力矩Free body 隔离体Dashed line 虚线Sign conven ti on 符号规疋Ordi nate 纵坐标Moment diagram 弯矩图Superimpose 叠力口Ten sile side of a member 构件的Con cave parabola 下凸抛物线受拉边Corresp onding ordin ate 相应的纵坐标Method of section 截面法Similar tria ngle 相似三角形Mon olithic system 整体系统In cli ned member 斜杆Algebraic sum 代数和Per meter 每米Magnitude 大小Curved member 曲杆Moments about the centroid of Tangen tial direct ion 切向cross section 对截面中心的力矩Normal direct ion 法向Mathematical relation 数学关系Curvature radius 曲率半径In ternal force diagram 内力图Infini tesimally small 无穷小Differe ntial eleme nt 微分单元Approach to infinity 趋于无穷As in dicated 正如所示Radial distributed 径向分布的Distributed loads 分布荷载Arc弧Inten sity 集度Basic stable porti on 基本部分Summing moments about an axis Subsidiary portio n 附属部分through the left hand face of the Symmetrical 对称的element关于穿过该单兀左截面的Un symmetrical 非对称的某轴求力矩之和Horiz on tal thrust 水平推力Higher-order term 高阶项Con struct M and Q diagrams 绘制M和QA segme nt —段图Rightward 向右CHAPTER 4Dow nward 向下Statically determ in ate multispa n beam Separately 分别地静定多跨连续梁Slope斜率Static method 静力法Extreme moment 极值弯矩Co nstitue nt 组成的Curvature 曲率Can tilever beam 悬臂梁Un iformly distributed 均匀分布Similarly 同样地（同理）Linear fun ctio n 线性函数Overha ng beam 伸臂梁In cli ned straight line 斜直线Simple supported beam 简支梁Quadratic function 二次函数Method of virtual work 虚功法Parabolic curve 抛物线Ki nematic method 机动法Con cave下凸的Prin ciple of virtual displaceme nt 虚Concen trated load 集中何载位移原理4In creme ntal relati on 增量关系Prin ciple of virtual work 虚功原理Virtual displaceme nt 虚位移Con siste nt with 与…相容的Mecha nism 机构Virtual work equati on 虚功方程Unknown未知的Projectio n along the force 在力方向上的投影Product of magn itude of the forceand the magn itude of the displaceme nt 力的大小与位移大小的乘积An gular displaceme nt 角位移Corresp onding displaceme nt 相应的位移Substitute for 替换…Infin itesimal virtual displaceme nt无穷小虚位移In this circumsta nee 在这种情况下Deflect 偏转Equal in magn itude but opposite in direction 大小相等方向相反In structive 有启发的CHAPTER 5Pinned joi nt 铰接Subscript 下标Con trol section 控制截面Foun dati on 基础Order of calculation 求解顺序Differential relation between M and external loads M 和外力的微分关系Tension in the right fiber 右边纤维受拉Reserve 保留End bending mome nt 杆端弯矩Sign in dicati on 符号标定Associate sheari ng force 相应的剪力Keep bala nee 保持平衡Uniformly distributed loads 均布荷载Satisfacti on of the project ion equilibrium equati ons 平衡方程的满足Control ordi nate 控制坐标Be perpe ndicular to 垂直于…CHAPTER 6Span of an arch 拱跨Rise of an arch 拱的矢高Symmetrical axis 对称轴Horizo ntal thrust 水平推力A three arched arch with a tie 拉杆三铰拱Flatte n out 变平Arbitrary cross section 任意截面Axis of abscissa 横坐标轴First derivative 一阶导数Co nic parabola 二次抛物线Tabulate 把…制成表格Table表格Colu mn 列The cipher of column 9 第9 列的值Lay off 画出…Masonry con struct ion 砌石建筑Abutment底座，桥墩Line of pressure 压力线Resulta nt 合力By graphical method 利用几何法Force Polygon 力多边形Pole极点In tersect ion point 交点Funi cular polygo n 索多边形Polygon of resulta nts 合力多边形Action line for resulta nt 23 合力23的作用线Respective stri ng 各自的索线In direct proporti on to 正比于…Optimal cen tre line of arch 合理拱轴线Theoretical volume 理论值Primarilystati onary load 主要由固定荷载作用Reckon from 从…开始算Con figurati on 形状As a con seque nee 结果，因而Hydraulic pressure 静水压力Circulararc 圆弧A curve of circular arc 圆弧曲线Bisector 二等分线，平分线Annu lar shape 圆环状Un der earth pressure 在土压力作用下Crow n hinge 顶铰Un der this circumsta nee 在这种情况下Differe ntiate with respect to x关于x求导Differe ntial equatio n 微分方程Hyperbolic fun ction 双曲函数Boundary con diti on 边界条件Whe nee据此，由此Catenoid 悬链线5Cable吊索Suspe nsion system 悬挂体系A series of lin ear segme nts —系歹U直线段Distortio n 变形Deflection 挠度Sag下垂度Assumption 假定Unknown force 未知力CHAPTER 7Conn ected by pins 用铰连接Tower 塔Roof structure 屋架（屋面）结构Frict ionl ess pin 光滑铰Two-force member 二力杆Heavy bolted joi nt 强螺栓连接节点Welded joi nt 焊接节点Primary stress 主要应力Subsidiary stress 次要（附加）应力Topchord 上弦杆Bottom chord 下弦杆web member 腹杆Diag on als and verticals 斜杆和竖杆Panel point 节点Panel节间Through truss 穿越（下承式）桁架Desk truss 上承式桁架Simple truss 简单桁架In alphabetical order 以字母顺序Compo und truss 联合桁架Rigid framework 刚性构架Non parallel noncon curre nt links 不相互平行也不相交于一点的链杆Cross-hatched 画阴影线的Complex truss 复杂桁架Joint method 节点法Secti on method 截面法con curre nt forces 汇交力系Expedie nt 方便的In active member 零杆Mome nt centre 力矩中心Projectio n axis 投影轴线Pass a secti on 做一个截面Excepti onal member 单杆Subdivided truss 再分式桁架In flue nee coefficie nt 影响系数Decreme nt 减量Sub-diago nal 辅助（次）斜杆Dimension 量纟冈Reverse 逆Sub-vertical 辅助（次）竖杆Dimensionless 无量纲的6 Reverse condition (d) 条件(d)的逆Sub-truss 辅助（次，子）桁架Expressi on 表达式The peak of the tria ngular in flue neeSub-member辅助（次）杆Most un favorable positi on 最不利diagram三角形影响图的顶点Sub-joi nt 辅助（次）节点位置Numerically greatest 数量上最大的Horseshoe-shaped 马蹄形的Behavior of the structure 结构的Extreme value 极值Graphical method 作图法行为Vertexes of the in flue nee diagram 影Algebraic method 代数方法Con struct ing in flue nee line 作影响图的顶点vertex of the polygon 多边形的顶点响线Absolute maximum bending mome nt 绝对arrow of a force 力的箭头In flue nee line for internal force 最大弯矩successively 连续地内力影响线Derivative 导数by scali ng 通过度量Virtual work 虚功Equidista nt 等距离的repetiti onal work 重复性的工作Prin ciple of virtual work 虚功原Without any loads going on or off the suppleme nt 补充理span没有任何何载进入和离开梁跨method of substitute member 替换杆Abscissa横坐标 A continu ous fun cti on of x x 的连续函法Sign in dicati on 符号标注数method of in itial parameter 初参数To draw in flue nee line 画影响线Mid-po int of the spa n 跨中法To be confined to 被限制在Midpo int of the spa n 跨中closed loop 闭合圈Floor beam 楼面梁Dan gerous section 危险截面space truss 空间桁架Girder 大梁，主梁Crane beam 吊车梁dome圆屋顶Floor slab 楼板En velope for bending mome nt 弯矩包罗derrick 塔架Without ambiguity 显然图spherical hinge 球形铰Elim in at ing a n ecessary restrai nt En velope for sheari ng force 剪力包罗trian gular pyramid 三棱锥，1 四面形，去除一个必要的约束图四面体Infin itesimal virtual An arbitrary sect ion —个任意截面odd member 单杆displaceme nt 无穷小虚位移In flue nee diagram 影响图colli near 在同一直线上的Vertical scale 竖标Desig nated qua ntity 指定量值forego ing discussi on 前述的讨论Relative an gular displaceme nt 相Bound of the bending mome nt variati on beam member 梁式杆对角位移弯矩变化的边界flexural member 受弯杆Relative tran sverse displaceme nt CHAPTER 9composite joint 复合节点相对横向位移In structural desig n 在结构设计中self-equilibrium force system 自平 A unit tran sverse sliding Elastic displaceme nt 弹性位移衡力系displaceme nt —个单位横向滑动位In determi nate structure 超静定结构statically equivale nt load 静力等移Most versatile method 最通用的方法效何载In tact 未动的，完好的Uni t load method 单位何载法girder 桁架梁Three hin ged arch 三铰拱Reciprocal theorem 互等定理parallel chord truss 平行弦桁架 A corresp onding simple beam 一个Illustration of unit load method 单位non- parallel chord truss 非平行弦相应的简支梁荷载法的例子桁架Critical position 临界位置Supported settleme nt 支座沉降roof truss 屋面桁架Most severe effect 最不利的影响Lin eardiplaceme nt (tra nslati on) 线位arched truss 拱桁架（桁架拱）Trial aided 试算移polygo nal li ne truss 折线桁架By use of criteria 利用判据 A compatible displaceme nt 相容性位移desig nated member 指定的杆Sta ndard truck 标准卡车Fictitious=virtual 虚的absolute value 绝对值Average loads 平均何载Virtual force 虚力CHAPTER 8 In equality 不等式Appropriate choice 适当的选择In flue nee line 影响线Critical load position 临界何载Sectio ns adjace nt to hin ge C 铰C 的相Most severe internal forces 最不利位置邻截面内力In creme nt 增量 A un it virtual load —个单位竖向位移A pair of un it couple Real work 实功 An elastic prismatic bar 等截面杆 Elasticity modulus Cross-secti on area Generalized force Gen eralized displaceme nt 广义位移Statically in terdepe ndent forces 静力相关力系Corresp ondinggen eralizeddisplaceme nt 相应的广义位移 The angle of rotation0 转角 B 7External work 夕卜（力）功 Internal work 内（力）功To be ide ntical to 与… A differe ntial eleme nt 元 Differe ntial virtual work Strain energy 应变能 Virtual stai n en ergy Lin ear elastic structure 构 In ternal virtual work Con servati on law of en ergy 恒定理External real work 外力实功 The in verse of the curvature radius 曲率半径的倒数 Compatible relati ons Vanish 趋于零 iden tityrelati on un it virtual force virtual forcesystem real displaceme nt real strain comp onents an actual geometrical problem 实际的几何问题a fictitious equilibrium problem 个虚平衡问题differe nee of temperature coefficie nt of thermal expa nsion 度膨胀系数 axial strain 轴向应变likewise 同理saggi ng sense 下凸的 mome nt of in ertia 惯性矩 axial rigidity抗拉压刚度shearing rigidity flexural rigidity prin cipalaxis截面主轴 twisti ng mome nt twisti ng an glediffere ntial segme nt torsional con sta ntsection 截面扭转常数neutral axis 中性轴 area moment 面积矩 con crete member 砼凝土构件 steel member 钢构件 Poisson ratio 泊松比 depth-spa n ratio 高跨比 to be inversely proportional 与……成反比 in paren theses在括号中graph multiplicatio n 图乘法 the moment of the differential area with respect to y axis微分面积对y 轴的矩 magn itude of areas 面积的大小locatio n of their cen troids它们的形心位置 3d-degree parabola 3 additi onal proviso rein forced con crete cross-sect ional dime nsion 尺寸 elasto-plastic behaviour 弹塑性 行为 reduction factor折减系数a pair of concen trated un it loads 一对单位集中力 reciprocal theorem 互等定理 theoremofreciprocaldisplaceme nts 位移互等定理 theorem of reciprocalreactions反力互等定理 react ion in flue nee 反力影响系数 theorem of displaceme nt-react ion 互等定理support moveme nt 支座移动 to develop a gen eral formula 导通用公式 column 柱 CHAPTER 10 Force method 力法 Method of consistent deformation —致变形法Redundant structure Unknown force 未知力 Compatibility con diti ons Redundant unknown force Degree of in determi nacy In ternally in determi nate Primary system 基本体系Primary unknowns 基本未知量 Passive force Active force Incon siste ncy Embody 体现 Superimpose Flexibility coefficie nt Canoni cal equati on Propped can tilever beam 梁，有支（承）伸臂梁 Highly in determi nate structures 超静定结构8Square matrix 方阵 Symmetrical component对称分量An tisymmetrical comp onent 反对称分量Asymmetrical 不对称的 Inflection point 反弯点 Odd nu mber of spa n 奇数跨 Even nu mber of spa n 偶数跨 Method of elastic cen ter弹性中心法Rigid arm 刚臂 Hin geless arch 无铰拱 Numerator 分子 Denomin ator 分母 Quotie nt 商 Central an gle 中心角Non prismatic member 变截面杆（构件） Trapezoid formula 梯形公式 Parabolic formula抛物线公式Reacta nt bending mome nt 抵抗弯矩 Stiffness factor 刚度系数 Non yieldi ng support 刚性支座Lack of fit 误差Redundant beam 超静定梁 Qualitative in flue nee li ne 定性影响线 Quan titative in flue nee line 定量影响线CHAPTER 11一对单位力偶 一个弹性弹性模量 横截面面积 广义力••一致（样） 一个微分单 微分虚功 内力虚功能量守虚应变能线弹性结 相容关系恒等关系式 单位虚力 虚力系 实位移实应变分量温差一个抗剪刚度 抗弯刚度 of cross sect ion 扭矩 扭转角微分段 of the crossto次抛物线 附加条件 钢砼横截面coefficie ntsreciprocal 反力位移超静定结构相容性条件 多余未知力 超静定度 内部超静定被动力 主动力n.不相容性，不一致性叠加 柔度系数 标准方程 有支（承）悬高阶Slope-Deflection method 位移法（转角位移法）Displaceme nt method 位移法Mome nt distributi on method 弯矩分配法Varying section 变截面Slope-deflecti on equati on 转角位移方程Rotatio n stiffness 转动刚度Slidely fixed 双链杆支座的Alo ngside 在旁边的Analogy模拟，类比Portal frame 门形刚架Bent frame 排架Sideway 侧移Notion=con ceptStiffness matrix 刚度矩阵Coefficient of thermal expansion 温度膨胀系数CHAPTER 12Systematic approach 系统化的方法Matrix algebra 矩阵代数Routi nely programmed 常规地编程discretizati on 离散化beam eleme nt 梁单元truss eleme nt 桁架单元flexural eleme nt 弯曲单元eleme nt an alysis 单元分析global an alysis 整体分析no dal displaceme nt vector . 节点位移向量no dal resulta nt vector 节点力向量global stiffness equati on 整体刚度方程gover ning equati on 控制方程end force 杆端力end displaceme nt 杆端位移stiffness matrix 刚度方程starti ng point 起点terminal point 终点the four en tries 4 项orie nted in positive coord in ate directio n 指向坐标轴的正方向subvector 子向量main diag onal 主对角线main coefficients 主元素（主系数）sec on dary coefficie nts 副系数sin gular 奇异的determ inant 行歹U式ide ntity matrix 恒等矩阵submatrix 子矩阵stiffness method 刚度法no dal displaceme nt vector 节点位node number 节点编号9 local nu mber局部码local code nu mber 局部编码global code nu mber 整体编码en circled superscript 画圈的上标a sparse matrix 一个稀疏矩阵a ban ded matrix 一个带状矩阵semi-ba ndwidth 半带宽loadi ng con ditions 荷载条件support arran geme nt 支座布置CHAPTER 13Method of mome nt distributi on 弯矩分配法A procedure of successive approximation —个逐步近似的过程Joint tran slati on 节点平移Rotatio nal stiffness 转动刚度Distribution factor 分配系数Fraction of total mome nt 总弯矩的百分比The ratio of the far end moment to the n earend mome nt 远端弯矩与近端弯矩的比值Carry-over factor 传递系数Basic moment distributionprocess 基本的弯矩分配过程An exter nal n o dal moment —个外加的节点弯矩Artificial restrai nt 人为的约束在锁定状态释放弯矩Elim in at ing the artificialrestrai nt解除人为约束Carry-over mome nt 传递弯矩in verse of the matrix 矩阵的逆the orig in of the system 坐标系的原点transformation matrix 坐标转换矩阵移向量in the assembly 在集成过程中element contribution matrix 单元贡献矩阵global stiffness matrix 整体刚度矩阵gover ning equati on 控制方程equivale nt no dal loads 等效节点何载non-no dal loads 非节点何载artificial rotation restraint 人为的转动约束post-process ing method 后处理法pre-process ing method 前处理法pla ne truss 平面桁架coord in ate tran sformation坐标变换Successive cycle逐次的计算循环of computationUnbalaneed moment 非平衡弯矩Distribution moment at the near end 在近端的分配弯矩At the far end 在远端In the lock stateUn locki ng moment。

Materials Today PhysicsIntroductionIn the field of physics, materials play a crucial role in advancing our understanding of the fundamental laws governing the universe. The study of materials, their properties, and their behavior under varying conditions is a vast field with numerous applications. This article aims to explore the latest advancements in materials science, focusing on the field of physics.Importance of Materials in Physics Research1.Enabling Technological Advancements: Materials are essential forthe development of new technologies. From semiconductors inelectronic devices to superconductors for energy transmission,advancements in materials have revolutionized various sectors.2.Fundamental Research: Materials provide a platform for fundamentalresearch in physics. By studying how materials interact with light, magnetism, and other physical phenomena, scientists gain insightsinto the underlying principles of the universe.3.Understanding Quantum Mechanics: Materials play a crucial role instudying quantum phenomena. The behavior of electrons in materials allows us to explore quantum mechanics at a macroscopic scale.4.Energy Generation and Storage: Materials research is vital for thedevelopment of renewable energy systems, such as solar cells andbatteries. By understanding the properties of materials,scientists can design more efficient and sustainable energysolutions.5.Exploration of New Physics: Novel materials often exhibit uniqueproperties that challenge existing theories and lead to thediscovery of new physics phenomena. Materials research provides avaluable avenue for exploring uncharted territories in the fieldof physics.Advancements in Materials Today Physics1. Quantum MaterialsQuantum materials are at the forefront of modern materials science. These materials exhibit quantum mechanical properties, such as superconductivity and magnetism, that can be harnessed for various applications. Researchers are currently investigating new classes of quantum materials and studying their unique characteristics.1.1 Topological Insulators: Topological insulators are materials that conduct electricity on their surface but are insulators in their bulk. These materials have potential applications in quantum computing and high-speed electronics.1.2 Superconductors: Superconductors are materials that can conduct electricity without resistance when cooled to very low temperatures. Recent advancements in high-temperature superconductors have opened up new possibilities for practical applications, including efficient power transmission and energy storage.2. Functional MaterialsFunctional materials are designed to exhibit specific properties or perform desired functions. Scientists are continually exploring novel materials with tailored properties to address challenges in various fields.2.1 Smart Materials: Smart materials can respond to external stimuli, such as temperature or light, by changing their shape, color, or other properties. These materials have applications in fields like aerospace, healthcare, and robotics.2.2 Photovoltaic Materials: Photovoltaic materials are used in solar cells to convert sunlight into electricity. Ongoing research seeks to enhance the efficiency and durability of these materials, making solar energy more accessible and cost-effective.3. NanomaterialsNanomaterials are materials with dimensions on the nanometer scale. They possess unique properties due to their small size, which makes them suitable for a wide range of applications.3.1 Carbon Nanotubes: Carbon nanotubes are cylindrical structures made of carbon atoms. They have exceptional mechanical strength andelectrical conductivity and find applications in electronics, energy storage, and composite materials.3.2 Graphene: Graphene is a two-dimensional material consisting of a single layer of carbon atoms. Its unique properties, such as high electrical conductivity and mechanical strength, have led to breakthroughs in areas like electronics, energy storage, and sensors.3.3 Quantum Dots: Quantum dots are nanoscale semiconductor particlesthat exhibit quantum effects. They have potential applications in displays, solar cells, and medical imaging.4. Computational Materials ScienceComputational materials science involves using computer simulations and theoretical models to understand the properties and behavior of materials. It enables researchers to explore a wide range of materials and predict their properties before experimental synthesis, accelerating the discovery of new materials.4.1 Density Functional Theory: Density functional theory is a widely used computational method for studying the electronic structure of materials. It provides insights into the properties of materials at the atomic scale and has applications in designing new materials with specific properties.4.2 Machine Learning in Materials Science: Machine learning algorithms are being employed to analyze vast amounts of experimental and theoretical data, accelerating the discovery and design of new materials with desired properties. This approach has the potential torevolutionize materials science research.ConclusionMaterials today physics is an exciting and rapidly evolving field that has the potential to transform multiple industries. The advancements in quantum materials, functional materials, nanomaterials, and computational materials science offer new avenues for exploration and technological breakthroughs. By continually pushing the boundaries of materials research, scientists and engineers can contribute to solving some of the world’s most pressing challenges and pave the way for a more sustainable future.。

材料科技英语考试句子翻译复习（1-5,1/5）1. Material science involves investigating the relationship that exists between the structures and properties of materials. In contrast，“material engineering”is on the basis of these structure-property correlations，designing or engineering the structure of a material to produce a predetermined set of properties材料科学是研究材料的结构和性能之间存在的关系，相反，材料工程是在这些结构性能相互关系的基础上，设计和构建材料的结构来实现一系列的预定的性能。

2. Virtually all important properties of solid materials may be grouped into six different categories：mechanical，electrical，thermal，magnetic，optical，and deteriorative实际上，固体材料的所有重要材料可以被分成六个目录，力学，热学，磁学，光学和失效。

3. In addition to structure and properties, two other important components are involved in the science and engineering of materials，namely“processing”and “performance”.除了结构和性质，还有两个重要的材料科学与工程的性质是材料加工材料和性能。

Advanced Structural Analysis and Design Advanced structural analysis and design is a complex and crucial aspect of engineering that requires a deep understanding of materials, forces, and mathematical principles. It plays a vital role in ensuring the safety andstability of buildings, bridges, and other structures that we rely on in our daily lives. However, it also presents a number of challenges and considerations that engineers must navigate in order to create successful designs. One of the key challenges in advanced structural analysis and design is the need to balance competing priorities. Engineers must consider not only the strength and stability of a structure, but also factors such as cost, aesthetics, and environmental impact. This requires a high level of creativity and problem-solving skills, as well as a deep understanding of the various materials and construction techniques that can be used to achieve these goals. It's not just about creating a structure that can withstand the forces it will be subjected to, but also about creating a design that is practical, cost-effective, and visually appealing. Another important consideration in advanced structural analysis and design is the need to stay up-to-date with the latest technological advancements and industry standards. As new materials and construction methods are developed, engineers must constantly adapt and refine their approaches in order to stay competitive and ensure that their designs are as efficient and effective as possible. This requires a commitment to ongoing learning and professional development, as well as a willingness to embrace new ideas and techniques. In addition to technical considerations, advanced structural analysis and design also involves asignificant amount of collaboration and communication. Engineers must work closely with architects, construction teams, and other stakeholders to ensure that their designs meet the needs and expectations of all parties involved. This requires strong interpersonal skills, the ability to clearly convey complex technical information to non-technical audiences, and a willingness to compromise and find creative solutions to potential conflicts or disagreements. Furthermore, advanced structural analysis and design also involves a significant amount of risk management. Engineers must carefully assess the potential hazards and risks associated with their designs, and take steps to mitigate these risks to thegreatest extent possible. This requires a keen attention to detail, as well as a willingness to consider worst-case scenarios and plan accordingly. It's not just about creating a structure that looks good on paper, but also about ensuring that it will be safe and reliable in real-world conditions. Finally, advanced structural analysis and design also presents ethical considerations that engineers must grapple with. They must ensure that their designs are not only safe and functional, but also that they are environmentally sustainable and socially responsible. This requires a commitment to using resources efficiently, minimizing waste and pollution, and considering the long-term impact of their designs on the surrounding community and environment. In conclusion, advanced structural analysis and design is a multifaceted and challenging field that requires a combination of technical expertise, creativity, collaboration, risk management, and ethical considerations. It's not just about crunching numbers and running simulations, but also about finding innovative solutions to complex problems and working with others to bring these solutions to life. Engineers in this field must be prepared to constantly learn and adapt, communicate effectively, and make difficult decisions in order to create structures that are not only strong and stable, but also sustainable and socially responsible.。

材料科学专业英语英语作文Title: The Intersection of Material Science and English ProficiencyAs we delve into the world of academia, it becomes increasingly evident that specialization is the cornerstone of progress. One such field that has been garnering significant attention in recent years is Material Science. At its core, Material Science is the study of materials and their properties, with a focus on their application across various industries. However, the communication of complex scientific concepts requires a level of English proficiency that is often underestimated.In this essay, we will explore the importance of English writing skills for professionals in Material Science, discussing the challenges they face and how proficiency in English can enhance their work and research outcomes.Firstly, it is essential to understand that Material Science is an international field. Researchers, scientists, and engineers collaborate across borders, publish findings in prestigious international journals, and attend conferences worldwide. Inthese contexts, English serves as the lingua franca, enabling communication and dissemination of ideas. Therefore, having a strong command of English is not just beneficial; it is necessary for any individual aiming to make a mark in the realm of Material Science.One of the primary challenges faced by Material Science professionals when it comes to English writing is the complexity of terminology. The discipline is replete with specialized terms and phrases that may be difficult to express accurately in English. This challenge extends beyond mere vocabulary; it also encompasses the ability to construct clear, precise sentences that convey intricate scientific processes and results.Moreover, the act of writing a research paper or article in Material Science demands a particular structure and style. The typical format includes an abstract, introduction, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion. Each section must adhere to specific guidelines, and the language used should be formal and objective. A skilled writer in this field would be able to navigate these requirements with ease, ensuring that their work is not only scientifically sound but also accessible and engaging to a broader audience.Another aspect where English writing skills prove crucial is in grant proposals and funding applications. These documents require a persuasive tone, highlighting the significance of the proposed research and its potential impact. A well-written proposal can mean the difference between securing funding and facing rejection. Therefore, mastery over English grammar, syntax, and rhetorical devices is paramount.To conclude, Material Science is a dynamic and multifaceted field that demands excellence not only in scientific knowledge but also in English writing. The ability to communicate complex concepts clearly and effectively through the written word is a skill that cannot be overlooked. As the world becomes more interconnected, the importance of English as a medium of scientific communication will continue to grow. It is imperative that professionals in Material Science hone their English writing skills, thereby contributing to the advancement of science and technology while reaching a global audience.。

材料科学英文研究计划Research Proposal: Investigating Novel Materials for Sustainable Energy Applications.Background and Significance.In the current era of rapid industrialization and technological advancement, the demand for energy has increased exponentially. However, the majority of this energy is derived from non-renewable sources, leading to environmental degradation and concerns about energy security. Therefore, there is an urgent need to develop sustainable and renewable energy sources. Materials science plays a crucial role in this endeavor, as it can facilitate the discovery and development of novel materials that are efficient, cost-effective, and environmentally friendly. This research proposal aims to investigate novel materials for sustainable energy applications, focusing on materials that can enhance the performance and efficiency of renewable energy systems.Research Objectives.The primary objective of this research is to identify and evaluate novel materials that can improve the efficiency and durability of renewable energy systems. Specific objectives include:1. Identifying potential materials for use in solar cells, batteries, and fuel cells.2. Evaluating the physical, chemical, and mechanical properties of these materials.3. Investigating the potential of these materials in enhancing the performance of renewable energy systems.4. Developing cost-effective and environmentally friendly processing techniques for these materials.Methodology.To achieve the research objectives, a multi-disciplinary approach will be employed, involving materials science, physics, chemistry, and engineering. The following methods will be used:1. Literature Review: A comprehensive literature review will be conducted to identify potential materials for sustainable energy applications. This review will focus on materials that exhibit promising properties for use in solar cells, batteries, and fuel cells.2. Materials Synthesis: Selected materials will be synthesized using various techniques such as sol-gel, hydrothermal, and vapor deposition methods. The aim is to obtain materials with desired properties and compositions.3. Characterization: The synthesized materials will be characterized using advanced techniques such as X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy to determine their structure, morphology, and composition.4. Evaluation: The performance of the synthesized materials will be evaluated in relevant renewable energy systems such as solar cells, batteries, and fuel cells. This evaluation will involve measuring key parameters such as efficiency, durability, and cost-effectiveness.5. Optimization: Based on the evaluation results, the materials will be optimized by adjusting their composition, structure, and processing conditions to further enhance their performance.Expected Outcomes.The expected outcomes of this research include:1. Identification of novel materials with promising properties for sustainable energy applications.2. Development of cost-effective and environmentally friendly processing techniques for these materials.3. Enhancement of the performance and efficiency ofrenewable energy systems through the use of these novel materials.4. Contribution to the field of materials science by providing insights into the structure-propertyrelationships of these materials and their potential applications in sustainable energy.Conclusion.In summary, this research proposal aims to investigate novel materials for sustainable energy applications, focusing on materials that can enhance the performance and efficiency of renewable energy systems. Through a multi-disciplinary approach, we aim to identify, synthesize, characterize, evaluate, and optimize these materials, ultimately contributing to the development of sustainable and renewable energy sources. The expected outcomes of this research have the potential to significantly impact the field of materials science and energy research, leading to a more sustainable and environmentally friendly energy future.。

Abstract:This comprehensive analysis delves into the multifaceted nature of English requirements for graduate admissions, emphasizing their paramount importance in maintaining high quality and standards across academic programs worldwide. The discussion spans various aspects, including the rationale behind these requirements, the assessment methods employed, the role of standardized tests, the impact on international students, the need for language support services, and future trends in English proficiency evaluation. The study aims to provide a thorough understanding of the complexities involved in setting and meeting these requirements, ultimately fostering informed decision-making for both institutions and prospective students.I. Introduction (200 words)English, as the lingua franca of academia and global research, has become an essential prerequisite for admission into graduate programs worldwide. The stringent English requirements for graduate studies serve several critical functions, such as ensuring effective communication, facilitating knowledge exchange, promoting academic integrity, and fostering a level playing field for all applicants. This section introduces the key themes that will be explored throughout the analysis, including the rationale, assessment methods, standardized tests, implications for international students, language support services, and future trends.II. Rationale Behind English Requirements (300 words)A. Communication and Knowledge Exchange: Graduate education relies heavily on clear, concise, and accurate communication, whether it is through classroom discussions, research presentations, or academic writing. Proficiency in English enables students to articulate complex ideas, engage in intellectual debates, and contribute meaningfully to the academic community.B. Academic Integrity and Quality Control: Proper use of English helps ensure adherence to academic conventions, citation norms, and plagiarism guidelines, which are crucial for maintaining academic integrity. It also allows facultymembers to assess students' understanding of course material accurately, thereby upholding the quality of education.C. Equity and Inclusion: English requirements ensure that all students, regardless of their native language, have equal opportunities to participate and succeed in graduate studies. They prevent potential biases or disadvantages that might arise from language barriers, promoting inclusivity and fairness in the admissions process.III. Assessment Methods for English Proficiency (350 words)A. Standardized Tests: TOEFL, IELTS, PTE, and other internationally recognized exams serve as objective measures of English proficiency, providing a standardized benchmark for institutions to compare applicants. These tests assess four core language skills: reading, writing, listening, and speaking, offering a comprehensive evaluation of candidates' abilities.B. Alternative Assessments: Some institutions may consider alternative evidence of English proficiency, such as previous academic performance in English-medium courses, work experience in English-speaking environments, or successful completion of intensive English language programs. These alternatives cater to diverse applicant profiles and acknowledge the validity of non-standardized demonstrations of language competence.C. Institutional Language Policies: Universities often establish their own minimum score requirements or additional criteria based on program-specific needs, student demographics, and institutional priorities. These policies reflect a nuanced understanding of the varying levels of English proficiency required across disciplines and degree levels.IV. Impact on International Students (380 words)A. Challenges Faced: International students, particularly those from non-English speaking backgrounds, often face significant challenges in meeting English requirements, which can influence their choice of study destination, program selection, and overall academic success.B. Preparation and Support: Many institutions offer preparatory courses,language workshops, and tutoring services to help international students improve their English skills and meet admission criteria. These support mechanisms not only enhance students' linguistic competence but also facilitate their social and cultural integration.C. Policy Implications: As internationalization of higher education continues, institutions must strike a balance between maintaining rigorous English standards and accommodating the diverse needs of international students. This may involve revising admission policies, providing more flexible assessment options, or investing in targeted language support services.V. Role of Language Support Services (200 words)Institutional language support services play a vital role in helping students maintain and enhance their English proficiency throughout their graduate studies. These services include writing centers, conversation clubs, pronunciation clinics, and specialized workshops catering to discipline-specific language needs. They not only assist students in meeting academic expectations but also foster a culture of continuous language learning and improvement.VI. Future Trends in English Proficiency Evaluation (200 words)A. Technological Innovations: Advancements in language assessment technologies, such as automated essay scoring, artificial intelligence-based speaking assessments, and adaptive language learning platforms, promise to make English proficiency evaluation more efficient, accurate, and accessible.B. Holistic Approaches: There is a growing recognition of the need for holistic approaches to assessing English proficiency, which consider not just language skills but also factors like intercultural competence, academic resilience, and digital literacy. Such approaches align better with the demands of contemporary graduate education and global citizenship.C. Standardization and Harmonization: Efforts towards standardizing and harmonizing English requirements across institutions and countries could reduce confusion for applicants, facilitate mobility, and promote a more equitable andtransparent admissions process.Conclusion (100 words)The English requirements for graduate admissions are a crucial component of maintaining high quality and standards in higher education. By understanding the rationale behind these requirements, the various assessment methods employed, their impact on international students, the role of language support services, and future trends, institutions can develop more inclusive, effective, and forward-looking policies. Prospective students, in turn, can make informed decisions about their English preparation and choose programs that best align with their linguistic strengths and aspirations. Ultimately, a comprehensive and nuanced approach to English proficiency evaluation will contribute to the creation of a truly global, diverse, and intellectually vibrant graduate community.Total word count: 2,630。

英文字母开头的课程ALGOL语言ALGOL LanguageBASIC & FORTRAN 语言BASIC Language & FORTRAN LanguageBASIC 语言BASIC LanguageBASIC 语言及应用BASIC Language & ApplicationC 语言C LanguageC++程序设计C++ Program DesigningCAD 概论Introduction to CADCAD/CAM CAD/CAMCET-4 College English Test (Band 4)CET-6 College English Test (Band 6)COBOL语言COBOL LanguageCOBOL语言程序设计COBOL Language Program DesigningC与UNIX环境 C Language & Unix EnvironmentC语言科学计算方法Scientific Computation Method in CC语言与生物医学信息处理 C Language & Biomedical Information Processing dBASE Ⅲ课程设计Course Exercise in dBASE ⅢFORTRAN 77 语言FORTRAN 77 LanguageFORTRAN语言FORTRAN LanguageFoxBase程序设计FoxBase ProgrammingHopf代数Hopf AlgebraHopf代数与代数群量子群Hopf Algebra , Algebraic Group and Qua ntum GroupIBM-PC/XT Fundamentals of Microcomputer IBM-PC/XTIBM-PC微机原理Fundamentals of Microcomputer IBM-PCIBM汇编及高级语言的接口IBM Assembly & its Interfaces with Advanced Programming LanguagesInternet与Intranet技术Internet and Intranet TechnologyLSI设计基础Basic of LSI DesigningOS/2操作系统OS/2 Operation SystemPASCAL大型作业PASCAL Wide Range WorkingPASCAL课程设计Course Exercise in PASCALPASCAL语言PASCAL LanguagePC机原理Principle of PCUnix编程环境Unix Programming EnvironmentUnix操作系统分析Analysis of Unix SystemVLSI的EDA技术EDA Techniques for VLSIVLSI技术与检测方法VLSI Techniques & Its ExaminationVLSI设计基础Basis of VLSI DesignWindows系统Windows Operation SystemX光分析X-ray AnalysisX射线金属学X-Ray & MetallographyX射线与电镜X-ray & Electric MicroscopeZ-80汇编语言程序设计Z-80 Pragramming in Assembly Languages&#8226;B开头的课程板壳非线性力学Nonlinear Mechanics of Plate and Shell板壳理论Plate Theory , Theory of Plate and Shell板壳力学Plate Mechanics办公自动化Office Automatization办公自动化系统毕业设计Office Automatization Thesis办公自动化系统设计Office Automatization Design半波实验Semiwave Experiment半导体变流技术Semiconductor Converting Technology半导体材料Semiconductor Materials半导体测量Measurement of Semiconductors半导体瓷敏元件Semiconductor Porcelain-Sensitive Elements半导体光电子学Semiconductor Optic Electronics半导体化学Semiconductor Chemistry半导体激光器Semiconductor Laser Unit半导体集成电路Semiconductor Integrated Circuitry半导体理论Semi-conductive Theory半导体器件Semiconductor Devices半导体器件工艺原理Technological Fundamentals of Semiconductor Device半导体器件课程设计Course Design of Semiconductor Devices半导体物理Semiconductor Physics半导体专业Semi-conduction Specialty半导体专业实验Specialty Experiment of Semiconductor半群理论Semi-group Theory保健食品监督评价Evaluation and Supervision on Health Food s保险学Insurance保险学Insurance报告文学专题Special Subject On Reportage报刊编辑学Newspaper & Magazine Editing报刊选读Selected Readings of Newspaper & Magazine报纸编辑学Newspaper Editing泵与风机Pumps and Fans泵与水机Pumps & Water Turbines毕业论文Graduation Thesis毕业设计Graduation Thesis毕业实习Graduation Practice编译方法Compilation Method编译方法Methods of Compiling编译技术Technique of Compiling编译原理Fundamentals of Compiling, Principles of Compiler编译原理课程设计Course Design of Compiling变电站的微机检测Computer Testing in Transformer Substation变电站的微机检测与控制Computer Testing & Control in Transformer Substation 变分法与张量Calculus of V ariations & Tensor变分学Calculus of V ariations变流技术Semiconductor Converting Technology变质量系统热力学与新型回转压V ariable Quality System Thermal Mechanics & NeoRo 表面活性剂化学及应用Chemistry and Application of Surfactant表面活性物质Surface Reactive Materials并行处理Parallel Processing并行处理与并行程序设计Parallel Processing and Parallel Programming并行算法Parallel Algorithmic波谱学Spectroscopy, Wave Spectrum波谱学实验Spectroscopic Experiment薄膜光学Film Optics薄膜物理Thin Film Physics不育症的病因学Etiology of Infertility&#8226;C开头的课程材料的力学性能测试Measurement of Material Mechanical Performance材料化学Material Chemistry材料力学Mechanics of Materials财税法规与税务会计Laws and Regulations of Finance and Taxes财务案例分析Case Analysis of Finance Management财务案例分析Case Analysis of Financial Management财务报告分析Analysis of Financial Statement财务成本管理Financial Cost Management财务管理Financial Management, Financial Cost Management财务管理与分析Financial Management and Analysis财务会计Financial Accountancy财政学Public Finance财政与金融Finance & Banking财政与税收Finance & Revenue财政与税收理论Theories on Public Finance and Tax Revenue财政与信贷Finance & Credit操作系统Disk Operating System (DOS)操作系统课程设计Course Design in Disk Operating System操作系统与编译原理Disk Operating System & Fundamentals of Compiling操作系统原理Fundamentals of Disk Operating System, Principles of Operating System 测量技术基础Foundation of Measurement Technology测量原理与仪器设计Measurement Fundamentals & Meter Design测试技术Testing Technology测试与信号变换处理Testing & Signal Transformation Processing策波测量技术Technique of Whip Wave Measurement策略管理Strategic Management产品学Production产业经济学Industrial Economy产业组织Industrial Organization产业组织学Industrial Organization Technology常微分方程Ordinary Differential Equations场论Field Theory超导磁体及应用Superconductive Magnet & Application超导及应用Superconductive & Application超高真空科学与技术Science and Technology of Ultrahigh V acuum 60超精密加工和微细加工Super-Precision & Minuteness Processing超精微细加工Super-Precision & Minuteness Processing超声及应用Supersonics Application成本会计Cost Accounting成像原理与技术Principles & Technique of Imaging成组技术Grouping Technique城市规划原理Fundamentals of City Planning城市社会学Urban Sociology程控数字交换Program Controlling of Digital Exchange程序设计Program Designing程序设计方法学Methodology of Programming, Methods of Programming 程序设计及算法语言Program Designing & Algorithmic Language程序设计语言Programming Language齿轮啮合原理Principles of Gear Connection冲击测量及误差Punching Measurement & Error冲压工艺Sheet Metal Forming Technology抽象代数Abstract Algebra初等数学Primary Mathematics传坳概论Introduction to Pass Col传动概论Introduction to Transmission传感技术Sensor Technique传感技术及应用Sensor Technique & Application传感器及应用Sensors & Application传感器与检测技术Sensors & Testing Technology传感器原理Fundamentals of Sensors传感器原理及应用Fundamentals of Sensors & Application传热学Heat Transfer船舶操纵Ship Controlling船舶电力系统Ship Electrical Power System船舶电力系统课程设计Course Exercise in Ship Electrical Power System 船舶电气传动自动化Ship Electrified Transmission Automation船舶电站Ship Power Station船舶动力装置Ship Power Equipment船舶概论Introduction to Ships船舶焊接与材料Welding & Materials on Ship船舶机械控制技术Mechanic Control Technology for Ships船舶机械拖动Ship Mechanic Towage船舶建筑美学Artistic Designing of Ships船舶结构Ship Structure船舶结构力学Structural Mechanics for Ships船舶结构与制图Ship Structure & Graphing船舶静力学Ship Statics船舶强度与结构设计Designing Ship Intensity & Structure船舶设计原理Principles of Ship Designing船舶推进Ship Propelling船舶摇摆Ship Swaying船舶摇摆与操纵Ship Swaying & Manipulating船舶振动Ship V ibration船舶阻力Ship Resistance船体建造工艺Ship-Building Technology船体结构Ship Structure船体结构图Ship Structure Graphing船体结构与制图Ship Structure & Graphing船体振动学Ship V ibration船体制图Ship Graphing船用电器设备Marine Electrical Equipment创造心理学Creativity Psychology词汇学Lexicology磁测量技术Magnetic Measurement Technology磁传感器Magnetic Sensor磁存储设备设计原理Fundamental Design of Magnetic Memory Equipment 磁记录Magnetographic磁记录技术Magnetographic Technology磁记录物理Magnetographic Physics磁路设计与场计算Magnetic Path Designing & Magnetic Field Calculati磁盘控制器Magnetic Disk Controler磁性材料Magnetic Materials磁性测量Magnetic Measurement磁性物理Magnetophysics磁原理及应用Principles of Catalyzation & Application催化原理Principles of Catalysis&#8226;D开头的课程大电流测量Super-Current Measurement大电源测量Super-Power Measurement大机组协调控制Coordination & Control of Generator Networks大跨度房屋结构Large-Span House structure大型锅炉概况Introduction to Large-V olume Boilers大型火电机组控制Control of Large Thermal Power Generator Networks大型数据库原理与高级开发技术Principles of Large-Scale Data-Bas e and Advanced Development Technology大学德语College German大学俄语College Russian大学法语College French大学日语College Japanese大学生心理学Psychology Introduction大学物理College Physics大学物理实验Experiment of College Physics大学英语College English大学语文College Chinese大众传播学Mass Media代数几何Algebraic Geometry代数几何Algebraic Geometry代数曲面Algebraic Surfaces代数图论Algebraic Graph Theory代数拓扑Algebraic Topology代数学Algebra代用燃料Substitute Fuel代用运放电路Simulated Transmittal Circuit单片机与接口技术Mono-Chip Computers & Interface Technique单片机原理Fundamentals of Mono-Chip Computers单片机原理及应用Fundamentals of Mono-Chip Computers & Applications弹塑性力学Elastic-Plastic Mechanics弹性波Elastic Waves弹性力学Elastic Mechanics, Theory of Elastic Mechanics弹性元件的理论及设计Theory and Design of Elastic Element蛋白质结构基础Principle of Protein Structure蛋白质生物化学技术Biochemical Technology of Protein当代国际关系Contemporary International Relationship当代国外社会思维评价Evaluation of Contemporary Foreign Social Thought当代文学Contemporary Literature当代文学专题Topics on Contemporary Literature当代西方哲学Contemporary Western Philosophy当代戏剧与电影Contemporary Drama & Films当代资本主义经济Contemporary Capitalist Economy党史History of the Party导波光学Wave Guiding Optics德育Moral Education等离子体工程Plasma Engineering低频电子线路Low Frequency Electric Circuit低温测试技术Cryo Testing Technique低温传热学Cryo Conduction低温固体物理Cryo Solid Physics低温技术原理与装置Fundamentals of Cryo Technology & Equipment低温技术中的微机原理Priciples of Microcomputer in Cryo Technology低温绝热Cryo Heat Insulation低温气体制冷机Cryo Gas Refrigerator低温热管Cryo Heat Tube低温设备Cryo Equipment低温生物冻干技术Biological Cryo Freezing Drying Technology低温生物学原理与应用Principle & Application of Cryobiology低温实验技术Cryo Experimentation Technology低温物理导论Cryo Physic Concepts低温物理概论Cryo Physic Concepts低温仪表及测试Cryo Meters & Measurement低温原理Cryo Fundamentals低温原理与设备Cryo Fundamentals & Equipment低温制冷机Cryo Refrigerator低温中的微机应用Application of Microcomputer in Cryo Technology低温装置Cryo Equipment低噪声电子电路Low-Noise Electric Circuit低噪声电子设计Low-Noise Electronic Designing低噪声放大与弱检Low-Noise Increasing & Decreasing低噪声与弱信号检测Detection of Low Noise & Weak Signals地基基础课程设计Course Design of Groundsill Basis地理Geography第二次世界大战史History of World War II典型计算机分析Classical Computer Analysis电测量技术Electric Measurement Technology电厂计算机控制系统Computer Control System in Power Plants电磁测量实验技术Electromagnetic Measurement Experiment & Technology 电磁场计算机Electromagnetic Field Computers电磁场理论Theory of Electromagnetic Fields电磁场数值计算Numerical Calculation of Electromagnetic Fields电磁场与电磁波Electromagnetic Fields & Magnetic Waves电磁场与微波技术Electromagnetic Fields & Micro-Wave Technology电磁场中的数值方法Numerical Methods in Electromagnetic Fields电磁场中的数值计算Numerical Calculation in Electromagnetic Fields电磁学Electromagnetics电动力学Electrodynamics电镀Plating电分析化学Electro-Analytical Chemistry电工材料Electrical Materials电工测量技术基础Measurement Technology of Electrical Engineering电工测试技术基础Testing Technology of Electrical Engineering电工产品学Electrotechnical Products电工电子技术基础Electrical Technology & Electrical Engineering电工电子学Electronics in Electrical Engineering电工基础Fundamental Theory of Electrical Engineering电工基础理论Fundamental Theory of Electrical Engineering电工基础实验Basic Experiment in Electrical Engineering电工技术Electrotechnics电工技术基础Fundamentals of Electrotechnics电工实习Electrical Engineering Practice电工实验Experiment of Electrical Engineering电工实验技术基础Experiment Technology of Electrical Engineering电工学Electrical Engineering电工与电机控制Electrical Engineering & Motor Control电弧电接触Electrical Arc Contact电弧焊及电渣焊Electric Arc Welding & Electroslag Welding电化学测试技术Electrochemical Measurement Technology电化学工程Electrochemical Engineering电化学工艺学Electrochemical Technology电机Motor电机测试技术Motor Measuring Technology电机电磁场的分析与计算Analysis & Calculation of Electrical Motor &电机电磁场的数值计算Calculation of Electrical Motor & Electromagnetic Fields 电机电磁场理论Theory of Electrical Moto & Electromagnetic Fields电机电器与供电Motor Elements and Power Supply电机矩阵分析法Analysis of Electrical Motor Matrix电机课程设计Course Exercise in Electric Engine电机绕组理论Theory of Motor Winding电机绕组理论及应用Theory & Application of Motor Winding电机设计Design of Electrical Motor电机瞬变过程Electrical Motor Change Processes电机统一理论Theory of Electrical Motor Integration电机学Electrical Motor电机学及控制电机Electrical Machinery Control & Technology电机与拖动Electrical Machinery & Towage电机原理Principle of Electric Engine电机原理与拖动Principles of Electrical Machinery & Towage电机专题Lectures on Electric Engine电接触与电弧Electrical Contact & Electrical Arc电介质物理Dielectric Physics电镜Electronic Speculum电力电子电路Power Electronic Circuit电力电子电器Power Electronic Equipment电力电子器件Power Electronic Devices电力电子学Power Electronics电力工程Electrical Power Engineering电力企业管理Management of Electrical Enterprise电力生产技术Technology of Electrical Power Generation电力生产优化管理Optimal Management of Electrical Power Generation电力拖动Electric Traction电力拖动基础Fundamentals for Electrical Towage电力拖动控制系统Electrical Towage Control Systems电力拖动与电气控制Electrical Towage & Electrical Control电力系统Power Systems电力系统电源最优化规划Optimal Planning of Power Source in a Power System 电力系统短路Power System Shortcuts电力系统分析Power System Analysis电力系统规划Power System Planning电力系统过电压Hyper-V oltage of Power Systems电力系统继电保护原理Power System Relay Protection电力系统经济分析Economical Analysis of Power Systems电力系统经济运行Economical Operation of Power Systems电力系统可靠性Power System Reliability电力系统可靠性分析Power System Reliability Analysis电力系统课程设计Course Design of Power Systems电力系统无功补偿及应用Non-Work Compensation in Power Systems & Applicati 电力系统谐波Harmonious Waves in Power Systems电力系统优化设计Optimal Designing of Power Systems电力系统远动Operation of Electric Systems电力系统远动技术Operation Technique of Electric Systems电力系统运行Operation of Electric Systems电力系统自动化Automation of Electric Systems电力系统自动装置Power System Automation Equipment电力系统最优规划Optimal Planning in Power System电力装置课程设计Course Design of Power Equipment电力装置与系统Power Equipment & System电路测量与实验Circuit Measurement & Experiment电路测试技术Circuit Measurement Technology电路测试技术基础Fundamentals of Circuit Measurement Technology电路测试技术及实验Circuit Measurement Technology & Experiments电路分析基础Basis of Circuit Analysis电路分析基础实验Basic Experiment on Circuit Analysis电路分析实验Experiment on Circuit Analysis电路和电子技术Circuit and Electronic Technique电路基本理论Basis Theory of Circuitry电路及电子线路CAD Circuitry CAD电路理论Theory of Circuit电路理论基础Fundamental Theory of Circuit电路理论实验Experiments in Theory of Circuct电路设计与测试技术Circuit Designing & Measurement Technology电气测量技术Electrical Measurement Technology电气传动Electrified Transmission电气控制技术Electrical Control Technology电器设计Electrical Appliances Designing电器学Electrical Appliances电器与控制Electrical Appliances & Control电生理技术基础Basics of Electricphysiological Technology电视传感器图象显示Television Sensor Graphic Display电视接收技术Television Reception Technology电视节目Television Programs电视节目制作Television Program Designing电视新技术New Television Technology电视新闻Television News电视原理Principles of Television电网调度自动化Automation of Electric Network Management电学实验Electrical Experiment电影艺术Art of Film Making电站微机检测控制Computerized Measurement & Control of Power Statio电子材料与元件测试技术Measuring Technology of Electronic Material and Element电子材料元件Electronic Material and Element电子材料元件测量Electronic Material and Element Measurement电子测量与实验技术Technology of Electronic Measurement & Experiment电子测试Electronic Testing电子测试技术Electronic Testing Technology电子测试技术与实验Electronic Testing Technology & Experiment电子测试实验Electronic Testing Experiment电子测试与实验技术Electronic Testing Technology & Experiment电子机械运动控制技术Technology of Electronic Mechanic Movement Control电子技术Technology of Electronics电子技术腐蚀测试中的应用Application of Electronic Technology in Erosion Measurement 电子技术基础Basic Electronic Technology电子技术基础与实验Basic Electronic Technology & Experiment电子技术课程设计Course Exercise in Electronic Technology电子技术实验Experiment in Electronic Technology电子技术综合性设计实验Experiment in Electronic Technology电子理论实验Experiment in Electronic Theory电子商务Electronic Commerce电子系统的ASIC技术ASIC Design Technologies电子显微分析Electronic Micro-Analysis电子显微镜Electronic Microscope电子线路Electronic Circuit电子线路的计算机辅助设计Computer Associate Design of Electronic Circuit电子线路课程设计Course Design of Electronic Circuit电子线路设计与测试技术Electronic Circuit Design & Measurement Technology 电子线路设计与测试实验Electronic Circuit Design & Measurement Experiment 电子线路实验Experiment in Electronic Circuit电子学Electronics电子学课程设计Course Design of Electronics电子照相技术Electronic Photographing Technology雕塑艺术欣赏Appreciation of Sculptural Art调节原理Principles of Regulation调节装置Regulation Equipment动力机械CAD Dynamical Machine CAD动力学Dynamics动态规划Dynamic Programming动态无损检测Dynamic Non-Destruction Measurement动态信号Dynamic Signal动态信号分析与仪器Dynamic Signal Analysis & Apparatus动物病害学基础Basis of Animal Disease动物免疫学Animal Immunology动物生理与分子生物学Animal Physiology and Molecular Biochemistry动物学Zoology动物遗传工程Animal Genetic Engineering毒理遗传学Toxicological Genetics断裂力学Fracture Mechanics断裂疲劳力学Fatigue Fracture Mechanics锻压测试技术Forging Testing Technique锻压工艺Forging Technology锻压机械液压传动Hydraulic Transmission in Forging Machinery锻压加热设备Forging Heating Equipment锻压设备专题Lectures on Forging Press Equipments锻压系统动力学Dynamics of Forging System锻造工艺Forging Technology锻造加热设备Forging Heat Equipment对外贸易保险International Trade Insurance对外贸易地理International Marketing Geography对外贸易概论Introduction to International Trade对外贸易运输International Trade Transportation多层网络方法Multi-Layer Network Technology多复变函数Analytic Functions of Several Complex V ariables多媒体计算机技术Multimedia Computer Technology多媒体技术Multimedia Technology多目标优化方法Multipurpose Optimal Method多项距阵Multi-Nominal Matrix多元统计分析Multivariable Statistics&#8226; E开头的课程耳科学Otology&#8226; F开头的课程发电厂Power Plant发电厂电气部分Electric Elements of Power Plants发电厂电气部分与动力部分Electric Elements & Dynamics of Power Plants发电厂电气部分与热力设备Electric Elements & Thermodynamics Equipment of Power Plants 发电厂计算机控制Computer Control in Power Plant发酵工程Zymolysis Engineering发育生物学原理与实验技术Principle and Experimental Technology of Development发展经济学Evolutive Economics法理学Nomology法律基础Fundamentals of Law法学概论An Introduction to Science of Law法学基础Fundamentals of Science of Law翻译Translation翻译理论与技巧Theory & Skills of Translation反不正当经济法Anti-malfeasance Economic Law泛读Extensive Reading泛函分析Functional Analysis泛函分析Functional Analysis房屋建筑学Architectural Design & Construction房屋建筑学课程设计Course Design of House Architecture仿真与辅助设计Simulation & Computer Aided Design放射生物学Radiation Biology放射学Radiology非电量测量Non-Electricity Measurement非金属材料Non-Metal Materials非线性采样系统Non-Linear Sampling System非线性方程组的数值解法Numerical Methods for No-linear System s of Equations非线性光学Nonlinear Optics非线性规划Non-Linear Programming非线性控制理论Non-Linear Control Theory非线性双曲型守恒律解的存在性The Existence of Solutions for Non -linear Hyperbolic Conservation Laws非线性物理导论Introduction to Nonlinear Physics非线性振荡Non-Linear Oscillation非线性振动Nonlinear V ibration废水处理工程Technology of Wastewater Treatment废水处理与回用Sewage Disposal and Re-use沸腾燃烧Boiling Combustion分布式计算机系统Distributed Computer System / Distributed System分布式系统与分布式处理Distributed Systems and Distributed Processing分离科学Separation Science分析化学Analytical Chemistry分析化学实验Analytical Chemistry Experiment分析力学Analytic Mechanics分析生物化学Analytical Biochemistry分析生物化学Analytical Biochemistry分子病毒学Molecular Virology分子进化工程Engineering of Molecular Evolution分子生物学Molecular Biology分子生物学技术Protocols in Molecular Biology分子遗传学Molecular Genetics风机调节Fan Regulation风机调节.使用.运转Regulation, Application & Operation of Fans风机三元流动理论与设计Tri-V ariant Movement Theory & Design of Fans风能利用Wind Power Utilization风险投资分析Analysis of Risk Investment服务业营销Service Industry Marketing辅助机械Aided Machine腐蚀电化学实验Experiment in Erosive Electrochemistry复变函数Complex V ariables Functions复变函数与积分变换Functions of Complex V ariables & Integral Transformation 复合材料结构力学Structural Mechanics of Composite Material复合材料力学Compound Material Mechanics傅里叶光学Fourier Opticso G开头的课程概率论Probability Theory概率论与数理统计Probability Theory & Mathematical Statistics概率论与随机过程Probability Theory & Stochastic Process概率与统计Probability & Statistics钢笔画Pen Drawing钢的热处理Heat-Treatment of Steel钢结构Steel Structure钢筋混凝土Reinforced Concrete钢筋混凝土及砖石结构Reinforced Concrete & Brick Structure钢砼结构Reinforced Concrete Structure钢砼结构与砌体结构Reinforces Structure and Monsary Structure钢砼课程设计Reinforced Concrete Course Design钢砼设计Experiment of Reinforced Concrete Structure高层建筑基础Tall Building Foundation高层建筑基础设计Designing bases of High Rising Buildings高层建筑结构设计Designing Structures of High Rising Buildings高等材料力学Advanced Material Mechanics高等代数Advanced Algebra高等发光分析Advanced Luminescence Analysis高等分析化学Advanced Analytical Chemistry高等工程力学Advanced Engineering Mechanics高等光学Advanced Optics高等环境微生物Advanced Environmental Microorganism高等教育管理Higher Education Management高等教育史History of Higher Education高等教育学Higher Education高等量子力学Advanced Quantum Mechanics高等生物化学Advanced Biochemistry高等数理方法Advanced Mathematical Method高等数学Advanced Mathematics高等数值分析Advanced Numeric Analysis高等土力学Advanced Soil Mechanics高等无机化学Advanced Inorganic Chemistry高等有机化学Advanced Organic Chemistry高电压测试技术High-V oltage Test Technology高电压技术High-V oltage Technology高电压技术与设备High-V oltage Technology and Device高电压绝缘High-V oltage Insulation高电压实验High-V oltage Experiment高分子材料High Polymer Material高分子材料及加工High Polymer Material & Porcessing高分子化学High Polymer Chemistry高分子化学实验High Polymer Chemistry Experiment高分子化学与物理Polymeric Chemistry and Physics高分子物理High Polymer Physics高分子物理实验High Polymer Physics Experiment高级程序设计语言的设计与实现Advanced Programming Language's Design & Implementation高级管理信息系统Advanced Management Information Systems高级计算机体系结构Advanced Computer Architecture高级计算机网络Advanced Computer Networks高级计算机网络与集成技术Advanced Computer Networks and Integration Technology高级经济计量Advanced Economic Metrology高级软件工程Advanced Software Engineering高级生化技术Advanced Biochemical Technique高级生物化学Advanced Biochemistry高级食品化学Advanced Food Chemistry高级视听Advanced V ideos高级数据库Advanced Database高级数理逻辑Advanced Numerical Logic高级水生生物学Advanced Aquatic Biology高级英语听说Advanced English Listening & Speaking高级植物生理生化Advanced Plant Physiology and Biochemistry高能密束焊High Energy-Dense Beam Welding高频电路High-Frequency Circuit高频电子技术High-Frequency Electronic Technology高频电子线路High-Frequency Electronic Circuit高维代数簇Algebraic V arieties of Higher Dimension高压测量技术High-V oltage Measurement Technology高压测试技术High-V oltage Testing Technology高压电场的数值计算Numerical Calculation in High-V oltage Electronic Field 高压电工程High-V oltage Engineering高压电技术High-V oltage Technology高压电器High-V oltage Electrical Appliances高压绝缘High-V oltage Insulation高压实验High-V oltage Experimentation高压实验设备测量High-V oltage Experimentation Equipment Measurement 高压试验技术High-V oltage Experimentation Technology工厂电气设备Electric Equipment of Plants工厂供电Factory Electricity Supply工程材料的力学性能测试Mechanic Testing of Engineering Materials工程材料及热处理Engineering Material and Heat Treatment工程材料学Engineering Materials工程测量Engineering Surveying工程测量实习Engineering Measuring Practice工程测试技术Engineering Testing Technique工程测试实验Experiment on Engineering Testing工程测试信息Information of Engineering Testing工程测试与信号处理Engineering Testing & Signal Processing工程地质Engineering Geology工程动力学Engineering Dynamics工程概论Introduction to Engineering工程概预算Project Budget工程经济学Engineering Economics工程静力学Engineering Statics工程力学Engineering Mechanics工程热力学Engineering Thermodynamics工程数学Engineering Mathematics工程项目概预算Engineering Project Estimate & Budget工程项目评估Engineering Project Evaluation工程优化方法Engineering Optimization Method工程运动学Engineering Kinematics工程造价管理Engineering Cost Management工程制图Graphing of Engineering工业产品学Industrial Products工业电子学Industry Electronics工业分析Industrial Analysis工业锅炉Industrial Boiler工业会计学Industrial Accounting工业机器人Industrial Robot工业技术基础Basic Industrial Technology工业技术经济Industrial Technology Economics工业建筑设计原理Principles of Industrial Building Design工业经济理论Industrial Economic Theory工业经济学Industrial Economics工业美术设计Art Designing in Industry工业企业财务管理Industrial Enterprise Financial Management工业企业财务会计Accounting in Industrial Enterprises工业企业管理Industrial Enterprise Management工业企业经营管理Industrial Enterprise Administrative Management 工业社会学Industrial Sociology工业心理学Industrial Psychology工业窑炉Industrial Stoves工艺过程自动化Technics Process Automation工艺设计Technics Design工艺实习Technics Practice工艺原理与研究方法Principles & Research of Technics公差Common Difference公差测试实验Common Difference Testing Experiment公差技术测量Technical Measurement with Common Difference公差与配合Common Difference & Cooperation公共关系Public Relationship公共关系学Public Relations公司法Corporation Law公司组织与管理Organization and Management公司组织与管理Organization and Management of Corporate公文写作Document Writing功能材料原理与技术Principle and Technology of Functional Materials 功能高分子Functional Polymer功能性食品Function Foods古代汉语Ancient Chinese古典文学作品选读Selected Readings in Classical Literature骨科医学Osteopathic Medicine固体磁性理论Theory of Magnetism in Solid固体激光Solid State Laser固体激光器件Solid Laser Elements固体激光与电源Solid State Laser & Power Unit固体理论Solid State Theory固体物理Solid-State Physics故障诊断与容错技术Malfunction Diagnoses & Tolerance Technology 关税Tariff管理概论Introduction to Management管理沟通Management Communication, Management Negotiation管理会计Managerial Accounting管理经济学Management Economics管理科学专题Management Science Special Subject管理数学Management Mathematics管理系统FOXBASE Management System of FOXBASE管理系统模拟Management System Simulation管理心理学Management Psychology管理信息系统Management Information System管理学Management Theory, Principles of Management管理学Principles of Management光波导理论Light Wave Guide Theory光电技术Photoelectric Technology光电检测与信号处理Optoelectronic Detection and Processing光电课程设计Photoelectric Course Exercise光电摄像技术Photoelectric Photographing Technique光电探测及信号处理Photoelectric Inspect & Signal Processing光电系统课程设计Photoelectric System Course Design光电信号处理Photoelectric Signal Processing光电信号与系统分析Photoelectric Signal & Systematic Analysis光电信息计算机处理Computer Processing in Photoelectric Information光电子技术Photoelectronic Technique光电子学与光电信息技术Optoelectronics and Optoelectronic Information Technology 光辐射探测技术Ray Radiation Detection Technology光接入网技术Technology of Light Access Network光谱Spectrum光谱分析Spectral Analysis光谱学Spectroscopy光纤传感Fibre Optical Sensors光纤传感器Fibre Optical Sensors光纤传感器基础Fundamentals of Fibre Optical Sensors光纤传感器及应用Fibre Optical Sensors & Applications光纤光学Fiber Optics光纤光学课程设计Course Design of Fibre Optical光纤技术实验Experiments in Fibre Optical Technology光纤实验Experiments in Fibre Optical光纤通信基础Basis of Fibre Optical Communication光纤通信技术Fibre Optical Communication Technology光纤通信网络Networks of Fiber Communications光纤通信系统Fibre Optical Communication System, System of Fiber Communications 光纤原理与技术Fibre Optical Operation & Technology光学Optics光学测量Optical Measurement。