English lexicology_英语词汇学重点讲解

《英语词汇学》课程编号：10190370课程名称：英语词汇学English Lexicology学分：2学时：32一.目的与任务1.课程性质：选修2．课程类别：专业基础课3．任务：《英语词汇学》以帮助学生扩大词汇量，有效运用英语词汇；更深入的理解词义，更有效的组织划分和贮存词汇；增强学生对词义和用法的了解，使学生准确使用英语词汇尤其是英语习语；使学生掌握使用参考书的技能，增加解决问题的能力和学习英语的有效性；提高学生的语言接受能力和语言使用能力为教学任务。

二.教学内容及学时分配（理论学时+实验学时）第一单元英语词汇概说（2学时）一、词、词汇、词汇学二、当代英语词汇的现状三、本书各个单元简介第二单元英语基本构词法（2学时）一、词缀法二、复合法三、转化法第三单元其他构词方法（2学时）一、缩略法二、逆生法三、拟声法第四单元词的意义（4学时）一、词的意义二、词的理据三、词义的分类四、词义的分析第五单元词的语用意义（2学时）一、语用意义的定义二、语用意义的特点三、语用意义的分类四、语用意义的交际功能第六单元词义的关系（2学时）一、同义关系二、反义关系三、多义关系四、同形异义关系五、下义关系六、分类关系七、部分整体关系第七单元词义的变化（2学时）一、词义演变的原因二、词义演变的方式三、词义的转移四、词义演变的过程五、词义演变的趋势第八单元英语词汇的来源（1学时）一、英语词汇发展的历史二、英语词汇的词源成分第九单元主要英语国家的词汇特征（1学时）一、2l世纪英语的球土化二、英国英语三、美国英语四、加拿大英语的词汇五、澳大利亚英语的词汇六、新西兰英语的词汇七、南非英语的词汇第十单元英语词汇的新发展（2学时）一、新词和新词学习二、新词发展的原因三、英语新词的翻译第十一单元英语的搭配（2学时）一、什么是搭配二、搭配的理据三、搭配的基本类型四、搭配的特点五、常见搭配举例第十二单元英语成语（4学时）一、英语成语概述二、英语成语的特点三、英语成语的分类四、英语成语的翻译第十三单元英语词典的基本知识（1学时）一、英语词典的发展二、英语词典的分类三、英语词典的内容第十四单元词典使用（1学时）一、如何选择和使用英语词典二、介绍四部常用词典三、电子词典简介第十五单元英语词汇记忆方法（2学时）一、记忆概述二、心理词库三、英语词汇记忆方法四、三种容易记忆的英语单词五、英语单词记忆的新思路第十六单元英语词汇学习策略（2学时）一、学习策略概说二、英语词汇习得的基本步骤三、英语词汇习得中其他策略的运用四、课外阅读中词汇策略的运用五、英语专业四级考试的词汇策略运用——语法与词汇项目六、英语专业八级考试的词汇策略运用——写作项目三．考核与成绩评定考核形式：考查，考试方法：闭卷考试。

各章重点内容串讲：Introduction1.Lexicology（名词解释题）（1）Definition: Lexicology is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words（WNWD）.本句翻译：词汇学是语言学的一个分支，它主要是研究词汇的来源以及意义（词汇学的定义）。

（2）Domain: English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.本句翻译：它研究的是英语词汇的形态结构，同时它还研究英语词汇的语义结构、英语词汇的发展历史和英语词汇的形成与用法。

2.Methods of Study（单选题/名词解释题）（1）Two approachesThere are generally two approaches to the study of words, namely synchronic and diachronic.synchronic 共时法diachronic 历时法（2）Definition: A, synchronicFrom a synchronic point of view, words can be studied at a point in time.However, if we take a diachronic perspective, we will consider the word historically, looking into its origin and changes in form and meaning.1.word（名词解释）（1）a minimal free form of a language1）Therefore, we can say that a word is a minimal free form of a language（词是语言中的最小的自由形式）2）that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.（词有固定的读音，固定的意义，固定的句法功能。

English Lexicology(英语词汇学)1.English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.英语词汇学意在调查和研究英语单词和单词旳等价物旳形态构造,其语义构造、关系、历史发展、形成和使用方法。

2.English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学), semantics(语义学), etymology(词源学),stylistics（文体论）and lexicography(词典学) Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabulary1.Word（词旳定义）: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentence词语是语言最小旳自由形式，拥有固定旳声音和意义以及句法作用。

2.Sound and meaning（声音与意义）: almost arbitrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”3.Sound and form（读音和形式）:不统一旳四个原因（1）the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other （2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years（3）some of the difference were created by the early scribes（4）the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary （5）printing、standardization、dictionary—Old English,The speech of the time was represented very much more faithfully in writing than itis today. 古代英语中旳口语比今天更忠实旳代表书面语—The written form of English is an imperfect representation of the spoken form。

English lexicology英语词汇学Chapter1 basic concepts of words and vocabularyClassification of wordsChapter2 the development of the english vocabularyModes of vocabulary development 1150Chapter 3 word formationMorphemes , allomorphsChapter 4 word formation21.Affixation, prefixation suffixation ,pounding (characteristics formation )3.Conversion , blending , clipping , acronymy4.Initialisms , acronyms5.Back-formation , words from proper namesChapter5 word meaning1.The meanings of ‘meaning’2.Reference ,concept ,sense3.Motivation(onomatopoeic,morphological ,semantic , etymological)4.Types of meaning < grammatical , lexical , conceptual , associative> Chapter 6 sense relations and semantic fieldPolysemy , homonymy , synonymy , antonymyChapter 7 changes in word meaningExtension , narrowing , elevation , degradationChapter 8 meaning and context1.Types of context (extra-linguistic, linguistic)2.Role of contexta.elimination of ambiguityb.indication of referencec.Provision of clues for inferring word-meaningChapter9 english idioms1.Classification of idioms(nominal , adjectival , verbal , adverbial )2.sentence and useChapter 10 english DictionariesTypes of dictionary , three good Dictionarya.Longman dictionary of contemporaryb.Collins COBUILD english Dictionaryc. A Chinese-english DictionaryUnit 1Methods of study ,there are generally two approaches to the study of words ,namely synchronic and diachronicAims and significance of the courseLanguage study involves the study of speech sounds ,grammar and vocabulary .vocabulary has proved particularly important and certainly the most difficult .Willkins asserts ‘without grammar very little can beconveyed ,without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed’ A good knowledge of morphological structure of english words and rules of word-formation will help learners develope their personal vocabulary and consciously increase their word power.V ocabularyAll the words in a language make up its vocabulary .The term vocabulary is used in different senses1.It can refers to the total number of the words in a language2.It can stands for all the words used in a particular historical period3.Also used to all the words of a given dialectClassification of wordsWords may fall into the basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency ,into content words and function words by notion ,and into native words and borrowed words by originBasic word stock have characteristics1.All national character2.Stability3.Productivity4.Polysemy5.Collocability6 Neutral in style7 Frequent in useWords void (lack)of the stated characters ,do not belong to the common core of the language ,they include the following:Terminology 术语，专有名词JargonSlang 俚语，黑话ArgotDialectal wordsArchaismsNeologismsContent words(=notional words) and function words (=empty words) Native words and borrowed wordsApart from the characteristics mentioned of the basic word stock ,in contrast to borrowed words ,native words have two other features Neutral in styleFrequent in useBorrowing words :words taken over from foreign languages are known as borrowed words and loan words or borrowings in simple terms Loan words under four classesDenizens 同化词Aliens 异化词Translation-loans 译借词Semantic-loans 借意词The Indo-European language familyWhich can be grouped into roughly 300 language families on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar ,theIndo-Europe is one of them .it is thought to be a highly inflected language They accordingly fall into eight principle groups ,which can be grouped into an Eastern set : Balto-slavic, Indo-Iranian, American and Albanian; a Western set; Celtic , Italic, Hellenic,GermanicA historical overview of the english vocabularyThe first people known to inhabit the land were CeltsThe second major language known in England was the Latin of the Roman Legions450- < old > -1150-（Middle）-1500- <modern>-NOWModes of vocabulary developmentWe can concluded that modern english vocabulary develops through three channels < > creation , semantic change , borrowing Creation refers to the formation of new words by using the existing materials namely roots ,affixes and other elementsSemantic change means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new needBorrowing has palyed a vital role in the development ofvocabulary ,particularly in earlier timesMorphemes :minimal meaningful units are known as morphemes,in other words ,the morphemes is ‘the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words ’Chapter 5Word meaningWords are but symbols , many of which have meaning only when they have acquired reference .1.reference is the relationship between language and the word .The reference a word to a thing outside the language is arbitrary <随意的>and conventional <传统的>2.Concept<概念>=notionIn many cases meaning is used in the sense of ‘concept ’meaning and concept are closely connected but not identical3.Sense :generally speaking ,the meaning of ‘meaning’is perhaps what is termed ‘sense’ . ‘sense’denotes the relationships inside the language.Motivation <理据>Motivation accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaningOnomatopoeic motivation 拟声的理据<ha ha>Morphological motivation 形态的理据<one can figure out>Semantic motivation 语义<联想>的理据<mouth of river>Semantic motivation refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a wordEtymological motivation 词源的理据The meaning if many words often related directly to their origins, Types of meaninga.Grammatical meaning an Lexical meaning语法和词汇意义b.Conceptual meaning and associative meaning 概念和联想意义Chapter 6The subjects that have long held the interest and attention ofsemanticists are ,polysemy 多义的, homonymy , synonymy ,antonymy , and hyponymyTwo approaches to polysemyDiachronic approach and synchronic approachThe meanings were acquired by extension ,narrowing ,analogy ,transfer The development of word-meaning from monosemy to polysemy follows two courses,traditionally known as radiation and concatenation Homonymy <different meaning but same sound and spelling>Based on the degree of similarity ,homonyms fall into threeclasses:perfect homonyms ,homographs and homophones1.Perfect homonyms are words identical both in sound and spelling but different meaning .Bank n. The edge of the river ,lakeBank n . An establishment for money businessBear n. A large heavy animalBear v. To put up withDate n. A kind of fruitDate n. A boy or a girl friend2.Homographs are words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaningBow n. Bending the head as a greetingBow n. The device used for shooting arrowsSow v. To scatter seedsSow n. Female adult pig3.Homophones are words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaningDear n. A loved personDeer n.a kind of animalRight a. correctWrite v.to put down on paper with a penRite n. Ceremonial procedureSon n. A male child of someoneSun n. The heavenly body from which the earth gets warmth and light Of three types ,homophones constitute the largest number and are most commonOrigins of homonymsChange in sound and spellingBorrowingShortingAs homonyms are identical in sound or spelling ,particularly homophones, they are often employed to create puns<双关>for desired effect of ,say, humor,sarcasm or ridicule<嘲弄>On Sunday they pray for you and on Monday they prey <折磨>on you So-called pious<虔诚的>gentleman and ladies 善男信女The sardonic tone is unmistakable 讽刺的语气是不言而喻的SynonymySynonymy is one of the characteristic features of vocabulary of natural languagesTypes of synonyms1. Absolute synonyms also known as complete synonyms are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects,both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning ,including conceptual and associative meanings2. Relative synonymy also called near-synonyms are similar or nearly the same in denotation,but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of given quality.For example .to change a thing is to put another thing in its place ;to altera thing is to alter it in different manner and at different times .’A man change his habits ,alters his conduct ,and varies his manner of speaking’Look at stagger /reel/totter.stagger implies unsteady movement characters by a loss of balance and failure to maintain a fixed course . Stagger under a heavy load ;reel suggests a swaying or lurching so as to appear on the verge of falling .Silent沉默的，无言的，寂静的/ tacit , shine闪耀，发光/ glitter华丽夺目，炫耀/sparkle闪耀，活跃，焕发活力和才智/glare强光，瞪眼，炫耀, different/ various, idle空闲的，懒惰的，无意义的/lazy/indolent , strange奇怪的/odd 古怪的/ queer,古怪的，可疑的large / huge庞大的/tremendous极大的，巨大的，惊人的，极好的/colossal Sources of synonyms1.BorrowingAs a result of the borrowing ,words of native origin form many couplets and triplets with those from other language2.Dialects and regional english3.Figurative an euphemistic4.Coincidence with idiomatic expressionsDiscrimination of synonymsThe differences between synonyms boil down to three areas: denotation , connotation ,and application1.Difference in denotation .‘I did not comprehend his arguments ,although i understood the language , and all the sentences’A lump of sugar一块糖, a slice of meat一片肉, a chunk of wood , a sheet of paper A cake of soapTypes of antonyms1.Contradictory termsThe assertion of one is the denial of the otherAnother distinctive feature of this category <类型>is that such antonyms are non-gradable2.Contrary terms3.Relative termsHolds water <站得住脚的>Characters of antonyms1.Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition.words denoting nature, quality or state of things have many antonyms2.A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym3.Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion .pairs of antonyms are seen as marked and unmarked terms respectively4.Contrary terms are gradable antonymsDestitute / opulent dull / livelyHyponymyHyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion.That is the meaning of more specific word word is included in that of another more general word .For instance ,tulip and rose are hyponyms of flowerSuperordinate termsHammer , saw , screwdriver ,spanner, plaice, cod , herring ,sole Semantic field <领域>The massive word store of a language like english an be conceived of as composed around a number of meaning areas.An integrated system of lexemes interrelated in sense 语义相互关联It is general belief that.....Personal address system 个人称呼KinshipTypes of changesWord-meaning changes by modes ofExtension< 扩展>,narrowing<缩小> ,degradation< 降格>,elevation< 升格>,and transferCauses of changes: it is in response to some needExtra-linguistic factors1.Historical reason2.Class reason3.Psychological 心理学的，精神上的reasonThe role of context <语境>1.Elimination of ambiguity <消除歧义>2.Indication of referents <限定所指>3.Provision of clues for inferring word -meaning <为猜测词义提供线索>①Definition②Explanation③Example④Synonymy⑤Antonymy⑥Hyponymy⑦Relevant details⑧Word structureChapter 9Idioms consists of set phrases and short sentences ,which are peculiar to the language in question and loaded with the native cultures and ideas .therefore, idioms are colorful ,forcible and thought-provoking.For example ,fly off the handle (become excessively angry) and put up with ( tolerate)In a board sense ,idioms may included colloquialisms ,slang experience, proverbs .Character of Idioms1.Semantic unityBeing phases or sentences ,idioms each consist of more than one word ,but each is a semantic unity. Idiom have their respective literal meanings .for instance, till the cows come homeKeep in mind <remember> take off <imitate模仿>to no avail <useless> like a breeze <easily>2.Structural stability 结构稳定First the constituents of idioms cannot be replacedLip service <support only in words ,not in fact > is not to be changed into mouth service . Kick the bucket <die> bury the hatchet <come to friendly or peaceful terms>Secondly ,the word order cannot be inverted or changed ,for example ,by twos and threes and tit for tat are not to be turned into by threes and twos and tat for titThe lion share is ....最大的，份额Thirdly,the constituents of an idioms cannot be deleted or added too . Not even an articleFinally many idioms are grammatically unanalysable for exampel ,diamond cut diamond <two parties are equally matched > Sure as eggs is eggs <quite certainly>It should be pointed out that the idiomaticity of idioms is gradableand may best be thought in terms of a scaleHis promotion stepped up <improve or enhance>The boy playing in the river in the raw <naked>Turn over a new leaf <begin a new life>, as cool as a cucumber泰然自若draw the certain <end or conceal>Idioms nominal in natureIdioms of this class have a noun as the key word in each and function as a noun in sentencesWhite elephant<a+n>something useless and unwanted but big and costly 华而不实的东西Pink elephantThe Elephant in the roomBrain trust <n+n>智囊团An appel of discord <n+prep+n>祸根Jack of all trades<n+prep+det+n>万事通，三脚猫Fly in the ointment<n+prep+n>something that spoils the perfection of somethingFlesh and blood 亲情Idioms adjective in natureCut and dried <a+a>already settled and unlikely to be changedAs poor as a church mouse<as+a+as+n>having ,orearning ,barely enough money for one’s needsWide of the mark <not at all suitable ,correct>Beyond the pale <beyond the limit of proper behaviour> Up in the air <uncertain>Idioms verbal in natureThis is the largest group of all .subdivided into phrasal verbs短语动词and other verb phrases动词短语Look into <investigate>调查，研究go on <continue>Put off <discourage ...from ; cause....to ;dislike .Delay .make excuses in order to avoid a duty>Turn on 兴趣盎然get away with <get something wrong without being punished>Put down to 把.....归因于Mak it 赶上了follow one’s nose 朝相同地方走Fall flat <fail completely in its intended or expected effect> Give sb the bag 炒鱿鱼Sing a different tune <change one’s opinion or attitude> Call it a day <decide or agree to stop either temporary or for good>Chop and change 变化无常Swim against the stream 不随波逐流Come back to earth 脚踏实地Make ends meet 收支平衡Keep the pot boiling 量入为出，维持生计Let the dog see the rabbit 好狗不挡道Bite the hand that feeds one恩将仇报Tooth and nail 全力以赴Through thick and thin 同舟共济In clover or in the clover 生活安逸Sentence idiomsThey are mainly proverbs and sayings ,including colloquialisms and catchphrase ,as far as sentence types are concerned,they embracedeclarative ,interrogative , imperative, and exclamative sentences. In terms of complexity they can be further divided into simple compound and complex sentenceNever do things by halves 不要半途而废That’s the time of day <exclamative,simple>Let the sleeping dog die 别多管闲事A leopard cannot change its spotsBehind the mountains there are people to be found Upon my word 正如所言，的确Art is long , life is short ,生命短暂，艺术无涯Pepper and salt 花白的头发Bag and baggage 所有家当High and low 高低贵贱Use of idiomsWe need aware of the rhetoric characteristics of idioms such as stylistic , features , rhetoric features and their occasional variationsIn deep water 陷入困境，tide over克服Take the helm 掌权If you run after two hares , you will catch neither 脚踩两只船Have all one’s eggs in one basket 孤注一掷New brooms sweep clean 新官上任三把火Wash one’s dirty linen in public 家丑不可外扬Keep the pot boiling 维持生计Boil down 压缩Jump the bait 上钩了Hit below the belt 玩阴的play fair 公平竞争Come to pass <take place ,happen >Be it that <even though >即使，尽管In the wake of <right after, following>紧接着Give the lie to <all sb a lair >称某人是骗子Of note <notable , well-know>著名的Mishandle, mess up , 搞砸了Variations of idioms1.Replacement2.Addition or deletion3.Position-shifting4.Shortening5.Dismembering。

English Lexicology: A CoursebookChapter 1 Lexicology and WordsKnowledge Points:1. Lexicology is the study of the vocabulary or lexicon of a given language.2. Morphology is the study of the forms of words and their components.3. The major purpose of study in morphology is to look at morphemes and their arrangements in word formation.4. Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language. Morphemes may constitute words or parts of words.5. Semantics is defined as the study of meaning.6. Generally speaking, semantics focuses on:1) the meaning of words;2) the meaning of utterances in context;3) the meaning of sentences;4) meaning relations between sentences;5) meaning relations that are internal to the vocabulary of a language.7. Etymology is the study of the whole history of words.8. Word is used traditionally to refer to a sequence of letters bounded by spaces.9. The term word is also used to refer to an intermediate structure smaller than a whole phrase and yet generally larger than a single sound segment.10. Major features of Words1) A word is a sound or combination of sounds which we make voluntarily with our vocal equipment.2) A word is symbolic and is used to stand for something else.3) The word is an uninterruptible unit.4) A word has to do with its social function.5) A word may consist of one or more morphemes.6) Words are part of the large communication system we call language.7) A word occurs typically in the structure of phrases.11. In traditional grammar, eight parts of speech are distinguished in English: noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, and interjection.12. Words can also be classified into lexical words and grammatical words.13. Generally speaking, lexical words are nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.14. The lexical words can be used (functions):1) to represent our experience of the word;2) to refer to persons, places, things and concepts (e.g. the nouns Smith, London, pineapple, unity);3) to describe qualities and properties (e.g. the adjectives excellent, kind, high);4) to represent actions, processes or states (e.g. the verbs jump, bite, stay);5) to describe circumstances like manner (e.g. the adverbs kindly, slowly, cheerfully).Furthermore, lexical words have their own content meanings and may be meaningful when used alone. E.g. book and house have their own content meanings.15. Grammatical words are words like pronouns, prepositions, demonstrative, determiners, conjunctions, auxiliary verbs, and son on.16. Semantic or lexical field: A semantic field contains words that belong to defined area of meaning. Crystal (1995) defines a semantic field as a ‘named area of meaning in which lexemes interrelated and define each other in specific ways’.Chapter 2 Some Basic Concepts and Word MeaningsKnowledge Points:1. Morphemes are the ultimate grammatical constituents, the smallest meaningful units of language.2. Features of morpheme:1) A morpheme may be a complete word. E.g. the, fierce, desk, eat, boot, at, fee, mosquito cannot be dividedup into smaller units that are meaningful themselves.2) A morpheme may also be a word form such as an affix. e.g. –able, in-, -hood.3) A morpheme may be a combining form. e.g. bio-, geo, pre-.3. Phonemes are the smallest working units of sound per se, and they build up into morphemes.4. Lexeme: Lexeme or lexical item is regarded as a unit of lexical meaning, which exists regardless of any inflectional endings it may have or the number of words it may contain.Lexeme is considered an abstract linguistic unit with different variants (e.g. sing as against sang, sung).5. Morph: Any concrete realization of a morpheme in a given utterance is called a morph. It is a physical form representing some morphemes in a language.6. Allomorphs: Morphs which are different representations of the same morpheme are referred to as allomorphs of that morpheme.7. Morphemes can be classified into bound morphemes and free morphemes.8. Bound morphemes must be joined to other morphemes. e.g. the suffix –dom, is a bound morpheme.9. Free morphemes need not be attached to other morphemes and can occur by themselves as individual words.e.g. cat, chair, farm, and bug are free morpheme.10. Morphemes may also be classified into derivational morphemes and inflectional morphemes.11. Denotation: Denotation of a lexeme is the relationship that holds between that lexeme and persons, things, places, properties, processes and activities external to the language system.12. Reference: The relationship of reference holds between an expression and what that expression stands for on particular occasions of its utterance.13. Sense: Sense is a relationship between the words or expressions of a single language, independently of the relationship, if any, which holds between those words or expressions and their referents.14. Leech (1981) distinguishes seven types of meaning in language: conceptual meaning, connotative meaning, social meaning, affective meaning, reflected meaning, collocative meaning, and thematic meaning.15. Conceptual meaning, which is sometimes called denotative or cognitive meaning, refers to meanings as presented in a dictionary.16. Connotative meaning is the communicative value of an expression by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content.17. Social meaning refers to the kind of meaning a piece of language conveys about the social circumstances of its use.18. Affective meaning can be used to cover the attitudinal and emotional factors expressed in a word.19. Reflected meaning is the meaning which arises in cases of multiple conceptual meaning, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense.20. Collocative meaning consists of the associations a word acquires on account of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment.21. Thematic meaning is what communicated by the way in which a speaker or writer organizes the massage, in terms of ordering, focus, and emphasis.22. Stem: The word to which affixes are added and which carries the basic meaning of the resulting complex word is known as the stem.23. Root: A stem consisting of a single morpheme is labeled as root. For, example, walk is a root and it appears in the set of word-forms that instantiate the lexeme walk such as walk, walks, walking and walked.24. Free morpheme: Roots which are capable of standing independently are called free morphemes. Single words like man, book, tea, sweet, cook are the smallest free morphemes capable of occurring independently.25. Bound morpheme: some roots are incapable of occurring independently. They always occur with some other word-building element attached to them. Such roots are called bound morphemes, like –mit in permit, remit, commit, admit, and ceive in perceive, receive, conceive.26. Base: A base is a lexical item to which affixes of any kind can be added.The affixes attached to a base. In other words, all roots are bases.27. Affix: A root or stem can be attached with an affix. Affixes are morphemes which only occur when attached to other morphemes. By definition affixes are bound morphemes.28. Three types of affixes: prefix, suffix and infix.1) prefix: A prefix is an affix attached before a root (or stem or base) like re-, un- and in-, as in re-make, un-kind, in-decent.2) suffix: A suffix is an affix attached after a root (or stem or base) like-ly, -er, -ist,and -ed, as in kind-ly, wait-er, interest-ing, interest-ed.3) infix: An infix is an affix inserted into the root itself. According to Katamba (1993), infixes are very common in semitic language like Arabic and Hebrew.29. Other types of affixes: inflectional affixes and derivational affixes.1) Inflectional affixes are used for syntactic reasons to indicate number, tense, case, and so on.2) derivational affixes can alter the meaning or grammatical category of the base.30. Polysemy: Polysemy refers to the situation in which a word has two or more different meanings.For instance, the noun bank is said to be polysemous because it may mean:(1) a financial institution that people or businesses can keep their money in or borrow money from;(2) a raised area of land along the side of a river;(3) a large number of things in a row, especially pieces of equipment.31. Features of polysemy:1) The concept of polysemy is complex and involves a certain number of problems. As mentioned by Jackson and Amvela (2000), we cannot determine exactly how many meanings a polysemous word has, as a word may have both a literal meaning and one or more transferred meanings.2) The is no clear criterion for either difference or sameness of meaning.3) It difficult to distinguish between polysemy (i.e. one word with several meanings) and homonymy (i. e. several words with the same shape—spelling and/or pronunciation).4) Polysemy is an essential condition for its efficiency.32. Homonymy: Homonymy refers to a situation in which there are two or more words with the same shape.33. Tow types of homonyms (Jackson and Amvela, 2000): homograph and homophone1) homograph: Homograph refers to a word which is spelt the same as another word but has a different meaning and sometimes a different pronunciation. For example, lead (metal) and lead (dog’s lead) are spelt the same but pronounced differently.2) homophone: Homophone refers to a word that sounds the same as another word but ahs its own spelling, meaning and origin. For example, right, rite and write are spelt differently but pronounced the same.34. Features of homonymy:1) There are cases in which two homonyms with totally different meanings may both make sense in the same utterance.2) Spelling will often help to differentiate between words with are identical in sound.3) Writing conventions can help remove homonymy, as English writing is more intelligible than speech.Chapter 3 The Origins of English WordsKnowledge Points:1. The Development of English:Indo-European FamilyItalic Germanic Europe the Near East North India …the North Germanic the East Germanic the West Germanicbranch branch branchEnglishEnglish belongs to the Indo-European family, which includes most of the languages of Europe, the Near east,and North India. One branch of the Indo-European family is called Italic, from which Latin and later the Romance languages developed. Another is called Germanic, which is subdivided into the North Germanic branch, the Ease Germanic branch and the West Germanic branch. English is one of the languages in the West Germanic branch.Celts are believed to be the first people who, inhabited the land that was later to become England. They came to the island around the middle of the fifth millennium BC. Their languages were yet another branch of the Indo-European language family. Most of the island of Britain was occupied by the Romans from about 43 AD until 410 AD.Two stages:First Stage (Beginning of English): After the withdrawal of the Romans, the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes moved into England in about 450 AD and began to take it over. It is at this time when the English language began.Second Stage: By the 10th century, the West Saxon dialect became the official language of Britain. Written Old English is mainly known from this period. It was written in an alphabet called Runic (北欧古文字).2. The four historical periods of English:1) The language from 450 to 1066 is known as Old English.2) From 1066 to 1500 the language is known as Middle English.3) The language from 1500 to 1800 is considered the Early Modern English period.4) The language since 1800 is called Modern English.3. Old English Period (450-1066). There are many differences between the way vocabulary was used in Old English and the way it is used today.1) the Anglo-Saxon preference for expressions that are synonymous, far exceeds that found in Modern English, as does their ingenuity in the construction of compounds.2) the absence of a wide-ranging vocabulary of loanwords also forces them to rely more on word-formation processes based on native elements.3) the latter period of Old English was characterized by the introduction of a number of ‘loan translations’.4) grammatical relationships in Old English were expressed mainly by the use of inflectional endings.5) Old English is believed to contain about 24,000 different lexical items.4. The Middle English Period (1066-1500). The Middle English period was marked by extensive changes. In 1066 the Normans conquered Britain.5. Features of this period:1) The changes of this period affected English both in its grammar and its vocabulary.2) Inflections were greatly reduced in Middle English.3) The inflectional endings was due partly to phonetic changes and partly to the operation of analogy.4) Middle English is particularly characterized by intensive and extensive borrowing from other languages.6. Early Modern English Period (1500-1800). This period is the transitional period from Middle English to Modern English.1) The printing press helped to standardize the spelling of English in its modern stages.2) Throughout the modern period, written English has been quite uniform.3) In the sixteenth century, scholars began seriously to talk about their language, making observations on grammar vocabulary, the writing system and style.4) Adjectives lost all endings except for in the comparative and superlative forms.7. The Modern English Period (1800-present). Features of this period:1) Modern English is as the unprecedented growth of scientific vocabulary.2) The assertion of American English is as a dominant variety of the language.3) The emergence of other varieties known as ‘New Englishes’.8. ‘New Englishes’refers to new varieties of the language that have become localized not only through the influence of the other languages of the regions where they are used, but also through being adapted to the life and culture of their speakers.9. The differences between American English and British English:1) The differences of vocabulary are the most striking;2) American spelling and British are also a bit different;3) The differences between American and British pronunciation are perhaps the most pervasive of all.10. Native English vocabulary is made up of Anglo-Saxon words. This category comprises words that were used by the Germanic tribes and are still used in Modern English.11. The Celtic language did not have any serious impact on English.1) In the Old English period, only a number of Celtic words were borrowed, and just a few have survived into modern English, sometimes in regional dialect use.2) In the seventeenth century, a few more Celtic words were introduced into English from Irish Gaelic.12. Major influences on English:1) The Scandinavian Influence2) The Norman Conquest3) The Latin Influence13. Borrowing is the process of imitating a word from foreign language and, at least partly, adapting in sound or grammar to the native language.14. Latin is not only the first major contributor of loanwords to English, but also one of the most important sources for the coinage of new English words.15. Greek borrowings have been continuous from the fifth century to the present. Borrowing from French started long before 1066.16. New English words can be created by root creation, onomatopoeic words, ejaculations and word formation (Jackson and Amvela 2000).Chapter 4 Word Formation in EnglishKnowledge Points:1. There are basically three ways of extending the word stock:1) borrowing words that already exist in other languages;2) creating entirely new words;3) forming new words from existing resources within the word stock.2. Word formation refers to the different devices used in English to build new words from existing ones.3. The basic distinction between inflection and derivation is mainly morphological. Inflection results in the formation of alternative grammatical forms of the same word, while derivation creates new vocabulary items.4. Inflection refers to a general grammatical process which combines words and affixes to produce alternative grammatical forms of words.5. Inflections in English are all suffixes that occur at the very end of a word.6. Functions of InflectionInflection creates variant forms of a word to conform to different functional roles in a sentence or in discourse.1) Inflections modify the form of a word so that they can fit into a particular syntactic slot.2) Sometimes inflectional morphemes serve merely to integrate a word into its sentence.3) inflections attach grammatical information to the stem, but do not change its grammatical category.7. Affixation is the process whereby an affix is attached to a base.8. Derivation refers to the creation of a new word by means of the addition of an affix to a stem.9. Functions of DerivationsDerivational affixes serve functions very different from those of inflectional morphemes.1) A derivational affix can change the part of speech of a word;2) Derivation affixes are so called because they are used to derive new words and meanings.3) Derivational affixes can change the word class of the item they are added to and establish words as members of the various word classes.4) Derivational affixes do not always cause a change in grammatical class.10. Derivational affixes can be divided into two types: class-changing and class-maintaining.11. Class-changing derivational affixes change the word class of the word to which they are added.12. Class-maintaining derivational affixes change the meaning of the derivative.13. Class-changing derivational affixes determine the word class of the stem.14. The largest group of class-changing derivatives in English is nominalizers which make nouns out of adjectives or verbs.15. Verbalizers are used to form verbs from other stems.16. Adjectivalizers are used to form adjectives when added to a given stem.17. Adverbializers form adverbs when added to a given stem.18. Class-maintaining derivations do not change the word class of the stem but its meaning. Most derivatives that are prefixes in English affect only the meaning of the root, not its syntactic class.19. Compounding refers to the method and device of language to form new words by combining or putting together old words.20. Compounds are stems consisting of more than one root.21. The orthographic treatment of compounds is by no means consistent.22. Characteristics of Compounds1) Phonologically, there is always a single primary stress in English words, so that compounds are often recognized by stress pattern and lack of juncture.The criterion of stress applies only to nominal compounds, and the distinction between compound and idiom becomes fuzzy for verbs and other nominal categories.2) Syntactically, compounds are single lexical units and have specific features.The grammatical relations between the constituents of the compound are sometimes obscure.3) Semantically, compounds tend to have special meanings.The meanings of the words interrelate in such a way that the new meaning may be different from the meanings of the words in isolation.23. A common semantic classification yields four types of compounds: endocentric, exocentric, copulative and appositional.24. An endocentric compound consists of a head and its modifier.25. An exocentric compound does not have a head, and its meaning cannot be literally guessed from its constituent parts.26. A copulative compound has two semantic heads.27. An appositional compound has two attributes which classify the compound.28. A compound is a lexical item in which two roots combine to make one unit.29 According to constituent elements, compounds can be divided into four major types.1) Noun compounds: A noun compound can be formed by ‘N+N’, ‘N+V-ing’, ‘V-ing+N’, ‘V+N’, ‘Adj+N’, ‘V+Adv’, ‘Adv+V’, ‘Prep+N’, ‘Adj+V-ing’ and other combinations.2) Verb compounds: A verb compound can be formed by ‘N+V’, ‘Adv+V’, ‘Adj+V’, ‘V+V’, ‘Adv+N’ and other combinations3) Adjective compounds: An adjective compound can be formed by ‘Adj+Adj’, ‘Adj+N’, ‘Adj+N-ed’, ‘N+Adj’, ‘Adj+V-ing’, ‘Adj+V-ed’, ‘N+V-ing’, ‘N+V-ed’, ‘Adv+V-ed’, ‘Adv+Adj’, ‘Prep+N’and other combinations.4) Pronoun compounds: A pronoun compound can be formed mostly by the combination of some/any/no with thing/body/one and my/your/her/him/our/them/it + self/selves.30. Conversion: A change in word class without the addition of an affix is known as conversion. In other words, conversion is a process by which a word belonging to one word class is transferred to another word class without any change in form.31. There are four major kinds of conversion: from noun to verb, from verb to noun, from adjective to noun and from adjective to verb.Noun →verb: to air, to arm, to bottom, to cup, to fish, to mouth, to tooth.Verb →noun: a call, a command, a count, a go, a guess, a book, a walk.Adjective →verb: to better, to blind, to bold, to brave, to dirty, to empty.Adjective →noun: best, poor, rich, blind, convertible, daily, double.32. Auxiliary verbs, adverbs, modal verbs, prepositions, conjunctions, interjections and even affixes can all act as bases for conversion.33. Blending refers to the process of combining parts of two words to form a third word which contains some of the meaning of each part. Blends are compounds that are less than compounds.34. Structurally, ELL (2006) divides blends into four common types.1) The first type of blends is a full word followed by a splinter. Blends can also begin with a splinter, followed by a full word.2) The second type of blends consists of two splinters. There are two subtypes.A) In some cases, the beginning of one word is followed by the end of another.B) In other cases, both splinters are the beginning of words.3) The third type of blends consists of complete overlap, in which a part of the blend belongs to both words.4) The fourth type of blends involves the embedding of one word in another.35. Blending often results in the creation of new morphemes or in the addition of new meanings to old ones.36. Shortenings include clipping and initialisms.37. Clipping is the process by which a word of usually three or more syllables is shortened without a change in meaning or function.38. Features of clipping:1) Clipped words tend to be casual but very useful.2) Clipping often ignores morphemic boundaries.There are three major types of clippings: fore clipping, hind clipping, and midclipping.3) On some rare occasions, clipping may affect both ends of the source with the middle part retained.There are three types of phonetic clippings: phonetic fore clipping, phonetic midclipping, and phonetic hind clipping.39. Initialisms are the results of putting together the initial letters, or occasionally the first two letters, of the orthographic words in a phrase and using them as words.40. Alphabetisms: When initialisms are pronounced with the names of the letters in them, they are called alphabetisms.41. Acronyms: When two words are pronounced like individual words, they are acronyms.42. Backformation is the making of a new word from an older word which is mistakenly assumed to be its derivative.43. Communization of proper names: The English vocabulary is also characterized by the number of words that derive from the names of people, place, books or brands. This process is called the communization of proper names.44. Metanalysis refers to an analysis of a word into parts, in the course of which the original structure of the word is altered.Chapter 5 Sense RelationsKnowledge Points:1. Sense is an internal meaning relation. Sense relations are relations between word meanings and hold between words within the vocabulary.2. Characteristic of Sense Relations(1) The meaning of one item can be related to the meaning of others.(2) Synonyms are items that mean the same, or nearly the same.(3) Antonyms are items that mean the opposite.3. According to Jackson and Amvela (2000), synonymy is of two types: strict synonymy and loose synonymy.4. Strict synonymy refers to the situation in which two synonymous words can be interchangeable in all their possible contexts of use.5. Actually, many words have similar senses and denotation without having exactly the same meaning.6. Loose synonyms may be substitutable in particular contexts, but are not substitutable across a range of contexts.7. In synonymy, we can find not only a significant overlap in meaning between two words, but also some contextswhere they cannot substitute for each other.8. Difference among synonyms:1) Synonym pairs may differ in different geographical varieties of English.2) Synonym pairs may differ in the style or formality of the context in which a word may be used.3) Synonym pairs may differ in connotations. Two words may refer to the same entity, but they may have different associative or emotive meanings.4) Synonym pairs may differ in the use of registers.5) Synonym pairs may differ in etymology.6) Synonym pairs may differ in collocation. They occur in different environments.9. Antonymy refers to the relationship of oppositeness of meaning between words.1) Antonymy is typically found among adjectives but it can be extended to other word class.2) Antonymy covers a number of different types of oppositeness of meaning.10. There may be no true synonyms, but there are several kinds of antonyms. Three types are commonly identified: gradable antonyms, contradictory or complementary antonyms, and converses.11. Gradable antonyms represent a more/less relation and can be viewed as terms at the end-points of a continuum.12. Complementary antonyms, also called contradictory antonyms or non-gradable antonyms, are in an either/or relation of oppositeness.13. Converse antonyms represent two-way contrasts that are interdependent. They are also called reciprocal antonyms or relational opposition, in which one member presupposes the other.14. Hyponymy refers to the notion of inclusion whereby we can say that ‘an X is a kind of Y’. It is the class-inclusion relation.15. A hyponym includes the meaning of a more general word and serves as specific examples of a general concept. The more general term is called the superordinate or hypernym.16. Hyponymy is one of several relationship types with which language users organize the lexicon.17. Meronymy is the part-whole relation in any pair of items. This is an important hierarchical relationship that is found in pairs of words.18. According to Cruse (2000), the notion of meronymy is relational rather than absolute.19. Meronymic relationships are not a property of pairs of words.20. Collocation is concerned with meaning arising from co-occurrence, more specifically to meaning arising from predictable co-occurrence of two or more than two words.21. Collocation is the meaning relations that a word contracts with other words occurring in the same sentence or text.22. Collocator: A word with a certain meaning which occurs in a collocation along with a given word is called a collocator of that word.23. Collocations differ from free combinations. In collocations, the components are not freely interchangeable.24. Collocations are of several types. Those relating to syntax are grammatical collocations, and those relating to expression are lexical collocations.25. Grammatical collocation refers to any kind of syntactic element that must accompany a particular word (usually verb, noun or adjective in English).26. Lexical collocations consist of groups of words with a certain meaning that often occur together.27. The lexical collocations usually consist of words that are in a relation of mutual expectancy of habitual association.28. Other features of collocation1) Collocation often occurs between words in structures;2) Collocations can also cut across part-of-speech or sentence boundaries.3) Collocation is as a cohesive device, because collocation is one of the factors on which we build our expectation of what is to come next in text.29. A metaphor is an extension of the use of a word beyond its primary meaning to describe referents that bear similarities to the word’s primary referent. It refers to cases where a word appears to have both a literal and a。

English Lexicology(英语词汇学)Lexicology(词汇学): is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words、The Nature and Scope of English lexicology:English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages、The subjects that English Lexicology correlated with and extent to:English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学), semantics(语义学), etymology(词源学),stylistics(文体论) and lexicography(词典学)The reason for a student to study English lexicology:According to the textbook, English Lexicology will definitely be beneficial for students of English、A good knowledge of morphological structures of English words and rules ofword-formation will help learners develop their personal vocabulary and consciously increase their word power、The information of the historical development and the principles of classification will give them a deeper understanding of word-meaning and enable them to organize, classify and store words more effectively、The understanding and their sense relations will gradually raise their awareness of meaning and usage, and enable them use words more accurately and appropriately、A working knowledge of dictionaries will improve their skills of using reference books and raise theirproblem-solving ability and efficiency of individual study、Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabularyWord(词的定义): A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function、(1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentenceSound and meaning(声音与意义): almost arbitrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”Sound and form(读音与形式):不统一的四个原因(1)the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other (2)the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years(3)some of the difference were creates by the early scribes(4)the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabularyVocabulary(词汇): all the words in a language make up its vocabulary Classification of English Words:By use frequency:basic word stock&nonbasic vocabularyBy notion:content words&functional wordsBy origin:native words&borrowed wordsThe basic word stock(基本词汇): is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language、Though it constitute a small percentage of the EV, it is the most important part of vocabulary、The Fundamental Features of the Basic Word Stock(基本词汇的特征):1)All-National character(全民通用性most important) 2)Stability(相对稳定性)3)Productivity(多产性) 4)Polysemy(多义性) 5)Collocability(可搭配性)没有上述特征的words:(1)Terminology(术语) (2)Jargon(行话) (3)slang(俚语)(4)Argot(暗语) (5)Dialectal words(方言) (6) Archaisms(古语) (7) Neologisms(新词语):Neologisms means newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings、(email)Content words/notional words实词(cloud, run walk, never, five, frequently) and functional words/empty words虚词(on, of, and, be, but)Native Words and Borrowed WordsNative words(本族语词): known as Anglo-Saxon words (50,000-60,000), are words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes、(mainstream of the basic word-stocks)、Two other features:(1)neutral in style (2)frequent in useBorrowed words/Loan words(外来语词): words taken over from foreign languages、(80% of modern EV)4 Types of loan words:1) denizens(同化词): (shirt from skyrta(ON))2) aliens(非同化词/外来词):are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling (kowtow (CH)磕头)3) translation loans(译借词):按其她语言方式组成英语long time no see (from China)4) semantic loans(借义词):they are not borrowed with reference to the form,but their meanings are borrowedChapter 2 the development of the English VocabularyThe Indo-European Language Family(印欧语系)The Eight Groups in Indo-European Family of Languages(8大印欧语群)The Eastern set:(1)The Balto-slavic Group(波罗的-斯拉夫语族):Russian,Bulgarian,Polish,Czech etc、(2)The Indo-Iranian Group(印度-伊朗语族):Hindi,Bengali,Persian etc、(3)The Armenian Group(亚美尼亚语族):Armenian、(4)The Albanian Group(阿尔巴尼亚语族):Albanian、The Western set:(5)The Hellenic Group(古希腊语族):Greek、(6)The Italian Group(意大利语族):Latin ,Romance languages(French,Italian,Spanish, portuguese,Romanian) etc、(7)The Celtic Group(凯尔特语族):Irish,Welsh,Breton etc、(8)The Germanic Group(日耳曼语族):Flemish,German,Dutch,Scandinavian(Norweigian, Swedish,Danish,Icelandic) etc、The Three Stages of Development of the English Vocabulary:1 Old English (450-1100) (vocabulary 50,000 to 60,000):was I high inflected language、2 Middle English (1150-1500):retaines much fewer inflections3 Modern English (1500-up to now): in fact more than 25% of modern E words come almost directly from classical languages、In Modern E, words endings were mostly lost with just a few expections、English has evolved from a synthetic language(Old English) to the present analytic language、Modes of Vocabulary Development(词汇的发展模式):1)creation创造新词:the formation of new words by using the existing materials,namely toots,affixes and other elements、(最重要方式)2)semantic change旧词新义:does not increase the number of word forms but create many more new useages of the words、3) borrowing借用外来词:constitute merely 6 to 7 percent of all new wordsReviving words or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant、Chapter 3 Word Formation IMorpheme(词素):the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words Allomorph(词素变体): is a different variant form of a morpheme,differ in phonological and spelling form, but at the same in function and meaningType of Morpheme(词素的分类)(1)Free Morphemes(自由词素): have complete meaning in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences、A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself、(independent)、(2)Bound Morpheme(粘着语素): A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself、Bound Morpheme includes two types: (1) bound root(粘附词根) (2)Affix(词缀)Affixes can be put into two groups:1)Inflectional affixes (屈折词缀):affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional,thus known as inflectional morphemes、2)Derivational affixes(派生词缀): A) prefix: A prefix comes before words、B)suffix:An adjective suffix(形容词后缀) that is added to the stem, whatever class is belongs to , the result will be an adjective、Free Morpheme =free root(自由词根)Morpheme(词素)Bound root prefixbound derivationalaffix suffixinflectionalRoot and stem(词根与词干)The differences between root and stem:A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity、A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root、Chapter 4 Word-Formation II(构词法)1、Affixation词缀法(Derivation派生法):the formation of words by adding word-formaing or derivational affixes to stem、(1)Prefixation(前缀法):It's the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems、1)Negative prefixes(否定前缀): un-,non-,in-,dis,a- ,il-,ir-,im-,etc、disobey(not obey)2)Reversative prefixes(逆反前缀): un-,de-,dis- etc、unwrap(open)3) Pejorative prefixes: mis(贬义前缀):mis-, mal-, pseudo- etc、misconduct(bad behaviour)4) Prefixes of degree or size(程度前缀):arch-,extra-,hyper-,macro-,micro-,mini-,out-,over-,sub-,super-,sur-,ultra-,under-,ect、overweight5) Prefixes of orientation and attitude(倾向态度前缀):contra-,counter-,anti-,pro- etc、anti-nuclear6)Locative prefixes(方位前缀):extra-,fore-,inter-,intra-,tele-,trans-, etc、extraordinary(more than ordinary)7) Prefixes of time and order(时间与顺序前缀):fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc、monorail(one rail)8) Number prefixes(数字前缀):uni-,mono-, bi-,di-, tri-,multi-,poly- ,semi-,etc、bilingual(concerning two languages)9) Miscellaneous prefixes(混杂前缀):auto-, neo-, pan-, vice-、vice-chairman(deputy chairman)(2)Suffixation(后缀法): It's the formation of a new word by adding suffixes to stems、1)noun suffixes 2)adjective suffixes 3)Adverb suffixes 4)verb suffixes2、Compounding复合法(also called composition)Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stemsCompounds are written in three ways: solid连写(airmail),hyphenated带连字符(air-conditioning)and open分开写(air force, air raid)Formation of compounds(复合词的形式)(1)noun compounds :e、g、: air + plane = airplane,flower + pot = flower pot(2)adjective compounds : e、g、acid + head = acid-head(3)verb compounds : e、g、house + keep = housekeep3、Conversion转类法Conversion: is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class、(功能转换,又叫零派生、functional shift/zero-derivation)4、Blending拼缀法Blending : is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word、e、g: motor + hotel = motel, smoke + fog = smog, formula + translation = FORTRAN5、Clipping截短法Clipping:is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead、e、g、plane from airplane, phone from telephone、四种形式:1)、Front clippings删节前面(phone from telephone)2)、Back clippings删节后面(dorm from dormitory)3)、Front and back clippings 前后删节(flu from influenza)4)、Phrase clippings 短语删节(pop from popular music)6、Acronymy首字母缩写法Acronymy:is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms、(1)Initialism(首字母缩写词法): initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter、e、g、: BBC(for British Broadcasting corporation)(2)Acronym(首字母拼音法):Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word、E、g、:TEFL(teaching English as a foreign language)7、Back-formation(逆生法,逆构词)Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation、It’s the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes、(greed from greedy)8、Words From Proper Name(专有名词转成法):Names of people, places, book, and tradenames (e、g、: sir watt siemens(人名) -- watt(瓦特,电功率单位)Chapter 5 Word MeaningThe meanings of “Meaning”(“意义”的意义)Reference(所指):It is the relationship between language and the word、It is the arbitrary and conventional、It is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer to something specific、Concept(概念):which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition(认识),reflecting the objective world in the human mind、Sense(意义):It denotes the relationship inside the language、‘The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language、’Motivation(理据):It accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning、1) Onomatopoeic motivation(拟声理据):words whose sounds suggest their meaning, for these words were creates by imitating the natural sounds or noises、Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning、E、g、: bang, ping-pong, ha ha、2)Morphological motivation (形态理据):multi-morphemic words and the meaning of many are the sum total of the morphemes combines、E、g、: airmail, miniskirt 、例外:black market, ect、3)Semantic motivation(词义理据):refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word、It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word、E、g:the foot of the mountain(foot)4)Etymological motivation (词源理据):the history of the word explains the meaning of the word、E、g:pen-featherTypes of meaning(词义的类别)1、Grammatical Meaning(语法意义):indicates the grammatical concept or relationships (becomes important only in actual context)2、Lexical Meaning (词汇意义)(Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning make up the word-meaning)Lexical meaning has 2 components内容: Conceptual meaning(概念意义) and associative meaning(关联意义)1)Conceptual meaning(概念意义): also known as denotative meaning(外延意义) is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning、2)Associative meaning(关联意义):is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning、[4types:（1）Connotative(内涵意义):the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning, traditionally known as connotations、(例如“母亲”经常与“爱”“关心”“温柔”联系起来)（2）Stylistic(文体意义):many words have stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different contexts、（3）Affective(感情意义) :indicates the speaker’s attitude towards the person or thing in question、这种情感价值观分两类:褒义与贬义appreciative & pejorative（4）Collocative(搭配意义):is the part of the word-meaning suggested by the wordsbefore or after the word in discussion、]Chapter 6 --Sense relation and semantic field (语义关系与语义场)Polysemy(多义关系)Two approached to polysemy(多义关系的两种研究方法):1、diachronic approach(历时方法) :from the diachronic point of view, polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word、First meaning is the primary meaning , the later meanings are called derived meanings、2、synchronic approach (共时方法) : synchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a certain historical period of time、基本意义就是central meaning , 次要意义就是derived meaning、Two processes of development(词义的两种发展类型):1.radiation(辐射型):is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at thecentre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes、(e、g: face, neck)2.concatenation(连锁型):is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word movegradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had at the beginning、(e、g:treacle)3.In radiation, each of the derived meaning is directly connected to the primarymeaning、In concatenation, each of the later meaning is related only to the preceding one like chains、Though the latest sense can be traced back to the original, there is no direct connection in between、4.They are closely related, being different stages of the development leading topolysemy、Generally, radiation precedes concatenation、In many cases, the two processes work together, complementing each other、Homonymy(同形同音异义关系):words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling、Types of homonyms(同音同形异义关系的类别)1)Perfect homonyms(完全同音同形异义词):words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning、2)Homographs(同形异义词):words identical only in spelling, but different in sound and meaning、(最多最常见)3)Homophones(同音异义词):words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning、Origins of homonyms (同形同音异义词的来源)1)change in sound and spelling :(eare-ear, lang-long, langian-long)2)borrowing (feria-fair, beallu-ball, baller-ball )3)Shortening(缩略): (ad-advertisement,)The differentiation of Homonyms from Polysemes(同音同形异义词与多义词的区别):1)The fundamental difference : Homonymy refers to different words which happen to share the same form and polysemy are the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings、2)One important criterion is to see their etymology(词源):Homonymys are from different sources、Polysemant is from the same source、3)The second principle consideration is semantic relatedness(语义关联): The various meanings of polysemant are correlated and connected to one central meaning、Meanings of different homonymys have nothing to do with one another、In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meaning all listed under one headword whereas homonyms are listed as separate entries、Rhetoric features of homonyms(同形同音异义词的修辞特色):As homonyms are identical in sound or spelling, particularly homophones, they are often employed to create puns for desired effect of, say, humor, sarcasm or ridicule、Synonymy (同义关系): one of two or more words in the English language which have the same or very nearly the same essential meaning 、Types of Synonymy(同义词的类别) :(1)Absolute synonyms(完全同义词):also known as complete synonyms are words whichare identical in meaning in all aspects, i、e、both in grammatical meaning and lexicalmeaning, including conceptual and associative meanings、[ Absolute synonyms are restricted to highly specialized vocabulary in lexicology、](2)relative synonyms(相对同义词):also called near-synonyms are similar or nearly thesame in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality、(e、g: change/alter/vary, stagger/reel/totter, strange/odd/queer,idle/lazy/indolent)Sources of synonyms(同义词的来源) :1)Borrowing(借词):最重要的来源(room-chamber, foe-enemy, help-aid, leave-depart, wise-sage, buy-purchase)2)Dialects and regional English (方言与地区英语)3)Figurative and euphemistic use of words (单词的修饰与委婉用法):occupation/profession-walk of life, dreamer--star-gazer, drunk-elevated, lie-distort of fact、4)Coincidence with idiomatic expressions(与习惯表达一致):win-gain the upper hand, decide-make up one’s mind, finish-get through, hesitate-be in two minds, help-lend one a hand、Discrimination of Synonyms(1)difference in denotation外延不同、Synonyms may differ in the range and intensity ofmeaning、(rich-wealthy, work-toil, want-wish-desire)(2)difference in connotation内涵不同、By connotation we mean the stylistic and emotivecolouring of words、Some words share the same denotation but differ in their stylistic appropriateness、(借词:answer-respond, storm-tempest, wood-forest, handy-manual, unlike-dissimilar, homely-domestic, fleshy-carnal、中性词:policeman-constable-bobby-cop, ask-beg-request、古语词、诗歌:ire/anger, bliss-happiness, forlorn-distresses, dire-dreadful, list-listen, enow-enough, save-expect, mere-lake )(3)difference in application、Many words are synonymous in meaning but difference inusage in simple terms、They form different collocations and fit into difference sentence patterns、(allow sb、to do sth、- let sb、do sth、/ answer the letter-replyto the letter)Antonymy (反义关系) :it is concerned with semantic opposition、Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning、Types of Antonyms:1)contradictory terms (矛盾反义词): these antonyms truly represent oppositeness of meaning、特点:①The assertion of one is the denial of the other、②Such antonyms are non-gradable、They cannot be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs of intensity like “very” to qualify them 、(e、g: single/married)2)contrary terms(对立反义词): antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremes、(e、g: old/young, rich/young, big/small) The two opposites are gradable and one exists in comparison with the other、3)relative terms(关系反义词): this type consists of relational opposites、(parent/child, husband/wife, employee/employer, sell/buy, receive-give)Some of the characteristics of antonyms(反义关系的特点):1)antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition(语义对立)2)a word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym3)antonyms differ in semantic inclusion(语义内涵)4)contrary terms are gradable antonyms,differing in degree of intensity, so each has its own corresponding opposite、(hot/warm: hot-cold/warm-cool)The use of antonyms(反义词的使用)1)Antonyms are helpful and valuable in defining the meaning of words、2)To express economically the opposite of a particular thought for the sake of contrast、(e、g :now or never, rain or shine, friend or foe敌友,weal and woe哀乐)3)To form antithesis(对比法) to achieve emphasis by putting contrasting idea together、(proverbs and sayings: easy come , easy go、/ more haste, less speed、)Hyponymy(上下义关系): Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion、The meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word、For example, a cat is hyponym of animalSuperordinate and Subordinate (上义词与下义词):use subordinates which are concrete and precise ,presenting a vivid verbal picture before the reader、Superordinates which convey only a general and vague idea、Semantic Field(语义场)Viewing the total meaning in this way is the basis of field theory、e、g、(apple, pear, peach, date, mango, orange, lemon, etc、make up the semantic field of ‘fruits’)The semantic field of the same concept may not have the same members in different language、e、g、(aunt in English, ma y means “父亲的姐姐, 妈妈的姐姐,父亲哥哥的妻子” in Chinese、(122)Chapter 7 Changes in Word Meaning词义的演变Vocabulary is the most unstable element of a language as it is undergoing constant changes both in form and content、Comparatively the content is even more unstable than the form、Types of Changes (词义变化的种类)1、Extension /generalization(词义的扩大): is the name given to the widening of meaning which some words undergo、It is a process by which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized、(e、g: manuscript, fabulous, picture, mill, journal, bonfire, butcher, companion)2、Narrowing/ specialization(词义的缩小):is the opposite of widening meaning、It is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense、In other words, a word which used to have a more general sense becomes restricted in its application and conveys a special meaning in present-day English、(e、g: deer, corn, garage, liquor, meat, disease, poison, wife, accident, girl)、[ when a common word is turned into a proper noun, the meaning is narrowed accordingly、]3、Elevation /amelioration(词义的升华):refers to the process by which words rise from humble(粗陋的) beginnings to positions of importance、[nice, marshal, constable, angel, knight, earl, governor, fond, minister, chamberlain ]4、Degradation / pejoration(词义的降格):A process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to used in derogatory(贬损的) sense、[boor, churl, wench, hussy, villain, silly, knave, lewd, criticize, lust ]5、Transfer(词义的转移): Words which were used to designate指明one thing but later changed to mean something else have experienced the process of semantic transfer、Causes of Semantic Change(词义变化的原因)1、Extra-linguistic factors(词义演变的语言外部因素):1) Historical reason(历史原因):Increased scientific knowledge and discovery, objects, institutions, ideas change in the course of time、E、g: pen, car, computer、2 )Class reason(阶级原因):The attitude of classes have also made inroads into lexical meaning in the case of elevation or degradation、3) Psychological reason(心理原因):the associated transfer of meaning and euphemistic use of words are often due to psychological factors、Such slow, humble and despised occupations take more appealing names is all due to psychological reasons、2、Linguistic factors(语言内部原因):the change of meaning may be caused by internal factors with in the language system、1)shorting缩略:gold-gold medal, gas-coal gas, bulb-light bulb, private-private soldier2)borrowing借用:deer-animal-beast3)analogy类推:Chapter 8 Meaning and Context 词义与语境Context in its traditional sense refers to the lexical items that precede or follow a given word、Modern linguists have broadened its scope to include both linguistic andextra-linguistic contexts、Two types of context(语境的种类)1、Extra-linguistic context/ Non-linguistic situation(非语言语境):In a broad sense, context includes the physical situation as well, which embraces the people, time, place, and even the whole cultural background、(look out, weekend, landlord )2、Linguistic context/ grammatical context(语言语境):In a narrow sense, it refers to the words, clauses, sentences in which a word appears、It may cover a paragraph, a whole chapter and even the entire book、分为两类:1) Lexical context(词汇语境):It refers to the word that occurs together with the word in question、(e、g: paper, do)2) Grammatical context(语法语境):It refers the situation when the meaning of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs、(e、g: become)The role of context(语境的作用)1、Elimination of ambiguity(消除歧义)1)Ambiguity due to polysemy or homonymy、2)Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity如何消除歧义？——①extend the original sentence ②alter the context a little2、Indication of referents(限定所指)如何限定所指？——①with clear context ②with adequate verbal context3、Provision of clues for inferring word-meaning (提供线索以猜测词义)1)definition2)explanation3)example4)synonymy5)antonymy6)hyponymy(上下义关系)7)relevant details8)word structureChapter 9 English Idioms 英语习语Idioms(习语的定义): are expressions that are not readily understandable from their literal meaning of individual elements、In a broad sense, idiom may include colloquialisms(俗语), Catchphrases(标语),slang expressions (俚语),proverbs(谚语),etc、They form an important part of the English vocabulary、Characteristics of Idioms(英语习语的特点)1、Semantic unity (语意的整体性): words in the idiom they have lost their individual identity、Their meanings are not often recognizable in the meaning of the whole idiom、The semantic unity of idioms is also reflected in the illogical relationship between the literal meaning of each of the idiom、2、Structural stability(结构的稳定性):the structure of an idiom is to a large extent un changeable、1) the constituents of idioms cannot be replaced2) the word order cannot be inverted or changed3) the constituents of idioms cannot be deleted or added to, not even an article、4) many idioms are grammatically unchangeableThe fixity of idiom depends on the idiomaticity、习语性表达习惯Classification of Idioms(英语习语的分类)1、idioms nominal in nature 名词性习语(white elephant累赘物)2 、idioms adjectival in nature形容词性习语(as poor as a church mouse)3 、idioms verbal in nature 动词性习语(look into)4 、idioms adverbial in nature副词性习语(tooth and nail 拼命)5 、sentence idioms 句式习语(never do things by halves)Use of idioms(习语的使用)1、Stylistic features(文体色彩):1）colloquialisms(俗语)2）slang (俚语)3）literary expressions(书面表达)The same idiom may show stylistic differences when it is assigned(指派)different meanings、2、Rhetorical features(修辞色彩)1) phonetic manipulation (语音处理):(1)alliteration头韵法(2)rhyme尾韵法2)lexical manipulation(词法处理)(1)reiteration(duplication of synonyms)同义词并举[scream and shout](2)repetition 重复[out and out](3)juxtaposition (of antonyms) 反义词并置[here and there]3、figures of speech(修辞格)(1)simile明喻(2)metaphor暗喻(3)metonymy换喻/以名词代动作:live by one’s pen(4)synecdoche提喻/以部分代整体:earn one’s bre ad(5)Personification拟人法(6)Euphemism委婉语:kick the bucket(die)(7)hyperbole 夸张:a world of troubleVariations of idioms(习语的变异形式):1、addition增加2、deletion删除3、replacement替换4、position-shifting位置转移5、dismembering分解Chapter 10 English Dictionaries 英语字典Dictionary: presents in alphabetical order the words of English, with information as to their spelling ,pronunciation, meaning, usage , rules and grammar, and in some, their etymology(语源)、Types of dictionaries(词典的种类):1、Monolingual & bilingual dictionaries(单语词典与双语词典):最早的词典都就是双语的(1)、Monolingual dictionary: is written in one language (LDCE, CCELD)、The headword or entries are defined and illustrated in the same language、(2)、Bilingual dictionary: involve two languages (A New English-Chinese D, AChinese-English D)2、Linguistic and Encyclopedic dictionaries(语文词典与百科词典)(1)Linguistic dictionary: aim at defining words and explaining their usages in the language (spelling, pronunciation, meaning, grammatical, function, usage and etymology etc、)可以就是单语或就是双语的(2)Encyclopedic dictionary:1)encyclopedia (百科全书):is not concerned with the language per se(本身)but provides encyclopedic information、Concerning each headword (not pronunciation, meanings, or usages) but only information、2)Encyclopedic Dictionaries: have the characteristics of both linguistic D and encyclopedia (<Chamber’s Encyclopedic English Dictionary>)3、Unabridged, desk and pocket dictionaries(大型词典、案头词典、袖珍词典)(1)Unabridged D: basic information about a word——its origin, meaning, pronunciation, cognates(同词源的),usage, grammatical, function, spelling, hyphenation, capitalization, derived forms, synonyms and homonyms(同音异意) <Webster’s Third New International Dictionary>(2)Desk D: medium-sized [50,000-150,000](3)Pocket D: 只有拼写、发音与最重要的意义,很少或者几乎不举例。

---------------------------------------------------------------最新资料推荐------------------------------------------------------ English Lexicology 英语词汇学简图Chapter 1 Basic Concepts 基本概念 1.1 the definition of a word （he definition of a word comprises the following points:(1) a minimal free form of a language; (2) a sound unity; (3)a unit of meaning; (4) a form that can function alone in a sentence. A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.） 1.2 sound and meaning ：symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary and conventional. A dog is called a dog not because the sound and the three letters that make up the word just automatically suggest the animal in question. 1.3 sound and form ： 1. 2. 3.4. No enough letters: alphabet from latin Pronunciation changed more rapidly Early scribes: change spelling for easier recognition Borrowing: different rules of pronunciation and spelling all national character 全民性stability 稳定性productivity 多产性 polysemy 一词多义 collocability 搭配性terminology 术语jargon 行话slang 俚语argon 黑话dialectal words 方言词 archaism 古语词 neologism 新词 1.4 vocabulary 1.5 classification of words 词汇分类by use frequency 按使用频率分：basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary 基本词汇和非基本词汇basic word stock 基本词汇1/ 28obvious characteristics 明显的特点nonbasic vocabulary 非基本词汇by notion 按概念分： content words and functional words 实义词和功能词 native words 本地词 borrowed words 外来词neutral in style文体上中性by origin 按起源分： native words and borrowed words 本地词和外来词frequent in use 使用频繁denizens 同化词aliens 异形词translation-loans 译借词semantic-loans 借义词---------------------------------------------------------------最新资料推荐------------------------------------------------------ Chapter 2 DevelopmentIt is assumed that the world has approximately 3, 000 (some put it 5, 000 ) languages, which can be grouped into roughly 300 language families on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar. Prussian 普鲁士语 Lithuanian 立陶宛语 Polish 波兰语 Czech 捷克语Bulgarian 保加利亚语 Slovenian 斯洛文尼亚语 Russian 俄语Persian 波斯语 Bengali 孟加拉国语 Hindi 印地语 Romany 普吉赛语Balto-Slavic波罗的海-斯拉夫语Eastern set：东部诸语族：Indo-Iranian印度-伊朗语Armenian 2.1 Indo-European 印欧语亚美尼亚语Albanian 阿尔巴尼亚语 Celtic 凯尔特语Italic Western set：西部诸语族：意大利语Scottish 苏格兰语 Irish 爱尔兰语Welsh 威尔士语Breton 布里多尼语Portuguese 葡萄牙语Spanish 西班牙语 French 法语 Italian 意大利语 Roumanian 罗马尼亚语 Norwegian 挪威语 Icelandic 冰岛语 Danish 丹麦语Swedish 瑞典语 German 德语 Dutch 荷兰语 Flemish 佛兰德语English 英语Latin 拉丁语言Hellenic 希腊语——GreekGermanic日耳曼语Scandinavian languages 斯堪的纳维亚语3/ 28Old English (450--1150) —— Anglo-Saxon 古英语盎格鲁-撒克逊语50000-60000 words 5万~6万间词汇 Highly inflected 高度转折 complex endings 复杂的结尾 vowel changes 元音变化 2.2 Historical review 历史概述Middle English (1150-1500) 中古英语French words 法语词汇leveled endings 水平结尾Early Modern English (1500-1700) 早期现代英语Modern English (1500-up to now) 现代英语Borrow 借词new words 新词no endings 无结尾Late Modern English (1700-up to the present) 晚期现代英语 from a synthetic language (Old English) to the present analytic language。

英语词汇学English Lexicology English LexicologyClass: 1104Number:Name:American EnglishI. The Growth of American English th A. From the 17 century to the end of The War of Independence1. The setting of Jamestown (in 1607)2. The setting of Virginia(in 1609)3. The second internal settlement in Plymouth - by "the May Flower".4. By 1732,the English has set up 13 colonies and then English became theircommon language.5. In 1756,the word "American Dialect"was firstly proposed.6. In 1783,the book The American Spelling Book ,advocating the independence of the American English.B. From The War of Independence to The Civil War1. Because of the immigration more and more people began to speak English.2. In the book An American Dictionary of the English Language, the writer told people the characteristic of the spelling of American English. C. After The Civil WarAmerica became the "main country"of the western country. II. Characteristics of American EnglishA. 美国英语的一致性作为美国唯一的官方语言和多民族通用语言，美国英语具有惊人的一致性。

英语词汇学名词解释英语词汇学（Lexicology）是研究词汇的科学学科。

它涵盖了词汇的各个方面，包括词汇的产生、发展和变化等。

首先，词汇学研究词汇的产生。

词汇是人类语言的基本单位，是人类表达思想和交流信息的重要工具。

词汇的产生与人类的生活和社会环境密切相关。

在人类社会发展的过程中，随着新事物的出现和新概念的产生，新词汇也会随之产生。

例如，随着科技的进步，电脑、互联网、手机等新技术词汇相继产生。

其次，词汇学研究词汇的发展。

词汇的发展主要包括词汇的演变和词义的扩展。

词汇的演变是指词汇在使用过程中发生的变化。

例如，英语中的单词“nice”原本的意思是“愚蠢的”，但随着时间的推移，其词义逐渐扩展为“友好的”、“美好的”等。

词义的扩展是指词汇在使用过程中逐渐获得更广泛的意义。

例如，英语中的单词“mouse”原本指小老鼠，但在计算机领域中，它也指计算机的鼠标。

此外，词汇学还研究词汇的变化。

词汇的变化包括发音、拼写和形态等方面的变化。

发音的变化指的是词汇在不同时期和地区的发音差异。

例如，英语中的单词“knight”在古英语时期的发音是/knixt/，但在现代英语中，它的发音变为/naɪt/。

拼写的变化是指词汇在不同时期和地区的拼写方式的差异。

例如，英语中的单词“colour”在美国被拼写为“color”。

形态的变化是指词汇在不同时期和语言环境中的词形变化。

例如，英语中的单词“goose”的复数形式在古英语中为“gǣs”，而在现代英语中为“geese”。

总之，英语词汇学研究词汇的产生、发展和变化，揭示了词汇在语言中的重要地位和作用。

通过深入研究词汇，我们可以更好地理解和运用英语，提高我们的语言能力。

自考英语词汇学部分章节重点归纳E n g l i s hL e x i c o l o g y《英语词汇学》（课程代码：00832）试卷结构Chapter 5 Word Meaning(词的意义)Reference(所指关系) is the relationship between language and the world.Concept(概念)，which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition n. 认识；知识；认识能力, reflecting the objective world in the human mind.Sense(语义)denotes the relationship inside the language. Every word that has meaning has sense (not every word has reference)Motivation(词义理据)account for the connection between the linguistic(word) symbol and its meaning.Onomatopoeic motivation(拟声理据) words were created by imitating the nature sounds or noises. Morphological motivation(形态理据)compounds and derived words are multi-morphemic words and the meanings of many are the sum total of the morphemes combined.很多合成词和派生词都是这类，Semantic motivation(语义理据)refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word.(由字面义派生出来的引申义)Etymological motivation(词源理据) the meaning of many words often relate directly to their origins. In other words the history of the word explain the meaning of the word.Grammatical meaning refers to that part of the meaning of the word which indicates grammatical concept or relationships.Conceptual meaning also known as denotative meaning(外延意义), is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning.Associative meaning is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning. Connotative meaning refers to the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning, traditionally know as connotations.Stylistic meaning refers to stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different contexts. Affective meaning indicates the speaker’s attitude towards the person or thing inquestion.(appreciative or pejorative).Collocative meaning is that part of the word-meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in discussion.Stylistic meaning and affective meaning are revealed by means of collocations.Chapter 6 Sense Relations and Semantic Field(语义关系和语义场)6.1 Polysemy（多义关系）1．多义关系的形成：Polysemy is a common feature peculiar to all nature language that a word has more than one sense.An overwhelming majority of words are polysemous. When a word is first coined, it is always monosemic. But in the course of development, the same symbol must be used to express more meanings. The result is polysemy.2.Two approaches to polysemy(多义关系的两种研究方法):diachronic approach(历时角度)and synchronic approach(共时角度).3.Two process of development(词义发展的两种模式)1）Radiation (辐射型) is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the center and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rays. The meanings are independent of one another. But can all be traced back to the centre meaning .2)Concatenation(连锁型), meaning ‘linking together’, is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive adj. 连续的；继承的；依次的；接替的 shifts.6.2 Homonymy（同形spelling同音sound异义meaning关系）6.2.1Types of homonyms1.Perfect homonyms(完全同形同音异义词)are words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning.2.Homographs(同形词) are words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning .3.Homophones(同音词)are words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning. Homophones constitute the largest number and are most common.6.2.2 Origins of Homonyms1. Change in sound and spelling.2. Borrowing.3. Shortening.6.2.3 Differentiation of homonyms and polysemants(同形同异义词与多义词的区别)6.2.4 Rhetoric features of homonyms(同形同音异义词的修辞特色)6.3 Synonymy(同义关系)—2类型+4来源+3区分1.Definition of synonyms(同义词的定义):words different in sound and spelling but most nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning.2.同义词的2个分类1)absolute synonyms(完全同义词) also known as complete synonyms are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects.2)relative synonyms（相对同义词）also called near-synonyms are similar or nearly the same in denotation, embrace different shades of meanings or different degree of a given quality.3.同义词的4个来源1) Borrowing. (外来词)2) Dialects and regional English.（方言和区域性的英语）3) Figurative and euphemistic use of words. (词的引申义和委婉语用法)4) Coincidence with idiomatic expressions. (与习惯表达巧合一致)4.同义词的辨析（3个区分）1)difference in denotation.(外延意义)2)difference in connotation.(the stylistic and emotive colouring of words)(内涵意义)3)difference in application.应用上（difference in usage. different collocations）6.4 Antonymy反义关系—semantic opposition（语义相反关系）1.反义词的分类：矛盾反义词、对立反义词和关系反义词1) Contradictory terms (exclusive and non-gradable)--oppositeness2) Contrary terms. (a scale between two poles or extremes, gradable and one exists in comparison with the other.)—semantic relativity3) Relative terms.(interdependent相互依存)—relational opposites2.三类反义词的特点和区别Some of the characteristics of antonyms1)Antonyms are classified on the basic of semantic opposition.(adj. v. n.)there aremore synonyms than antonyms.2) A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym.3)Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion. Pairs of antonyms are seen as marked andunmarked terms respectively.4)Contrary terms are gradable antonyms, differing in degree of intensity, so each hasits own corresponding opposite. Some words can have two different types of antonyms at the same time, one being the negative and the other opposite.3.使用：解释词义。