英语词汇学6.3Synonymy

Chapter 6 Polysemy and Homonymy⏹6.1 Polysemy 一词多义⏹6.2 Homonymy 同音同形异义⏹6.3 The Stylistic Value of Polysemy and Homonymy 一词多义与同音异义的文体价值6.1 Polysemy 一词多义Polysemy: A term used in semantic analysis to refer to a lexical item which has a range of different meanings.*means that one single word has two or more senses at the same time.●Two approaches to polysemy :diachronic 历时的and synchronic 一时的，同步的●Two processes leading to polysemy1)Radiation辐射型：It is the process in which the primary or central meaning stands at thecenter while secondary meaning radiates from it in every direction like ray .*Though all the secondary meanings are independent of one another, they can all be traced back to the primary meaning.2)Concatenation连锁型: It is a semantic process in which the meaning of a word movesgradually away from its first sense by successive shifts ,like the links of a chain ,until thereis no connection between the sense that is finally developed and the primary meaning .*use relations between senses to master the different meanings of a polysemic word●Sense relations of polysemy1)original meaning vs. extended meaning 原始意义vs.引申意义2)universal meaning vs. particular meaning 普遍意义vs.特殊意义3)abstract meaning vs. concrete meaning 抽象意vs.特殊意义4)literal meaning vs. figurative meaning字面意义vs.比喻意义6.2 Homonymy 同音同形异义Homonymy: words which though different in meaning ,are pronounced alike ,or spelled alike ,or both .Eg.light（光）light（轻的）；bark（吠）bark（树皮）；flower（花）flour（面粉）●Three types of homonyms:1)Perfect homonyms完全同形同音异义词:Words identical in spelling but different in meaning .E.g.1)．poppop ／p p/ n．流行歌曲pop／p p／n．爸爸pop／p p／n．砰的一声2)．lastlast ／la:st／a．最后的last／la:st／v．持续last／la:st／n．鞋楦头现代英语词汇学概论最强版复习资料chapter62)Homophones同音异义词:Words identical in sound but different in spelling and meaning.Eg. air空气–heir继承人，后嗣bear忍受，熊–bare空的，赤裸的dear 亲爱的–deer鹿3)Homograph同形异音异义词:Words identical in spelling but different in sound and meaning .Eg. lead sow tear prayerSources of homonyms1.Phonetic convergenceUnder the influence of phonetic convergence ,two or more words whichonce were different in sound forms take on the same pronunciation thespoken language .E.g. melo –meal bean –been beat –beet flea –flee heal –heel2.Semantic divergenceWhen two or more meanings of the same word drift apart to such an extentthat there will be no obvious connection between them ,polysemy will giveplace to homonymy .E.g. flour –flower metal –mettle3.Foreign influenceE.g. host –one who entertains guest [L hospitis ]host –a large number ,an army [L hostis ,army ,hostile force ]4.ShorteningThis source is of decidedly subsidiary importance in formal writing but haswidespread influence in everyday speech.E.g. pop –popular (music )-to thrust ,to push (up ) 推6.3 The Stylistic Value of Polysemy and Homonymy一词多义与同音异义的文体价值Context plays a very important role in the hearer 's interpretation of words of two special types: different words of like form(homonymy)and words of several meanings (polysemy ).*Polysemic and homonymous words are stylistically useful to achievehumour or irony ,or to heighten dramatic effect .。

现代英语词汇学一、词汇的构成（Word - formation）1. 词根（Root）- 定义：词根是单词的核心部分，它包含着单词的基本意义。

例如，“vis”在“visible”（可见的）、“vision”（视觉）和“visit”（参观）中是词根，其基本意义与“看”有关。

读音：[ruːt]，词性：名词。

2. 前缀（Prefix）- 定义：加在词根前面，改变单词的意义。

例如，“un - ”在“unhappy”（不快乐的）中表示否定。

读音：[ˈpriːfɪks]，词性：名词。

- 常见前缀及其意义：- “re - ”（再，又），如“rewrite”（重写）。

读音：[riː - ]，词性：前缀。

- “pre - ”（在……之前），如“preview”（预习，预演）。

读音：[priː - ]，词性：前缀。

3. 后缀（Suffix）- 定义：加在词根后面，改变单词的词性或意义。

例如，“ - er”在“worker”（工人）中表示“做……的人”。

读音：[ˈsʌfɪks]，词性：名词。

- 常见后缀及其作用：- “ - ness”（构成名词，表示性质、状态），如“happiness”（幸福）。

读音：[nəs]，词性：后缀。

- “ - ful”（构成形容词，表示充满……的），如“helpful”（有帮助的）。

读音：[fʊl]，词性：后缀。

二、词性（Parts of Speech）1. 名词（Noun）- 定义：表示人、事物、地点、抽象概念等。

例如，“book”（书）、“city”（城市）、“love”（爱）。

读音：[naʊn]，词性：名词。

- 名词的分类：- 可数名词（Countable Noun），如“apple”（苹果），有单复数形式。

- 不可数名词（Uncountable Noun），如“water”（水），一般没有复数形式。

2. 动词（Verb）- 定义：表示动作或状态。

例如，“run”（跑）、“be”（是）。

English Lexicology( 英语词汇学 )Lexicology （词汇学） : is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into theorigins and meanings of words.The Nature and Scope of English lexicology ：English lexicology aims at investigating and studying themorphological structures of English words and word equivalents, theirsemantic structures, relations, historical development, formation andusages.：The subjects that English Lexicology correlated with and extenttoEnglish Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态) 学 ),semantics( 语义学 ), etymology( 词源学 ),stylistics （文体论）and lexicography( 词典学The reason for a student to study English lexicology ：According to the textbook, English Lexicology will definitely bebeneficial for students of English.A good knowledge of morphological structures of English words and rules ofword-formation will help learners develop their personal vocabulary and consciously increase their word power. The information of the historical development and the principles of classification will give them a deeper understanding of word-meaning and enable them to organize, classify andstore words more effectively. The understanding and their sense relationswill gradually raise their awareness of meaning and usage, and enable themuse words more accurately and appropriately. A working knowledge ofdictionaries will improve their skills of using reference books and raisetheir problem-solving ability and efficiency of individual study.Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabularyWord （词的定义） : A word is a minimal free form of a language that has agiven sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity(3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentencend and meaning （声音与意义） : almost arbitrary, “ no logical relationship betweenthesound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself ”Sound and form （读音和形式） : 不统一的四个原因（ 1 ）the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other （ 2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years （ 3） some ofthe difference were creates by the early scribes （4） the borrowings is an importantchannel of enriching the English vocabularyVocabulary （词汇） : all the words in a language make up its vocabularyClassification of English Words ：By use frequency:basic word stock&nonbasic vocabulary By notion:content words&functional words By origin:native words&borrowed wordsThe basic word stock （基本词汇） : is the foundation of the vocabularyaccumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. Though it constitute a small percentage of the EV, it is the most important part of vocabulary. The Fundamental Features of the Basic Word Stock(基本词汇的特征) : 1)All-National character （全民通用性 mostimportant ） 2)Stabil ity（相对稳定性） 3)Productiv ity （多产性） 4)Polysem y （多义性） 5)Collocabi lity（可搭配性）没有上述特征的(4)Argot （暗语） words: (1)Terminology( 术语 ) (2)Jargon （行话）(3)slang （俚语） （ 5） Dialectal words( 方言 ) (6) Archaisms （古语） (7) Neologisms（新词语） :Neologisms means newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.(email)Content words/notionalwords functional words/empty words实词 ( cloud, run walk, never, five, frequently虚词 ( on, of, and, be, but )) and Native Words and Borrowed WordsNative words （本族语词） : known as Anglo-Saxon words (50,000-60,000), are words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes. (mainstream of the basic word-stocks).Two other features:(1)neutral in style (2)frequent in useBorrowed words/Loan words （外来语词） : words taken over from foreign languages.(80% of modern EV)4 Types of loan words:1) denizens( 同化词 ): (shirt from skyrta(ON))2) aliens （非同化词 / 外来词） :are borrowed words which have retained their originalpronunciation and spelling (kowtow (CH) 磕头 )3) translation loans( 译借词 ): 按其他语言方式组成英语long time no see (from China)4) semantic loans （借义词）： they are not borrowed with reference to theform,but their meanings are borrowedChapter 2 the development of the English VocabularyThe Indo-European Language Family( 印欧语系 )The Eight Groups in Indo-European Family of Languages （ 8 大印欧语群）The Eastern set:（1 ） The Balto-slavic Group （波罗的- 斯拉夫语族）：Russian,Bulgarian,Polish,Czech etc.（2 ） The Indo-Iranian Group （印度 -伊朗语族）： Hindi,Bengali,Persian etc.(3)The Armenian Group （亚美尼亚语族）： Armenian.(4)The Albanian Group （阿尔巴尼亚语族）： Albanian.The Western set:(5)The HellenicGroup（古希腊语族）：Greek.(6)The ItalianGroup（意大利语族）：Latin ,Romance languages(French,Italian,Spanish, portuguese,Romanian) etc.(7)The Celtic Group （凯尔特语族）：Irish,Welsh,Breton etc.(8)The Germanic Group （日耳曼语族）：Flemish,German,Dutch,Scandinavian(Norweigian, Swedish,Danish,Icelandic) etc.The Three Stages of Development of the English Vocabulary:1 Old English (450-1100) (vocabulary 50,000 to 60,000):was I high inflected language.2 Middle English (1150-1500):retaines much fewer inflections3 Modern English (1500-up to now): in fact more than 25% of modern E wordscome almost directly from classical languages. In Modern E, words endingswere mostly lost with just a few expections.English has evolved from asynthetic language(Old English) to the present analytic language.Modes of Vocabulary Development( 词汇的发展模式):1)creation 创造新词： the formation of new words by usingthe existingtoots,affixes and other elements.( 最重要方式 )materials,namely2)semantic change 旧词新义 :does not increase the number of word formsbut create many more new useages of the words.3) borrowing 借用外来词 :constitute merely 6 to 7 percent of all new wordsReviving words or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant.Chapter 3 Word Formation IMorpheme( 词素 ) :the smallest functioning unit in the composition of wordsAllomorph( 词素变体 ) : is a different variant form of amorpheme and spelling form, but at the same in functionand meaning， differ in phonologicalType of Morpheme( 词素的分类)（1 ）Free Morphemes （自由词素） : have complete meaning in themselves and canbe used as free grammatical units in sentences. A free morpheme is one that canstand by itself. (independent).（2 ） Bound Morpheme( 粘着语素 ): A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself. Bound Morpheme includes two types: (1) bound root( 粘附词根 ) (2)Affix( 词缀 )Affixes can be put into two groups:1)Inflectional affixes ( 屈折词缀 ):affixes attached to the end ofwords to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional,thusknown as inflectional morphemes.2)Derivational affixes( 派生词缀 ): A) prefix: A prefix comes before words.B)suffix:An adjective suffix （形容词后缀） that is added to the stem,whatever class is belongs to , the result will be an adjective.Free Morpheme =free root （自由词根）Morpheme( 词素 )Bound root prefixbound derivationalaffix suffixinflectionalRoot and stem （词根和词干）The differences between root and stem:A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzedwithout total loss of identity.A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root.Chapter 4 Word-Formation II( 构词法 )1.Affixation 词缀法（Derivation 派生法）：the formation of words by addingword-formaing or derivational affixes to stem.（1 ） Prefixation( 前缀法 ) ：It's the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems.1)Negative prefixes( 否定前缀 ): un-,non-,in-,dis,a- ,il-,ir-,im-,etc.disobey(not obey)2)Reversative prefixes （逆反前缀） : un-,de- ，dis- etc. unwrap(open)3)P ejorative prefixes: mis （贬义前缀）： mis- ， mal-, pseudo-etc.misconduct(bad behaviour)4) Prefixes of degree or size( 程度前缀 )：arch-,extra-,hyper-,macro-,micro-,mini-,out-,over-,sub-,super-,sur-,ultra-,under-,ect. overweight5) Prefixes of orientation and attitude （倾向态度前缀）:contra-,counter-,anti-,pro-etc.anti-nuclear6)Locative prefixes （方位前缀） :extra-,fore-,inter-,intra-,tele-,trans-, etc. extraordinary(more than ordinary)7) Prefixes of time and order （时间和顺序前缀） :fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc.monorail(one rail)8) Number prefixes （数字前缀） :uni- ，mono-, bi- ， di-, tri-,multi- ，poly-， semi- ， etc.bilingual(concerning two languages)9)M iscellaneous prefixes （混杂前缀）： auto-, neo-, pan-, vice-.vice-chairman(deputy chairman)(2)Suffixation （后缀法） : It's the formation of a new word by adding suffixes to stems.1)noun suffixes 2)adjective suffixes 3)Adverb suffixes 4)verb suffixespounding 复合法（ also called composition ）Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stemsCompounds are written in three ways: solid 连写 (airmail) ，hyphenated 带连字符(air-conditioning)and open 分开写 (air force, air raid)Formation of compounds （复合词的形式）（1 ） noun compounds ： e.g. : air + plane = airplane,flower + pot = flower pot（2 ） adjectivecompounds： e.g. acid + head = acid-head（3 ） verbcompounds： e.g. house + keep = housekeep3.Conversion 转类法Conversion: is the formation of new words by converting words of oneclass to another class. （功能转换，又叫零派生 .functional shift/zero-derivation ）4.Blending 拼缀法Blending : is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. e.g: motor + hotel = motel, smoke + fog =smog, formula + translation = FORTRAN5.Clipping 截短法Clipping:is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead.e.g. plane from airplane, phone fromtelephone.四种形式：1).Front clippings 删节前面(phone from telephone)2).Back clippings 删节后面(dorm from dormitory)3).Front and back clippings 前后删节(flu from influenza)4).Phrase clippings 短语删节(pop from popular music)6.Acronymy 首字母缩写法Acronymy:is the process of forming new words by joining the initialletters of names of social and political organizations or special nounphrases and technical terms.（1 ） Initialism （首字母缩写词法）: initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter.e.g.:BBC(for British Broadcasting corporation)（2 ） Acronym （首字母拼音法） :Acronyms are words formed from initialletters but pronounced as a normal word. E.g.:TEFL(teaching English as aforeign language)（逆生法，逆构词）7.Back-formationBack-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. It?s the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes. (greed from greedy)8.Words From Proper Name( 专有名词转成法):Names of people, places, book, and tradenames (e.g.: sir watt siemens( 人名 ) -- watt （瓦特，电功率单位）Chapter 5 Word MeaningThe meanings of “ Meaning( “意”义”的意义 )Reference ( 所指 ):It is the relationship between language and the word.It is the arbitrary and conventional. It is a kind of abstraction, yetwith the help of context, it can refer to something specific.Concept （概念） :which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition( 认识),reflecting the objective world in the human mind.Sense （意义） :It denotes the relationship inside the language. ,The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relat ionships with other expressions in the language.?Motivation ( 理据 ) ： It accounts for the connection between thelinguistic symbol and its meaning.1) Onomatopoeic motivation （拟声理据） :words whose sounds suggest their meaning, forthese words were creates by imitating the natural sounds or noises. Knowingthe sounds of the words means understanding the meaning. E.g.: bang, ping-pong, ha ha.2)Morphological motivation （形态理据）:multi-morphemic words and the meaning of manyare the sum total of the morphemes combines. E.g.: airmail, miniskirt . 例外：black market, ect.3)Semantic motivation （词义理据）： refers to the mental associationssuggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connectionbetween the literal sense and figurative sense of the word. E.g:the foot ofthe mountain(foot)4)Etymological motivation （词源理据） :the history of the word explains themeaning of the word. E.g:pen-featherTypes of meaning( 词义的类别 )1.Grammatical Meaning （语法意义） :indicates the grammatical concept or relationships (becomes important only in actual context)2.Lexical Meaning （词汇意义）(Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning make up the word-meaning)Lexical meaning has 2 componentsmeaning( 关联意义 ) 内容 : Conceptualmeaning(概念意义) and associative1） Conceptual meaning( 概念意义 ): also known as denotativemeaning( meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core ofword-meaning.外延意义 ) is the2） Associative meaning( 关联意义):is the secondary meaning supplemented to theconceptual meaning. [4types:（1 ）Connotative （内涵意义）：theovertonesorassociationssuggestedby theconceptua l meaning, traditionallyknown as connotations.(例如“母亲”经常与“爱”“关心”“温柔”联系起来 )（2 ） Stylistic （文体意义）： many words have stylistic features, which make themappropriate for different contexts.（3 ）Affective（感情意义）：indicates the speaker?s attitude towards the personor thingin question. 这种情感价值观分两类：褒义和贬义appreciative & pejorative（4 ）Collocative （搭配意义）： is the part of the word-meaning suggested by the wordsbefore or after the word in discussion.]Chapter 6 --Sense relation and semantic field （语义关系和语义场）Polysemy （多义关系）Two approached to polysemy （多义关系的两种研究方法）:1.diachronic approach( 历时方法 ) ：from the diachronic point of view, polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure ofone and same word. First meaning is the primary meaning , the latermeanings are called derived meanings.2. synchronic approach ( 共时方法 ) : synchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistenceof various meanings of the same word in a certain historical period of time. centralmeaning , 次要意基本意义是Two processes of development （词义的两种发展类型）:1.radiation （辐射型）： is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at thecentre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every directionlike rayes. (e.g: face, neck)2.concatenation （连锁型） :is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word movegradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until there is not asign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that whichthe term had atthe beginning.(e.g:treacle)3.In radiation, each of the derived meaning is directly connected to the primary meaning.In concatenation, each of the later meaning is related only to thepreceding one like chains. Though the latest sense can be traced backto the original, there is no direct connection in between.4.They are closely related, being different stages of the development leading topolysemy. Generally, radiation precedes concatenation. In many cases, the twoprocesses work together, complementing each other.Homonymy （同形同音异义关系） :words different in meaning but eitheridentical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.Types of homonyms( 同音同形异义关系的类别)1）Perfect homonyms （完全同音同形异义词）：words identical both in sound andspelling, but different in meaning.2)Homographs （同形异义词） :words identical only in spelling, but differentin sound and meaning.( 最多最常见 )3）Homophones （同音异义词）：words identical only in sound but different inspelling and meaning.Origins of homonyms ( 同形同音异义词的来源 )1） change in sound and spelling ： (eare-ear, lang-long, langian-long)2） borrowing (feria-fair, beallu-ball, baller-ball )3） Shortening( 缩略 ): (ad-advertisement,)The differentiation of Homonyms from Polysemes （同音同形异义词和多义词的区别)：1)The fundamental difference : Homonymy refers to different words which happen to share the same form and polysemy are the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings.2)One important criterion is to see their etymology( 词源)： Homonymys are from differentsources. Polysemant is from the same source.3)The second principle consideration is semantic relatedness( 语义关联 ): The various meanings of polysemant are correlated and connected to one central meaning.Meanings of different homonymys have nothing to do with one another. Indictionaries, a polysemant has its meaning all listed under one headwordwhereas homonyms are listed as separate entries.Rhetoric features of homonyms( 同形同音异义词的修辞特色) ： As homonyms are identicalin sound or spelling, particularly homophones, they are often employed tocreate puns for desired effect of, say, humor, sarcasm or ridicule.Synonymy ( 同义关系 ): one of two or more words in the English languagewhich have the same or very nearly the same essential meaning .Types of Synonymy( 同义词的类别 ) :(1) Absolute synonyms （完全同义词）：also known as complete synonyms are words whichare identical in meaning in all aspects, i.e. both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, including conceptual and associative meanings.[ Absolute synonyms arerestricted to highly specialized vocabulary in lexicology. ](2) relative synonyms （相对同义词）:also called near-synonyms are similar or nearly thesame in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality.(e.g: change/alter/vary, stagger/reel/totter, strange/odd/queer,idle/lazy/indolent)Sources of synonyms( 同义词的来源 ) :1)Borrowing （借词）：最重要的来源 (room-chamber, foe-enemy, help-aid, leave-depart, wise-sage, buy-purchase)2)Dialects and regional English （方言和地区英语）3)Figurative and euphemistic use of words （单词的修饰和委婉用法） :occupation/profession-walk of life, dreamer--star-gazer, drunk-elevated, lie-distort of fact.4)Coincidence with idiomatic expressions （与习惯表达一致）:win-gain the upper hand,decide- make up one?s mind, finish -get through, hesitate-be in two minds, help-lend one a hand.Discrimination of Synonyms(1)difference in denotation 外延不同 . Synonyms may differ in the range andintensity of meaning.(rich-wealthy, work-toil, want-wish-desire)(2)difference in connotation 内涵不同 . By connotation we mean the stylisticand emotive colouring of words. Some words share the same denotation butdiffer in their stylistic appropriateness. ( 借词： answer-respond, storm-tempest, wood-forest, handy-manual,unlike-dissimilar, homely-domestic, fleshy-carnal. 中性词：policeman-constable-bobby-cop, ask-beg-request. 古语词、诗歌： ire/anger,bliss-happiness, forlorn-distresses, dire-dreadful, list-listen, enow-enough, save-expect, mere-lake )(3)difference in application. Many words are synonymous in meaning butdifference in usage in simple terms. They form different collocationsand fit into difference sentence patterns. (allow sb. to do sth.- letsb. do sth. / answer the letter-reply to the letter)Antonymy (反义关系 ) :it is concerned with semantic opposition. Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning.Types of Antonyms:1)contradictory terms ( 矛盾反义词 ): these antonyms truly representoppositeness ofmeaning. 特点：① The assertion of one is the denial ofthe other. ②Such antonyms arenon-gradable. They cannot be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs ofintensity like “ very ” toqualify(e.g:themsingle/married).2)contrary terms （对立反义词） : antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scalerunning between two poles or extremes.(e.g: old/young, rich/young, big/small) The twoopposites are gradable and one exists in comparison withthe other.3)relative terms （关系反义词）： this type consists of relationalopposites.（ parent/child,husband/wife, employee/employer, sell/buy, receive-give ）Some of the characteristics ofantonyms( 反义关系的特点 ):1)antonyms are classified on the basis of semanticopposition( 语义对立 ) 2)a word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym3)antonyms differ in semantic inclusion （语义内涵）4)contrary terms are gradable antonyms ， differing in degree of intensity, so each has its own corresponding opposite.(hot/warm: hot-cold/warm-cool)The use of antonyms （反义词的使用）1） Antonyms are helpful and valuable in defining the meaning of words.2)To express economically the opposite of a particular thought forthe sake ofcontrast.(e.g :now or never, rain or shine, friend or foe 敌友， wealand woe哀乐 )3） To form antithesis( 对比法 ) to achieve emphasis by putting contrasting idea together. (proverbs and sayings: easy come , easy go./ more haste, less speed.)Hyponymy ( 上下义关系 ): Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion.The meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another moregeneral word. For example, a cat is hyponym of animalSuperordinate and Subordinate ( 上义词和下义词) ： use subordinates which are concrete and precise ,presenting a vivid verbal picture before the reader.Superordinates which convey only a general and vague idea.Semantic Field( 语义场 )Viewing the total meaning in this way is the basis of field theory.e.g.(apple, pear, peach, date, mango, orange,lemon, ,fruits?)etc. make up the semantic field ofThe semantic field of the same concept may not have the same membersin different language.e.g.(aunt in English, may means 父亲的姐姐“，妈妈的姐姐，父亲哥哥的妻子”inChinese.(122)Chapter 7 Changes in Word Meaning 词义的演变Vocabulary is the most unstable element of a language as it is undergoing constant changes both in form and content. Comparatively the content is even more unstable than the form.Types of Changes ( 词义变化的种类 )1.Extension /generalization( 词义的扩大 ) : is the name given to the widening of meaning which some words undergo. It is a process by which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized.(e.g: manuscript, fabulous, picture, mill, journal, bonfire, butcher, companion)It is 2.Narrowing/ specialization( 词义的缩小 ) ： is the opposite of wideningmeaning. a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower orspecialized sense. Inother words, a word which used to have a more general sense becomesrestricted in its application and conveys a special meaning in present-dayEnglish.(e.g: deer, corn, garage, liquor, meat, disease, poison, wife,accident, girl). [ when a common word is turned into a proper noun, themeaning is narrowed accordingly. ]3.Elevation /amelioration( 词义的升华 ) :refers to the process by which words rise fromhumble（粗陋的） beginnings to positions of importance. [nice, marshal,constable, angel, knight, earl, governor, fond, minister, chamberlain ]4.Degradation / pejoration( 词义的降格 ) :A process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to used in derogatory （贬损的）sense.[boor,churl, wench, hussy, villain, silly, knave, lewd, criticize, lust ]5.Transfer( 词义的转移 ) : Words which were used to designate 指明one thing but laterchanged to mean something else have experienced the process of semantic transfer.Causes of Semantic Change( 词义变化的原因 )1.Extra-linguistic factors( 词义演变的语言外部因素):1)H istorical reason( 历史原因 ) ： Increased scientific knowledge anddiscovery, objects, institutions, ideas change in the course of time. E.g:pen, car, computer.2 )Class reason( 阶级原因 ) ： The attitude of classes have also madeinroads into lexical meaning in the case of elevation or degradation.3) Psychological reason( 心理原因 ) ：the associated transfer of meaning and euphemisticuse of words are often due to psychological factors. Such slow, humbleand despised occupations take more appealing names is all due topsychological reasons.2.Linguistic factors （语言内部原因）：the change of meaning may be caused byinternal factors with in the language system.1)shorting 缩略 :gold-gold medal, gas-coal gas, bulb-light bulb, private-private soldier2)borrowing 借用 :deer-animal-beast3)analogy 类推 :Chapter 8 Meaning and Context 词义和语境Context in its traditional sense refers to the lexical items that precede or follow a given word. Modern linguists have broadened its scope to include both linguistic and extra-linguistic contexts.Two types of context （语境的种类）1. Extra-linguistic context/ Non-linguistic situation （非语言语境）：In a broad sense, context includes the physical situation as well, which embraces thepeople, time, place, and even the whole cultural background. (look out,weekend, landlord )2.Linguistic context/ grammatical context ( 语言语境 ) ： In a narrow sense, it refers to the words, clauses, sentences in which a word appears. It may cover a paragraph, a whole chapter and even the entire book. 分为两类：1)L exical context （词汇语境）： It refers to the word that occurs togetherwith the word in question. (e.g: paper, do)2) Grammatical context （语法语境）： It refers the situation when themeaning of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs. (e.g:become)The role of context( 语境的作用 )1.Elimination of ambiguity( 消除歧义 )1） Ambiguity due to polysemy or homonymy.2） Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity如何消除歧义？——① extend the original sentence ② alter the context a little2.Indication of referents( 限定所指 )如何限定所指？——① with clear context ② with adequate verbal context3.Provision of clues for inferring word-meaning ( 提供线索以猜测词义 )1)definition2)explanation3)example4)synonymy5)antonymy6)hyponymy （上下义关系）7)relevant details8)word structureChapter 9 English Idioms 英语习语Idioms （习语的定义） : are expressions that are not readilyunderstandable from their literal meaning of individual elements. In a broad sense, idiom may include colloquialisms（俗语） , Catchphrases （标语） ,slang expressions （俚语） ,proverbs （谚语） ,etc. They form an important part of the English vocabulary.Characteristics of Idioms （英语习语的特点）1.Semantic unity （语意的整体性）： words in the idiom they have lost their individual identity. Their meanings are not often recognizable in the meaning of the whole idiom.The semantic unity of idioms is also reflected in the illogical relationship between the literal meaning of each of the idiom.2.Structural stability( 结构的稳定性 ):the structure of an idiom is to a largeextentun changeable.1) the constituents of idioms cannot be replaced2) the word order cannot be inverted or changed3) the constituents of idioms cannot be deleted or added to, not even an article.4) many idioms are grammatically unchangeable The fixity of idiom depends on the idiomaticity. 习语性表达习惯Classification of Idioms （英语习语的分类）1. idioms nominal in nature名词性习语(white elephant累赘物 )2 .idioms adjectival in nature 形容词性习语 （as poor as a church mouse） 3 .idioms verbal in nature动词性习语 （ look into ）4 .idioms adverbial in nature 副词性习语 （ tooth and nail拼命） 5 .sentence idioms 句式习语（ never do things by halves）Use of idioms （习语的使用） 1.Stylistic features （文体色彩） ：1） colloquialisms （俗语）2） slang （俚语）3） literary expressions （书面表达）The same idiom may show stylistic differences when it is assigned （指派） different meanings.2.Rhetorical features( 修辞色彩 )1) phonetic manipulation （语音处理）：（1 ） alliteration 头韵法（2 ） rhyme 尾韵法2） lexical manipulation （词法处理）（1 ） reiteration （ duplication of synonyms ）同义词并举[scream and shout] （2 ） repetition 重复 [out and out]（3 ） juxtaposition (of antonyms) 反义词并置[here and there]3.figures of speech （修辞格）（1 ） simile 明喻（2 ） metaphor 暗喻（3 ） metonymy 换喻 / 以名词代动作：live by one?s pen（4 ） synecdoche 提喻 / 以部分代整体： earn one?s bread（5 ） Personification 拟人法（6 ） Euphemism 委婉语： kick the bucket(die)（7 ） hyperbole 夸张： a world of troubleVariations of idioms( 习语的变异形式 ) ：1.addition 增加2.deletion 删除。

第六章词汇：Polysemy n. 一词多义peculiar n. 特权；特有财产adj. 特殊的Diachronic 历时性Synchronic 共时性Radiation 放射法garments n. [服装] 服装，衣着Concatenation n. 串联，连结tern 三个一组的candidate n. 候选人preceding v. 在...之前Homonyms n. [语] 同形同音异义词identical adj. 同一的；完全相同的Homographs同形异义词Homophones 同音异形异义Rhetoric 修辞puns n. 双关语sarcasm n. 讽刺ridicule n. 嘲笑embrace vt. 拥抱；信奉，皈依；包含connotation n. 内涵Antonymy 反义词predecessor 前任vice versa 反之亦然Hyponymy 上下位关系要点一. 1.Polysemy—polysemy is a common feature peculiar to all natural languages. When a words is first coined, it always monosemic, butin the course of development , the same word may have two or more different meanings.e.g. The word "flight" may mean "passing through the air", "power of flying", "air of journey", etc.2.Two approaches1).( Diachronic approach –Diachronically, polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth and development ofthe semantic structure of one and same word.This first meaning is the primary meaning. With the advance of timeand the development of language, it took on more and more meanings. These latter meanings are called derived meanings.E.g. faceThe primary meaning gave birth to new meaning.The primary meaning become either absolute or disappeared altogetherE.g. harvesttime of cutting reaping and gathering the cropsa season‘s yield of grain or fruitPain penalty or punishment pains and penaltyupon/under pain of suffering2).Synchronic approach –synchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistent of various meaning of the same word in a certain historical period of time.The basic meaning of a word is the core of word meaning.The core of word meaning called the central meaning (secondary meaning).The central meaning has gradually dimished in currency with the changes and one ofthe derived meanings has become dominant.E.g. gay3.Two process of development1). Radiation-a semantic process which shows that the primary meaning stands at the center and each of the derived meanings proceed out of in every direction like rays.The meanings are independent of one another, but can all be tracked back to thecentral meaning.e.g. Neck1) That part of a man or animal jointing the head to the body2) That part of the garments3) The neck of an animal used as food4) A narrow part between the head and body or base of any object5) The part of anythingOf the 5 meanings 1) is the primary and all the rest are derived but each of the otherfour is directly related to 1).Therefore, we say neck has developed through the process of radiation.2).Concatenation –meaning ―linking together, is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until,in many cases, there is not a sign of connectionbetween the sense that is finally developed and that which the term hadat the begining.e.g. candidate1) White-robed adj. 穿白色长袍的2) Office seeker in white gouns3) A person who seeks an office4) A person proposed for a place, award, etc.Of the 4 meanings, 1) is the primary meaning and the other three are derived, but each of the derived meaning isonly directly related to the preceding one and there is no direct connection between 1) and 4). Therefore, we saycandidate has developed through the process of concatenation.3).DifferenceRadiation and concatenation is closely related, being different stages of thedevelopment leading to polysemy.Radiation, each of the derived meaning is directly connected to the primary meaning.Concatenation, each of the later meaning is related only to the preceding one likechains. Though the latest sensecan be tracked to the original, there‘s no direct connection in between.The two processes work together, complementing each other.Radiation precedes concatenation.1.Homonyms--are generally defined as words different in meaning but either identical both i n s ound and spellingor identical only in sound or spelling.2.1).Perfect Homonyms--are words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning.e.g. bank/bank ,bear/bear ,date/date2).Homographs--are words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning.e.g. Bow/bow ,Sow/sow3).Homophones (most common)--are words identical only in sound but different in spelling a nd meaning.e.g. Dear/dear ,Right/rite ,Son/sun3.Origins of Homonyms1). Change in sound and spelling(homonyms are native by origin, derived from different earlier forms in OldEnglish. The change in sound and spelling gradually made them identical in modernEnglish.)e.g. ear/ear ,long/long2). Borrowing (many words of foreign origin coincide in sound and/or spelling withthose of native origin with those of other foreign origin.)e.g. fair/fair,ball/ball3). Shortening (many shortened forms of words happen to be identical with otherwords in spelling or sound)e.g. ad/add,rock/rock ,NOW/now4.Differentiation of Homonyms and polysemants(Perfect homonyms and polysemants are fully identical regard to spelling and pronunciation. )Homonyms refer to different word, which happen to share the same forms.Polysemant is the one and some word, which has several meanings.1).One important criterion is to see their etymology. Homonyms are from differen tsources. A polysemant is from the same source,which has acquired different meaning in the course of development.2). The second principle is semantic relatedness.The various meanings of a polysemant are correlated andconnected to some central meaning to a greater or less degree. Meanings of different homon yms have nothing to do with one another.5.Rhetoric featureThey create puns for desired effect of, say, humour, sarcasm or ridicule.三.1.Synonyms—are words different in sound and spelling but most nearly alike or exactly the same in mean ing.Synonyms share a likeness in denotation and in part of speech.2.Types of Synonyms1).Absolute (Complete) Synonyms--are words, which are identical in meaning inall its aspects, both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning,including c onceptual and associative meanings.Absolute (Complete) Synonyms are restricted to high-specialized vocabulary.For instance, composition / compounding. They have the perfect same meaningin Lexicology.2).Relative (Near) synonyms--are similar or nearly the same in denotation but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality.e.g. Change/alter/varyTake stagger/reel/totter for example.Stagger implies unsteady movement characterized by a loss of balance and failure to maintai n a fixed course.E.g. stagger under a heavy load;Reel suggests a swaying or lurching so as to appear on the verge of falling.E.g. The drunken man reeled down the hall;Totter indicates the uncertain, faltering steps of a feeble old person or of an infant learning to walk.3.Sources of Synonyms1).Borrowing: (the most important source)2).Dialects and regional English:eg.Railway (BrE) railroad (AmE)Mother (BrE) minny (ScotE)Charm (BrE) glamour (ScotE)Ranch (AmE) run (AusE)Job (StandE) gig (BlackE)Jim (BlachE) mal person (StandE)3).Figurative a. 比喻的，象征的and euphemistic a.委婉的use of words:Occupation walk of life (fig.)Dreamer star-gazer (fig.)Drunk elevated (euph.)Lie distort the fact (euph.)4).Coincidence with idiomatic expressions:Win gain the upper handDecide make up one‘s mindFinish get throughHesitate be in two mindsHelp lend one a hand4.Discrimination of Synonyms1) Difference in denotation: differ in the range and intensity of meaning.Range (some words have a wider range of meaning than others)e.g. timid--timorousTimid is applied to the state of minds in which a person may happen to be at the moment, ant to the habitual disposition.Timorous is only to the disposition.Comprehend/ understandextend—increase—expandThe owner of the restaurant is going to extend the kitchen by ten feet this year. The company has decided to increase its sales by ten percent next year.The metal will expand if heated.Extent increase expand Differ in degree of intensitye.g. wealth—richThe wealth person is to posses more money and property than a rich man.work – toilWork is a general term having no special implications as ‗light‘ or ‗heavy‘, and‗mental‘ or ‗physical‘.Toil suggests ‗heavy and tiring work‘, associated with more with manual thanmental labor.want—wish—desireWant is the most general and has the widest range of meaning.Wish and desire are much narrow in sense2) Difference in connotation: differ in the stylistic and emotive coloring.Some words share the same denotation but differ in their stylistic appropriateness.E.g. The words borrowed from French and Latin are more formal than native words.These borrowings are more appropriate formal and technical writing.policeman – constable – bobby – coppoliceman(neutral) – constable(neutral) – bobby(colloquial) – cop(slangy)ask -- beg -- requestask (neutral); beg (colloquial); request (formal)archaic and poetic, which are self-suggestive.e.g.ire/anger,bliss/happiness,forlorn/distressed,dire/dreadful,list/listen,enow/enough,save/exp ect,mere/lake andsuch like are all synonyms, but in each the second is standard in usage whereas the first on e is old-fashioned and archaic, only found in poetry, earlier writing, etc.Many synonyms have clear affective valuesresult – consequence result(neutral ) – consequence(negative implication)big –greatbig(the bigness of size, volume and so on, without any emotive coloring) -great(suggest distinguished, eminent, outstanding)little – small – tinylittle (attractiveness, pleasantness)– small(not big),tiny(abnormal growth of the child)3) Difference in application: differ in usage.Many words are synonyms in meaning but different in usage in simple terms.They form different collocations and fit into different sentence patterns.E.g. allow – letallow sb to so sth. – let sb. do sth.answer – replyanswer(transitive v.) the letter – reply(intransitive v.) to the lettersense –meaningHe is a man of sense.empty -- vacantempty box/street/room (no one or nothing inside) vacant seat/chair/apartment(not occupied) lump –slice – chunk – sheet –cakea lump sugar– a slice of meat – a chunk of wood – a sheet of paper –a cake of soap四.1.Antonymy--is concerned with semantic opposition.Antonyms--are words which are opposite in meaning.2.Types of Antonyms (according to the semantic opposition )1) Contradictory terms –these antonyms are truly represent oppositeness of meaning. They are so opposed toeach other that they are mutually exclusive and admit no possibility between them.They assertion of one is the denial of the other.E.g. alive—dead, present--absent, male – female, boy – girl, true – false,same – different, imperfect –perfectSuch antonyms are non gradable.They can not be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs like―very to qualify them. (single/married)特点:对立的/不可分级2) Contrary terms- a scale running between two poles or extremes. The two opposites are gra dable and one exists in comparison with the other.E.g. rich--(well-to-do)--poor; old –(middle-aged)-- young,open –(ajar)—close,beautiful –(good-looking) –(plain) –ugly,hot--(warm, cool)--coldverbs. E.g. love – (attachment) – (liking) – (indifferent) –(antipathy) -- hate3) Relative terms–consist of relational oppositeness. The pairs of words indicate such a socialrelationship that one of them can not be used without suggesting the other,the type is also reverse terms. The two words of each pair interdependent.E.g. parent--child; husband--wife; predecessor –successor, employer -- employee sell—buy, give –receive3.difference between relative terms and contradictory termsthere is an absolute opposite between relative terms and contradictory terms. In the case of relative terms, the opposition is only relational.contradictory terms –e.g. if the adult is not a man, then the adult must be a woman.4.the characteristics of antonyms1). Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition.形容词(most) -- 动词–名词(least)There are a great many more synonyms than antonyms.Words denoting nature, quality or state of things have many antonyms. This accounts for the large number of antonyms are adjectives.2). A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym.e.g. fast – firm/secure loose quick slowpleasure-seeking/wild soberdull -- boring interestingShe became dull and silent during the last part of the journey.lively dull weather sunny ,dull noise sharp,dull pain acutethese factors affect both intelligent and dull children. Intelligent3).Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion.Pairs of antonyms are seen as marked and unmarked terms. One member is morespecific than the other and the meaning of the specific is included in that of the general.e.g. man–womanThere has been no man in the island. (man signifies human being, including women, but not v ice versa).dog-male/ female dogtall—shortHow tall is his brother? (includes the meaning of next one)How short is his brother? (more restricted in sense)4). Contrary terms are gradable antonyms, differing in degree of intensity, so each hasits own corresponding opposition.e.g. hot – cold, warm – cool, rich – poor, destitute – opulentSome words can have two different types of antonyms at the same time, one being negative and the other opposite.e.g. happy—unhappy-sad,productive—unproductive—destructivefree--unfree-enslaved5.the use of antonymsAntonyms have various practical uses and have long proved helpful and valuable indefining the meanings of words.fresh bread –stale bread, fresh air –stuff air, fresh flower -faded flower,fresh look – tired lookAntonyms are useful to express economically the opposition of a particular thought,often for the sake for contrast. They look neat and pleasan t, and sound rhythmicMany idioms are formed with antonyms.Rain and shine无论如何Here and there到处Weal and woe祸福Friend and foe敌友Now or never机不可失Thick and thin不顾艰难，险阻High and low到处Give an take互让，平等Antonyms are often used to form antithesis to achieve emphasis by puttingcontrasting idea together.Easy come, easy go. 来的易，去得快。

synonymy的英文名词解释Synonymy: An Exploration of the Concept in LinguisticsIntroduction:Language is a complex system of communication that encompasses a vast array of words and phrases. One fascinating aspect of language is the existence of synonyms, words that share similar or identical meanings. In linguistic terms, this phenomenon is known as "synonymy." Synonymy plays a significant role in language development, cognitive processes, and the overall richness of communication. In this article, we delve into the concept of synonymy, its implications, and its impact on language.Defining Synonymy:Synonymy refers to the relationship between words that have closely related meanings. Two words are considered synonyms if they can be used interchangeably in a given context without significantly altering the intended message. However, it is crucial to note that complete synonymy is extremely rare. Words often have subtle differences in meaning, usage, and connotation, leading to varying degrees of synonymy.Gradability of Synonymy:Synonyms can be seen as lying along a continuum of gradability. At one end, we have "complete" or "absolute" synonyms, where two words are exact equivalents without any discernible difference in meaning. However, such instances are scarce in natural languages. Most synonyms fall into the category of "near" or "partial" synonyms, where there might be slight nuances or contextual differences in their usage.Contextual Variation:Context plays a vital role in understanding the synonymy of words. The same word can serve as a synonym in one context but not in another due to variations in connotation, register, or domain. For example, the words "big" and "large" are often synonymous, but in certain contexts, one might be more appropriate than the other. Such contextualvariations illustrate the dynamic nature of synonymy and the importance of considering the broader linguistic context.Synonymy and Language Acquisition:The presence of synonyms in a language poses both benefits and challenges for language learners. Synonyms expand the vocabulary repertoire, allowing for more precise and diverse expression. However, learners must also grapple with understanding the subtle differences in meaning and usage, as well as the context-specific nature of synonyms. Mastering synonymy requires a deep understanding of the language and its cultural nuances.Cognitive Implications of Synonymy:The existence of synonyms has significant cognitive implications for language processing and conceptual organization. Studies have shown that individuals are faster at recognizing and processing synonyms than unrelated words. The ability to recognize and utilize synonymous words indicates a high level of linguistic competency and cognitive flexibility. Furthermore, synonymy sheds light on the intricate network of connections between words and concepts in our minds.Synonymy in Literature and Rhetoric:Synonymy is not merely a linguistic curiosity; it plays a crucial role in literature, rhetoric, and persuasive communication. Skilled writers and orators often utilize synonyms to add variety, depth, and emphasis to their expressions. They carefully select synonyms to evoke specific emotions, establish subtle distinctions, or create a particular tone. The judicious use of synonyms enhances the overall effectiveness and impact of written or spoken language.The Limitations of Synonymy:While synonymy is a fascinating linguistic phenomenon, it is not without its limitations. As previously mentioned, complete synonymy is rare, and words often differ in subtle ways. Depending solely on synonyms can lead to imprecision or ambiguity ofmeaning. Therefore, a comprehensive understanding of a language requires an appreciation for the unique characteristics and nuances of individual words, beyond mere synonymy.Conclusion:Synonymy is a captivating aspect of language that adds depth, richness, and flexibility to communication. While not every word has a perfect counterpart, the existence of synonyms allows us to choose from a diverse range of expressions. Understanding synonymy is crucial for language learners, writers, and those interested in exploring the intricate workings of language. By grasping the dynamic nature of synonymy, we can appreciate the subtleties and complexities that make language a truly fascinating human phenomenon.。

●Synonymy 同义关系●synonym 同义词●Antonymy 反义关系●antonym 反义词●Polysemy 多义关系●polyseme 多义词●Homonymy 同音(同形)异义关系●homonym 同音同形异义词，homograph同形异义词，homophone 同音异义词●Hyponymy 上下义关系●superordinate 上义词, hyponym下义词●Taxonymy 分类关系●superordinate上类词, taxonym 分类词●Meronymy 部分整体关系●superordinate 总项词, meronym 分项词幻灯片3Synonymy●Synonymy is a relationship of ‘sameness of meaning’that may hold between two words.●Synonym: a word that means the same as another.●Linguists make a distinction between ‘strict’or ‘absolute’synonymy and ‘loose’or‘relative’synonymy.幻灯片4Strict synonymy●Strict synonyms refer to two words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects. They areinterchangeable in all contexts.●Strict synonyms are very rare, and some linguists even argue that strict synonyms do notexist.●Strict synonymy is uneconomical; it creates unnecessary redundancy in a language.幻灯片5Loose synonymy●When we speak of synonymy, we mean ‘loose’or ‘relative’synonymy, where we find notonly a significant overlap in meaning between two words, but also some contexts where they cannot be used interchangeably.●John found/discovered the basketball in the grass.●Maria Curie discovered radium in 1898.●*Maria Curie found radium in 1898.discover: be the first one to come across somethingfind: experience something in some way幻灯片6Distinguishing synonyms●We often take the following things into consideration when we try to find the differencesbetween synonyms.●Different English dialects●Different stylistic meanings●Different connotative meanings幻灯片7Synonyms from different dialects●Some synonym pairs differ in that they belong to different dialects of English. Here are someexamples of synonyms from British and American English:BrE AmE BrE AmElift elevator farm ranchlawyer attorney biscuit cookierubbish garbage pavement sidewalk幻灯片8Synonyms with different stylistic meanings●One of a pair of synonyms may be used in a more formal context than the other. Here aresome examples of synonym pairs.Informal Formal Informal Formaldie decease daddy fatherblame chide guy manwest occidental praise eulogy幻灯片9Synonyms with different connotative meanings●Synonyms may have different emotive associations (connotative meanings).famous notorious(disreputably) misuse abuse(of privilege orpower)ambiguous equivocal(deliberately) new novel(strikingly)hate loathe(with disgust) obtain procure(with effort)幻灯片10Source of synonyms●Why are there so many synonyms in English?●The primary reason for this has to do with the heavy borrowing from other languages,especially from French and Latin.English French Latinask question interrogatetime age epochbegin commencebuy purchase幻灯片11Antonymy (反义关系)●Antonymy is a relationship of ‘meaning opposition’ that may hold between twowords.●Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning.●Major types of antonyms：●Gradable antonyms●Contradictory or complementary antonyms●Converse antonyms幻灯片12Gradable antonyms●Gradable antonyms include pairs like the following:●beautiful ugly●expensive cheap●fast slow●hot cold●long short●rich poor●wide narrowThese pairs are called gradable antonyms because they do not represent a more/less relation. The words can be the end-points of a continuum (连续体).Since they are gradable, they allow comparison.幻灯片13Contradictory (complementary) antonyms●Contradictory antonyms include pairs like the following:●asleep awake●dead alive●on off●remember forget●win lose●true falseThese pairs are called contradictory antonyms because they represent an either/or relation.If you permit some behavior, then it is not forbidden.Since they are not gradable, they do not allow comparison.幻灯片14Converse antonyms (逆行)●The following are examples of converse antonyms：●lend borrow●husband wife●above below●before after●behind in front of●buy sell●give receive●parent child●speak listenLend is the converse of borrow and vice versa; i.e. the substitution of one member for the other does not change the meaning of a sentence if it is accompanied by the change of subject and object.John lent Mary five dollars.=Mary borrowed five dollars from John.幻灯片15Contradictory antonyms vs. Converse antonyms1,The bridge is above the river.The river is below the bridge. Converse antonyms are relational antonyms.2,This behavior is allowed.This behavior is not prohibited. Contradictory antonyms are either/or antonyms.幻灯片16Polysemy●When a word is first coined, it is always the case (true) that it has only one meaning(monosemic). But in the course of development, the same symbol may be used to express new meanings. The result is polysemy.●Polysemy shows the economy and efficiency of human languages.幻灯片17Two processes leading to polysemy●There are two important processes in the development of meaning:●Radiation (发散)●Concatenation(串联)幻灯片18Radiation●Radiation is a process in which the primary meaning stands in the center, and the derivedmeanings radiate from it in every direction like rays.●All the derived meanings can be traced back to the primary meaning.幻灯片19Radiation Example: faceWe can get the derived meanings by extension, narrowing, analogy, transfer, etc.the front of the head(Primary Meaning): 1a person,2self-respect,3outward appearance,4the surface of a thing,5countenance(Derived Meaning)幻灯片20Concatenation●Concatenation is a process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually from its primarymeaning by successive shifts, like the links of a chain, until there is no connection between the meaning that is finally developed and the primary meaning.●Unlike radiation where each of the derived meaning is directly related to the primarymeaning, concatenation is a process where each of the later meaning is related only to the preceding one.1→2→3→4→5→6幻灯片21Concatenation Example: candidateA a person dressed in whiteA+B(bridging context) a white robed applicant for office (because the Romans wore white robes when standing for office)B a person taking an examinationThere is no connection between A and B, because the middle link (A+B) has vanished.The primary meaning A has also vanished. Now the derived meaning has become the central meaning.幻灯片22Homonymy●Homonymy is the relation between two words that are spelled or pronounced in the sameway but differ in meaning.●Such words are called homonyms.●lie vi. / lie vi. -- perfect homonyms●tear n./ tear vt.--homographs●coarse/course --homophones幻灯片23Perfect homonyms●Perfect homonyms: words identical in both sound and spelling, but different in meaning●bank: n./ bank: n.●bear: n./ bear: vt.幻灯片24Homographs●Homographs: words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning.●bow: vi. to bend one’s head as a greeting●bow: n. the device used for shooting arrows●sow: n. female pig●sow: vi. to scatter seeds●perfect: v. /- ’-/●perfect: adj. /’- -/幻灯片25Homophones●Homophones: words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning.●sun/son●deer/dear●right/write●pair/pear●stationary/stationery幻灯片26Differentiation of perfect homonyms from polysemous wordsthe same lexeme which has several different meaningsperfect homonymshaving different sourcespolysemous wordsdeveloped from the same sourcedifferent lexemes which have the same form幻灯片27The use of polysemy and homonymy●Polysemous words and homonyms are often used as puns, to achieve certain literary effect,such as humor, irony, etc.●Lewis Carroll’s Alice’s Adventure in Wonderland●“How is bread made?”●“I know that!”Alice cried eagerly. “You take some flour.”●“Where do you pick the flower?”the White Queen asked. “In a garden, or in the hedges?”●“Well, it isn’t picked at all,”Alice explained: “it’s ground.”●“How many acres of ground?”said the White Queen.幻灯片28Hyponymy●Hyponymy is the sense relationship that relates words hierarchically. The underlyingobservation is that some words have a more general meaning, while others have a morespecific meaning, while referring to the same entity.We are not going to have any food today.We are not going to have any vegetables today.幻灯片29FOOD have a more general meaning(superordinate): FRUIT, MEAT, VEGETABLE(They are subordinate terms. They are hyponyms of the superordinate term FOOD.)MEAT: BEEF, PORK, MUTTON(They are subordinate terms. They are hyponyms of the superordinate term MEA T.)VEGETABLE have a more specific meaning:(CABBAGE,CELERY,SPINACH)FRUIT: APPLE, PEACH, ORANGE(Reading from the bottom of the hierarchy, ORANGE is a ‘kind of’ fruit, which is a kind of food.)幻灯片30Taxonymy●Taxonymy is the relationship in which “X is a kind of Y”(Cruse 1986).●Not all hyponyms are good taxonyms.●Hyponyms large spoon, deep spoon are not “a kind of spoon”●Taxonyms teaspoon, soup spoon are “a kind of spoon”幻灯片31Taxonymy - Focal orientation●Focal orientation: this is a perspective that the taxonym and superordinateterm must share so that the relationship works● A blonde is not a kind of woman because blonde has a hair color focalorientation that woman lacks.幻灯片32Taxonymy –distinctive feature●It appears that a taxonym must engage with the meaning of its superordinate ina particular way, by further specifying what is distinctive about it. (p.121)● A strawberry blonde is a type of blonde.●(Distinctive f. of blonde: fair hair)●?A blonde is a type of woman.●(Distinctive f. of woman: sex)●?A stallion is a type of horse.●(Distinctive f. of stallion: sex)幻灯片33Hierarchical characteristic of Taxonymy●Pine is a kind of conifer, which is a kind of tree, which is a kind of plant.幻灯片34Taxonymy vs HyponymyHyponymy分类关系具有严格的层次性，一般不超过五层，每个层次的词项必须严格地遵守同一分类标准；而上下义关系中的词项虽然也能够划分层次，但没有严密的定义标准，对层次的数目也没有规定。

《英语词汇学》（课程代码：00832）试卷结构Chapter 5 Word Meaning(词的意义)Reference(所指关系) is the relationship between language and the world.Concept(概念)，which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition n. 认识；知识；认识能力, reflecting the objective world in the human mind.Sense(语义)denotes the relationship inside the language. Every word that has meaning has sense (not every word has reference)Motivation(词义理据)account for the connection between the linguistic(word) symbol and its meaning.Onomatopoeic motivation(拟声理据) words were created by imitating the nature sounds or noises.Morphological motivation(形态理据)compounds and derived words are multi-morphemic words and the meanings of many are the sum total of the morphemes combined.很多合成词和派生词都是这类，Semantic motivation(语义理据)refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word.(由字面义派生出来的引申义)Etymological motivation(词源理据) the meaning of many words often relate directly to their origins. In other words the history of the word explain the meaning of the word.Grammatical meaning refers to that part of the meaning of the word which indicates grammatical concept or relationships.Conceptual meaning also known as denotative meaning(外延意义), is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning.Associative meaning is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning.Connotative meaning refers to the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning, traditionally know as connotations.Stylistic meaning refers to stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different contexts.Affective meaning indicates the speaker’s attitude towards the person or thing in question.(appreciative or pejorative).Collocative meaning is that part of the word-meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in discussion.Stylistic meaning and affective meaning are revealed by means of collocations.Chapter 6 Sense Relations and Semantic Field(语义关系和语义场)6.1 Polysemy（多义关系）1．多义关系的形成：Polysemy is a common feature peculiar to all nature language that a word has more than one sense.An overwhelming majority of words are polysemous. When a word is first coined, it is always monosemic. But in the course of development, the same symbol must be used to express more meanings. The result is polysemy.2.Two approaches to polysemy(多义关系的两种研究方法):diachronic approach(历时角度)and synchronic approach(共时角度).3.Two process of development(词义发展的两种模式)1）Radiation (辐射型) is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the center and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rays. The meanings are independent of one another. But can all be traced back to the centre meaning .2)Concatenation(连锁型), meaning ‘linking together’, is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive adj. 连续的；继承的；依次的；接替的shi fts.6.2 Homonymy（同形spelling同音sound异义meaning关系）6.2.1Types of homonyms1.Perfect homonyms(完全同形同音异义词)are words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning.2.Homographs(同形词) are words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning .3.Homophones(同音词)are words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning. Homophones constitute the largest number and are most common.6.2.2 Origins of Homonyms1. Change in sound and spelling.2. Borrowing.3. Shortening.6.2.3 Differentiation of homonyms and polysemants(同形同异义词与多义词的区别)6.2.4 Rhetoric features of homonyms(同形同音异义词的修辞特色)6.3 Synonymy(同义关系)—2类型+4来源+3区分1.Definition of synonyms(同义词的定义):words different in sound and spelling but most nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning.2.同义词的2个分类1)absolute synonyms(完全同义词) also known as complete synonyms are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects.2)relative synonyms（相对同义词）also called near-synonyms are similar or nearly the same in denotation, embrace different shades of meanings or different degree of a given quality.3.同义词的4个来源1) Borrowing. (外来词)2) Dialects and regional English.（方言和区域性的英语）3) Figurative and euphemistic use of words. (词的引申义和委婉语用法)4) Coincidence with idiomatic expressions. (与习惯表达巧合一致)4.同义词的辨析（3个区分）1)difference in denotation.(外延意义)2)difference in connotation.(the stylistic and emotive colouring of words)(内涵意义)3)difference in application.应用上（difference in usage. different collocations）6.4 Antonymy反义关系—semantic opposition（语义相反关系）1.反义词的分类：矛盾反义词、对立反义词和关系反义词1) Contradictory terms (exclusive and non-gradable)--oppositeness2) Contrary terms. (a scale between two poles or extremes, gradable and one exists in comparison with the other.)—semantic relativity3) Relative terms.(interdependent相互依存)—relational opposites2.三类反义词的特点和区别Some of the characteristics of antonyms1)Antonyms are classified on the basic of semantic opposition.(adj. v. n.)there are more synonyms thanantonyms.2) A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym.3)Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion. Pairs of antonyms are seen as marked and unmarked termsrespectively.4)Contrary terms are gradable antonyms, differing in degree of intensity, so each has its own correspondingopposite. Some words can have two different types of antonyms at the same time, one being the negative and the other opposite.3.使用：解释词义。

自考英语词汇学一、基本概念。

1. Word（单词）- 发音：[wɜːd]- 词性：名词（n.）- 定义：A word is a single distinct meaningful element of speech or writing, used with others (or sometimes alone) to form a sentence and typically shown with a space on either side when written or printed.例如：“book”“run”“happy”都是单词。

2. Lexicon（词汇）- 发音：[ˈleksɪkən]- 词性：名词（n.）- 定义：The vocabulary of a person, language, or branch of knowledge. 一个人、一种语言或者一个知识领域的词汇总和。

例如：The lexicon of medical terms is very large.（医学术语的词汇量非常大。

）3. Morpheme（语素）- 发音：[ˈmɔːfiːm]- 词性：名词（n.）- 定义：The smallest meaningful unit in a language. 语言中最小的有意义的单位。

例如，“un - happy”中，“un -”（否定前缀，表“不”）和“happy”都是语素。

二、构词法（Word - formation）1. Prefixation（前缀法）- 发音：[priːfɪkˈseɪʃn]- 词性：名词（n.）- 定义：The formation of new words by adding prefixes to bases or stems. 通过给词根或词干添加前缀来构成新词。

- 例子：- “un -”（不） + “kind”（善良的） = “unkind”（不善良的），“un -”的发音：[ʌn]。