英语语言学57665

英语语言学基础知识一、绪论语言学的定义语言的定义语言学的研究范畴语言的甄别特征几对基本概念(2) a large amount of communication is carried out in speech than in writingWhat is linguistics? 什么是语言学？ (3) speech is the form in which infants acquire their native languageLanguage and parole 语言与言语 Linguistics is generally defined asthe scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, butlanguages in general. 语言学是对语言科学地进行研究的学科。

语言学所要研究的不是某一种特定的语言，Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. 而是人类所有语言的特性。

Parole refers to the realization of language in actual use The scope of linguistics 语言学研究的范畴 Competence and performance 能力与运用 Phonetics语音学\Phonology音系学\Morphology形态学\Syntax句法学\Semantics语义学\Pragmatics语用学Chomsky defines competence as the ideal users’ knowledge of the rules of his language\Sociolinguistics社会语言学\Psycholinguistics心理语言学\Applied linguistics应用语言学 Performance: The actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.Prescriptive vs. descriptive 规定性与描述性 What is language? 什么是语言？ Descriptive：A linguistic study describes and analyzes thelanguage people actually use. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communicationCharacteristics of language: 语言的特性 Prescriptive: it aims lay dow n rules for “correct” behavior.Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spoken data. Language is a rule-governed system Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on “high” written language. Language is basically vocalSynchronic vs. diachronic 共时性与历史性 Language is arbitrary (the fact different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration the description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study of the arbitrary nature of language. This conventional nature of language is well illustrated by a famous the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study quotation from Shakespeare’s play “Romeo and Juliet”: “A rose by any other name wou ld smell as sweet.”)in modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. Language is used for human communication Speech and writing 口头语与书面语 Design features of language 语言的甄别特征 Speech enjoys priority over writing in modern linguistics study for the following reasons: American linguist Charles Hackett specified 12 design features:(1) speech precedes writing in terms of evolution1) arbitrariness 武断性 4) displacement移位性 2) productivity 创造性5) cultural transmission 文化传递性3) duality 二重性二、音系学语言的声音媒介音系学和语音学什么是语音学语音、音位、音位变体发音器官音位对立、互补分部、最小对立音标……宽式和严式标音法几条音系规则英语语音的分类超切分特征构成了语言的声音媒介。

《英语语言学》学习资料说明：各位童鞋，这个资料是在老版本的基础上编写的，故有些内容现在有了很大的变化和更改，大家要学会有选择性的进行学习和参考啊1.28.What is phonetics?"Phonetics" is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making, especially those sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp39-40), speech sounds may be studied in different ways, thus by three different branches of phonetics.(1)Articulatory phonetics; the branch of phonetics that examines the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate in the process. (2)Auditory phonetics, the branch of phonetic research from the hearer's point of view, looking into the impression which a speech sound makes on the hearer as mediated by the ear , the auditory nerve and the brain. (3)Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear.Most phoneticians, however, are interested in articulatory phonetics.1.29.How are the vocal organs formed?The vocal organs (see Figure1, Hu Zhuanglin et al.,p41), or speech organs, are organs of the human body whose secondary use is in the production of speech sounds. The vocal organs can be considered as consisting of three parts; the initiator of the air-stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.1.30.What is place of articulation?It refers to the place in the mouth where, for example, the obstruction occurs, resulting in the utterance of a consonant. Whatever sound is pronounced, at least some vocal organs will get involved,e. g. lips, hard palate etc., so a consonant may be one of the following (1 )bilabial:[p,b,m]; (2) labiodental:[f,v]; (3) dental:[,]; (4) alveolar:[t,d,l,n.s,z]; (5) retroflex; (6) palato-alveolar:[,]; (7) palatal:[j]; (8) velar[k,g,];(9) uvular; (10)glottal:[h].Some sounds involve the simultaneous use of two places of articulation. For example, the English [w]has both an approximation of the two lips and that two lips and that of the tongue and the soft palate, and may be termed "labial-velar".1.31.What is the manner of articulation?The "manner of articulation" literally means the way a sound is articulated. At a given place of articulation, the airstream may be obstructed in various ways, resulting invarious manners of articulation, are the following : (1) plosive:[p,b,t,d,k,g]; (2) nasal:[m,n,]; (3) trill; (4) tap or flap; (5) lateral:[l]; (6) fricative:[f,v,s,z]; (7) approximant:[w,j]; (8) affricate:[].1.32.How do phoneticians classify vowels?Phoneticians, in spite of the difficulty, group vowels in 5 types: (1) long and short vowels, e.g.,[i:,]; (4) rounded and unround vowels,e.g.[,i]; (5) pure and gliding vowels,e.g.[I,].1.33.What is IPA? When did it come into being ?The IPA, abbreviation of "International Phonetic Alphabet", is a compromise system making use of symbols of all sources, including diacritics indicating length, stress and intonation, indicating phonetic variation. Ever since it was developed in 1888, IPA has undergone a number of revisions.1.34.What is narrow transcription and what is broad transcription?In handbook of phonetics, Henry Sweet made a distinction between "narrow" and "broad" transcriptions, which he called "Narrow Romic". The former was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation while Broad Romic or transcription was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.1.35.What is phonology? What is difference between phonetics and phonology?(1) "Phonology" is the study of sound systems- the invention of distinctive speech sounds that occur in a language and the patterns wherein they fall. Minimal pair, phonemes, allophones, free variation, complementary distribution, etc., are all to be investigated by a phonologist.(2) Phonetics, as discussed in I.28, is the branch of linguistics studying the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. A phonetist is mainly interested in the physical properties of the speech sounds, whereas a phonologist studies what he believes are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features, morphological features, and the way they are conceived and printed in the depth of the mind phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which from meaningful utterances, to recognize a foreign "accent", to make up new words, to add the appropriate phonetic segments to from plurals and past tenses, to know what is and what is not a sound in one's language.1.36.What is a phone? What is a phoneme? What is an allophone?(1) A "phone" is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. When we hear the following words pronounced:[pit], [tip], [spit], etc., the similar phones we have heard are [p] for one thing, and three different[p]'s, readily making possible the "narrow transcription or diacritics". Phones may and may not distinguish meaning. A "phoneme" is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. As an abstract unit, a phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. For example, the phoneme[p] is represented differently in [pit], [tip] and [spit].(2) The phones representing a phoneme are called its "allophones", i. e., the different (i.e., phones) but do not make one word so phonetically different as to create a new word or a new meaning thereof. So the different[p]'s in the above words are the allophones of the same phoneme[p]. How a phoneme is represented by a phone, or which allophone is to be used, is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random. In most cases it is rule-governed; these rules are to be found out by a phonologist.1.37.What are minimal pairs?When two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string , the two forms(i. e., word) are supposed to form a "minimal pair", e.g., "pill" and "bill", "pill" and "till", "till" and "dill", "till" and "kill", etc. All these words together constitute a minimal set. They are identical in form except for the initial consonants. There are many minimal pairs in English, which makes it relatively easy to know what are English phonemes. It is of great importance to find the minimal pairs when a phonologist is dealing with the sound system of an unknown language(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp65-66).1.38.What is free variation?If two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast; namely, if the substitution of one for the other does not generate a new word form but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, the two sounds then are said to be in "free variation". The plosives, for example, may not be exploded when they occur before another plosive or a nasal (e. g., act, apt, good morning). The minute distinctions may, if necessary, be transcribed in diacritics. These unexploded and exploded plosives are in free variation. Sounds in free variation should be assigned to the same phoneme.1.39.What is complementary distribution?When two sounds never occur in the same environment, they are in "complementary distribution". For example, the aspirated English plosives never occur after[s], and the unsaturated ones never occur initially. Sounds in complementary distribution may be assigned to the same phoneme. The allophones of[l], for example, are also incomplementary distribution. The clear[l] occurs only before a vowel, the voiceless equivalent of[l] occurs only after a voiceless consonant, such as in the words "please", "butler", "clear", etc., and the dark[l] occurs only after a vowel or as a syllabic sound after a consonant, such as in the words "feel", "help", "middle", etc.1.40.What is the assimilation rule? What is the deletion rule?(1) The "assimilation rule" assimilates one segment to another by "copying" a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones more similar. This rule accounts for the raring pronunciation of the nasal[n] that occurs within a word. The rule is that within a word the nasal consonant[n] assumes the same place of articulation as the following consonant. The negative prefix "in-" serves as a good example. It may be pronounced as [in], [i] or [im] when occurring in different phonetic contexts: e. g., indiscrete-[ ](alveolar)inconceivable-[ ](velar)input-[‘imput](bilabial)(3) The "deletion rule" tells us when a sound is to be deleted although is orthographically represented. While the letter "g" is mute in "sign", "design" and "paradigm", it is pronounced in their corresponding derivatives: "signature", "designation" and "paradigmatic". The rule then can be stated as: delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. This accounts for some of the seeming irregularities of the English spelling (see Dai Weidong ,pp22-23).1.41.What is suprasegmental phonology? What are suprasegmental features?"Suprasegmental phonology" refers to the study of phonological properties of linguistic units larger than the segment called phoneme, such as syllable, word and sentence.Hu Zhuanglin et al.,(p,73) includes stress, length and pitch as what they suppose to be "principal suprasegmental features", calling the concurrent patterning of three "intonation". Dai Weidong(pp23-25) lists three also, but they are stress, tone and intonation.1.42.What is morphology?"Morphology" is the branch of grammar that studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed. It is generally divided into two fields: inflectional morphology and lexical/derivational morphology.1.43.What is inflection/inflexion?"Inflection" is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect, and case, which does not change the grammatical class of the items to which they are attached.1.44.What is a morpheme? What is an allomorph?(1) The "morpheme" is the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. The word "boxes", for example, has two morphemes: "box" and "-es", neither of which permits further division or analysis if we don't wish to sacrifice meaning. Therefore a morpheme is considered the minimal unit of meaning.(2) Allomorphs, like allophones vs. phones, are the alternate shapes (and thus phonetic forms) of the same morphemes. Some morphemes, though, have no more than one invariable form in all contexts, such as "dog", "cat", etc. The variants of the plurality "-s" make the allomorphs thereof in the following examples: map-maps, mouse-mice, sheep-sheep etc.1.45.What is a free morpheme? What is a bound morpheme?A "free morpheme" is a morpheme that constitutes a word by itself, such as ‘bed", "tree" ,etc. A "bound morpheme" is one that appears with at least another morpheme, such as "-s" in "beds" , "-al" in "national" and so on. All monomorphemic words are free morphemes. Those polymorphemic words are either compounds (combination of two or more free morphemes )or derivatives (word derived from free morphemes).1.46.What is a root ? What is a stem? What is an affix?A "root" is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. In other words, a "root" is that part of the word left when all the affixes are removed. "Internationalism" is a four-morpheme derivative which keeps its free morpheme "nation" as its root when " inter-", "-al" and "-ism" are taken away.A "stem" is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an affix can be added. It may be the same as , and in other cases, different from, a root. For example, in the word "friends" , "friend" is both the root and the stem, but in the word "friendships", "friendships" is its stem, "friend" is its root. Some words (i. e., compounds ) have more than one root ,e. g., "mailman" , "girlfriend" ,ect.An "affix" is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used, only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem). Affixes are limited in number in a language, and are generally classified into three subtypes: prefix, suffix and infix, e.g. , "mini-", "un-", ect.(prefix); "-ise", "-tion", ect.(suffix).1.47.What are open classes? What are closed classes?In English, nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs make up the largest part of the vocabulary. They are "open -class words", since we can regularly add new lexical entries to these classes. The other syntactic categories are, for the most part, closed classes, or closed-class words. The number of them is hardly alterable, if they are changeable at all.1.48.What is lexicon? What is word? What is lexeme? What is vocabulary? Lexicon? Word? Lexeme? Vocabulary?"Lexicon", in its most general sense, is synonymous with vocabulary. In its technical sense, however, lexicon deals with the analysis and creation of words, idioms and collocations. "Word" is a unit of expression which has universal intuitive recognition by native-speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form. This definition is perhaps a little vague as there are different criteria with regard to its identification and definition. It seems that it is hard , even impossible, to define "word" linguistically. Nonetheless it is universally agreed that the following three senses are involved in the definition of "word", none of which, though, is expected to cope with all the situations: (1)a physically definable unit ,e. g.,[it iz ‘w](phonological), "It is wonder" (orthographic); (2) the common factor underlying a set of forms (see what is the common factor of "checks", "checked", "checking ", etc.); (3) a grammatical unit(look at (1) again; every word plays a grammatical part in the sentence).According to Leonard Bloomfield, a word is a minimum free form (compare: a sentence is a maximum free form, according to Bloomfield ). There are other factors that may help us identify words: (1) stability (no great change of orthographic features); (2)relative uninterruptibility (we can hardly insert anything between two parts of a word or between the letters). To make the category clearer we can subclassify words into a few types: (1) variable and invariable words(e. g.,-mats, seldom-?); (2) grammatical and lexical words(e. g. to, in ,etc., and table, chair, ect. By "lexical words" we mean the words that carry a semantic content, e.g., nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs; (3) closed-class and open-class words(see I.47).In order to reduce the ambiguity of the term "word" ,the term "lexeme" is postulated as the abtract unit which refers to the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other smaller units. A lexeme can occur in many different forms in actual spoken or written texts. For example, "write" is the lexeme of the following words: "write", "write", "wrote", "writing", and "written." "Vocabulary" usually refers to all words or lexical items a person has acquired about technical or/and untechnical things. So we encourage our students to enlarge their vocabulary. "vocabulary" is also used to mean word list or glossary.1.49.What is collocation?"Collocation" is a term used in lexicology by some linguists to refer to the habitual co-occurrences of individual lexical items. For example, we can "read" a "book"; "correct" can narrowly occur with "book" which is supposed to have faults, but no one can "read" a "mistake" because with regard to co-occurrence these two words are not collocates.1.50.What is syntax?"Syntax" is the study of the rules governing the ways in which words, word groups and phrases are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between sentential elements.1.51.What is a sentence?L. Bloomfield defines "sentence" as an independent linguistic form not included by some grammatical marks in any other linguistic from, i. e., it is not subordinated to a larger linguistic form, it is a structurally independent linguistic form. It is also called a maximum free form.1.52.What are syntactic relations?"Syntactic relations" refer to the ways in which words, word groups or phrases form sentences; hence three kinds of syntactic relations: positional relations, relations of substitutability and relations of co-occurrence.(1) "Positional relation", or "word order", refers to the sequential arrangement to words in a language. It is a manifestation of a certain aspect of what F. de Saussure called "syntagmatic relations", or of what other linguists call "horizontal relations" or "chain relations".(2) "Relations of substitutability" refer to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in same sentence structures. Saussure called them "associative relations". Other people call them "paradigmatic/vertical/choice relations".(3) By "relations of co-occurrence", one means that words of different sets of clauses may permit or require the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence. Thus relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations and partly to paradigmatic relations.1.53.What is IC analysis? What are immediate constituents(and ultimate constituents)?"IC analysis" is a new approach of sentence study that cuts a sentence into two(or more) segments. This kind of pure segmentation is simply dividing a sentence into itsconstituent elements without even knowing what they really are . What remain of the first cut are called "immediate constituents", and what are left at the final cut are called "ultimate constituents". For example, "John left yesterday" can be thus segmented: "John| left | | yesterday". We get two immediate constituents for the first cut (|), and they are "John" and "left yesterday". Further split(||) this sentence generates three "ultimate constituents": "John", "left " and "yesterday".1.54.What are endocentric and exocentric constructons?"Endocentric construction" is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i. e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable "centre" or "head". Usually noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric types because the constituent items are subordinate to the head. "Exocentric construction", opposite of endocentric construction, refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as whole ;that is to say ,there is no definable centre or head inside the group. Exocentric construction usually includes basic sentence, prepositional phrase, predicate(verb+object) construction, and connective(be+complement) construction.1.55.What is a subject? A predicate? An object?(1) In some language, an "subject" refers to one of the nouns in the nominative case, such as "pater" in the following example: "pater filium amat" (put literally in English: the father the son loves). In English, a "grammatical subject" refers to a noun which can establish correspondence with the verb and which can be checked by a tag-question test, e.g., "He is a good cook(, isn't he?)."(2) A "predicate" refers to a major constituent of sentence structure in a binary analysis in which all obligatory constituents other than the subject are considered together. e.g., in the sentence "The monkey is jumping ", "is jumping " is the predicate.(3) Traditionally "object" refers to the receiver or goal of an action, and it is further classified into two kinds: direct object and indirect object. In some inflecting languages, an object is marked by case labels: the "accusative case" for direct object, and the "dative case " for direct object, and the "dative case" for indirect to word order(after the verb and preposition) and by inflections(of pronouns). E .g., in the sentence "John kissed me", "me" is the object. Modern linguists suggest that an object refers to such an item that it can become a subject in passive transformation.1.56.What is category?The term "category" in some approaches refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense, e.g., noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc. Morespecifically it refers to the defining properties of these general units: the categories of the noun, for example, include number, gender, case and countability ;and of the verb, for example, tense, aspect, voice, etc.1.57.What is number? What is gender? What is case?(1) "Number" is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural, etc. In English, number is mainly observed in nouns, and there are only two forms: singular and plural. Number is also reflected in the inflections of pronouns and verbs.(2) "Gender" displays such contrasts as "masculine", "feminine", "neuter", or "animate" and "inanimate", etc., for the analysis of word classes. When word items refer to the sex of the real-world entities, we natural gender(the opposite is grammatical gender).(3) "Case" identifies the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence. In Latin grammar, cases are based on variations in the morphological forms of the word, and are given the terms "accusative", "nominative", "dative",etc. In English, the case category is realized in three ways: by following a preposition and by word order.1.58.What is concord? What is government?"Concord " may be defined as requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship with one another shall be characterized by the same paradigmatically marked category or categories, e.g., "man runs", "men run". "Government" requires that one word of a particular class in a given syntactic class shall exhibit the form of a specific category. In English, government applies only to pronouns among the variable words ,that is , prepositions and verbs govern particular forms of the paradigms of pronouns according to their syntactic relation with them, e.g. , "I helped him; he helped me."1.59.What is a phrase? What is a clause?(1) A "phrase" is a single element of structure containing more than one word, and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of "clauses". Traditionally, it is seen as part of a structural hierachy, falling between a clause and word, e.g., "the three tallest girls" (nominal phrase). There is now a tendency to make a distinction between word groups and phrases. A "word group" is an extension of a word of a particular class by way of modification with its main features of the class unchanged. Thus we have nominal group, verbal group, adverbial group, conjunction group and preposition group.(2) A "clause" is group of words with its own subject and predicate included in a larger subject-verb construction, namely, in a sentence. Clauses can also be classifiedinto two kinds: finite and non-finite clauses, the latter referring to what are traditionally called infinitive phrase, participle phrase and gerundial phrase. (For "sentence", see I.51.)1.60.What is conjoining? What is embedding? What is recursiveness?"Conjoining" refers to a construction where one clause is co-ordinated or conjoined with another, e. g., "John bought a cat and his wife killed her." "Embedding" refers to the process of construction where one clause is included in the sentence (or main clause) in syntactic subordination, e.g., "I saw the man who had killed a chimpanzee." By "recursiveness" we mean that there is theoretically no limit to the number of the embedded clauses in a complex sentence. This is true also with nominal and adverbial clauses, e.g., "I saw the man who killed a cat who...a rat which...that..."1.61.What is hypotactic relation? What is paratactic relation?"Hypotactic relation" refers to a construction where constituents are linked by means of conjunction, e.g. "He bought eggs and milk." "Paratactic relation" refers to constructions which are connected by juxtaposition, punctuation or intonation, e. g., "He bought tea, coffee, eggs and milk" (pay attention to the first three nouns connected without "and").1.62.What is semantics?"Semantics" refers to the study of the communication of meaning through language. Or simply, it is the study of meaning.1.63.What is meaning?Though it is difficult to define, "meaning" has the following meaning: (1) an intrinsic property; (2) the connotation of a word; (3) the words put after a dictionary entry; (4) the position an object occupies in a system; (5) what the symbol user actually refers to; (6) what the symbol user should refer to; (7) what the symbol user believes he is referring to; (8) what the symbol interpreter refers to; (9) what the symbol interpreter believes it refers to; (10) what the symbol interpreter believes the user refers to... linguists argued about "meaning of meaning" fiercely in the result of "realism", "conceptualism/mentalism", "mechanism", "contextualism", "behaviorism", "functionalism", etc. (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp140-142). Mention ought to be made of the "Semantic Triangle Theory" of Ogden & Richards. We use a word and the listener knows what it refers to because, according to the theory, they have acquired the same concept/reference of the word used and of the object/referent.1.64.What is the difference between meaning, concept, connotation, sense, implication, denotation, notation, reference, implicature and signification?。

语言学概论第一章要点(2011-08-26 10:30:48)第一章Introduction1.Linguistics定义It is generally defined as the scientific study of language.Nowadays, the generally accepted definition of language is that language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2.The scope of linguistics语言学的主要分支是什么。

每个分支的研究对象是什么？1.General linguistics, which is the study of language as a whole and which deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study①Phonetics,which studies the sounds that are used in linguistic communication②Phonology,which studies how sounds are put together and used in communication③Morphology,which studies the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words④Syntax,which studies how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences⑤Semantics, which is the study of meaning in language.⑥Pragmatics,which is the study of meaning not in isolation, but in context of use⑦Sociolinguistics,which is the study of language with reference to society⑧Psycholinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to the workings of mind.⑨Applied linguistics,which is concerned about the application of linguistic findings in linguistic studies; in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.Other related branches are anthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics, mathematical linguistics, and computational linguistics.3.现代语言学与传统语法有什么区别？Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on "high "(religious, literary) written language . It sets models for language users to follow. But Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic, and mainly spoken language data. It is supposed to be scientific and objective and the task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is "correct" or not.4.Some important distinction in linguistics语言学五对基本概念1、descriptive(描述性) :A linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.2、prescriptive(规定性): It aims to lay down rules for “correct” behaviors. i.e. what they should say and what they should not to say.1、synchronic(共时语言学): It refers to the study of variation in language in different places and among different groups at a given point in time.2、diachronic(历时语言学): Studies language change over various periods of time and at various historical stages.什么叫共时研究Synchronic study;？什么叫历时研究diachronic study？The description of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A synchronic study of language describes alanguage as it is at some particular point in rime, while a diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.1、speech and writing are the two media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.1、langue(语言): refers to abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of the speech community. It is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by. Such as: In English sentence must have subject and predicate.2、parole(言语):refers to the realization of langue in actual use. It is concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules.1、competence(语言能力):As the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language2、performance(语言应用):the actual realization of his knowledge in linguistic communication.5、What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Language is a system i.e. elements of language are combined according to rules.Language is arbitrary .because the fact that different languages have different words for the some object.Language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages.Language is symbols.The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.6、人类语言的甄别性特征design features是什么？（五个）Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.The American Charles Hockett specified 12 design features, 5 of which will be discussed here.Arbitrariness:任意性there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds .A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different language, but it is not entirely arbitrary.Productivity:创造性language make possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by it users. Productivity is unique to human language.Duality(二重性):Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels at the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning such as morphemes and words.Displacement:移位性Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in past, present or future. or in far-away place. In other words, language can be used to refer to context removed from the immediate situations of speakers.Cultural transmission(文化传递性)While we are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned anew.5. Chomsky的语言能力和语言使用各指什么？American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s proposed the distinction between competence and performance. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc.. Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard.7、Saussure是如何区分语言和言语的？The distinction between langue, and parole was made by the famous Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Langue and parole are French words. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract;It is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.。

英语语言学分支摘要：一、英语语言学概述1.英语语言学的定义2.英语语言学的发展历程二、英语语言学的分支领域1.语音学2.语法学3.语义学4.语用学5.词汇学6.修辞学7.社会语言学8.心理语言学9.历史语言学10.计算语言学三、各分支领域的主要研究内容1.语音学：音位、音高、音节、音调等2.语法学：句法结构、词法结构、句法规则等3.语义学：词汇意义、句子意义、语义规则等4.语用学：语境、语义、意图等5.词汇学：词汇构成、词汇变化、词汇意义等6.修辞学：修辞手法、修辞目的、修辞效果等7.社会语言学：语言与社会的相互影响、语言变异、语言习得等8.心理语言学：心理过程、语言理解、语言产生等9.历史语言学：语言起源、语言演变、语言谱系等10.计算语言学：自然语言处理、机器翻译、语音识别等四、英语语言学在实际应用中的价值1.提高英语教学质量2.促进跨文化交流3.推动人工智能技术发展4.促进语言学研究的发展正文：英语语言学是一门研究英语语言的学科，涉及英语的各个方面，包括语音、语法、语义、语用等。

英语语言学有许多分支领域，它们共同构成了英语语言学的知识体系。

首先，英语语言学可以分为语音学、语法学、语义学、语用学、词汇学、修辞学、社会语言学、心理语言学、历史语言学和计算语言学等十个分支领域。

这些领域分别研究英语语言的不同方面，如语音、语法结构、词汇意义、语境、修辞手法等。

语音学研究音位、音高、音节和音调等语音现象，探讨它们在英语中的规律和特点。

语法学研究句法结构和词法结构，即句子和单词的组成方式，以及它们之间的关系。

语义学研究词汇意义和句子意义，以及语义规则和语义变化。

语用学研究语境、语义和意图等因素，以了解语言的实际运用。

词汇学研究词汇构成、词汇变化和词汇意义等方面的问题。

修辞学研究修辞手法、修辞目的和修辞效果，以提高英语表达的艺术性。

社会语言学研究语言与社会之间的相互影响，如语言变异、语言习得和社会语言习惯等。

英语语⾔学知识点 英语语⾔学是英语语⾔⽂学专业培养计划中的⼀门基础必修课，接下来店铺为你整理了英语语⾔学知识点，⼀起来看看吧。

英语语⾔学知识点：定义 1.语⾔学Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通语⾔学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语⾔language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语⾔是⼈类⽤来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

4.识别特征Design Features It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 语⾔识别特征是指⼈类语⾔区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。

Arbitrariness任意性 Productivity多产性 Duality双重性 Displacement移位性 Cultural transmission⽂化传递 ⑴arbitrariness There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions ⑵Productivity Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send. ⑶Duality Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels. ⑷Displacement Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. ⑸Cultural transmission Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species. 5.语⾔能⼒Competence Competence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. 6.语⾔运⽤performance Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 语⾔运⽤是所掌握的规则在语⾔交际中的体现。

英语语言学概论一、要求《英语语言学概论》是英语教育专业的一门基础理论课。

语言学是主要研究语言的性质、语言的功能、语言的产生和发展、语言的习得以及语言和人类其它活动关系的学科。

随着对语言研究的不断深入，人们更多地把注意力集中在语言学研究和语言教学研究的关系上。

本课程开设的目的在于帮助中学英语教师了解英语语言的性质、结构、特征和功能，以及它们与外语教学的关系，从而促进英语语言的学习和英语教学法的研究，提高英语语言水平和英语语言教学能力。

二、考试内容本课程使用《英语语言学导论》作为基本教材，根据中学英语教学的实际酌情进行修订、增删和补充。

具体内容如下：第一章绪论1.语言学和英语语言学(P.1)2.语言的本质(P.2)系统性、符号性、有声性、任意性、人类特有性、交际性、双重结构（语音、语法意义）性、可变性、可创造性。

3.语言学的分支(P.20)语音学、音位（系／韵）学、形态学、句法（学）、语义学、（语用学）4.小结(P.24)第二章语音学1.发音器官(P.28)2.辅音与元音(P.30)2.1 国际音标(P.30)2.2 辅音分类(P.33)软颚的位置、发音部位、发音方法以、清浊音2.3 元音分类(P.39)组成部分、舌头隆起的部位、舌位隆起的高低、口腔开合程度、音的长短、肌内的张弛、圆唇与否3.小结(P.39)Exx.1,2,3,4,5,6,8,9,10第三章音位（系／韵）学1.音位学重要概念（P.53）1.1 音位（P.53)1.2 最小对立体（P.54)1.3 音位与音位变体(P.55)1.4 音位、音素与音位变体(P.57)2.音位的鉴别(P.57)2.1 环境与分布(P.57)2.2 分布的类别（P.58)对立分布（最小对立位）、互补分布、自由变异3.区分特征(P.65)4.单词中音位排列（5,P.67)5.超切分（／音段）特征（6,P.69）5.1 单词重音（6.1,P.70)5.2 声调与语调(6.2,P.70)5.3 连音（／音渡）（6.3,P.72）6.小结（P.76)Exx.1,2(1)(2)(3)(4),3,4,5,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15第四章形态学（词法）1.语素(P.82)2.语素分类（P.84)2.1 词根与词缀(P.84)2.2 前缀、后缀与中缀(P.86)2.3 屈折变化词缀与派生变化词缀(P.87)3.形素与语素变体(P.90)4.语素的鉴别(P.92)4.1 将语音序列分割为形素(P.92)4.2 将形素归并为语素(P.94)4.3 空形素与零形素(P.97)5.语素分析（P.98)6.词法功能（P.103）6.1 屈折变化词法的语法功能（P.103)6.2 派生变化词法与构词法（P.104)6.2.1 主要构词法（P.105)派生（／词缀）法、转换法、合成法6.2.2 次要构词法（P.107)拼缀、截短、首字母缩略、首字母拼音、逆向构词7.小结（P.110)Exx.1-14第五章句法1.序列（／横组合）关系（P.116）2.替代（／纵聚合）关系（P.117)3.层次（／等级）关系（P.118)4.鉴别句法范畴（P.121)4.1 名词与名词短语（P.121)4.2 动词与动词短语（P.123)4.3 形容词（P.124)4.4 副词（P.124)5.层次与带标记的直接成分分析（P.125)5.1 直接成分分析法（P.125)5.2 带标记的直接成分分析法（P.125)5.3 完整的短语标记分析法（P.127)5.4 部分短语标记分析法（P.130)5.5 括号分析法（P.130)5.6 带标记的括号分析法（P.130)6.小结（P.131)Exx.1-8第八章语义学1.何谓意义？（P.210)2.词汇语义学（P.212)2.1 成分分析法（P.213)2.2 语义场（P.215)2.2.1 何谓语义场？（P.215)2.2.2 语义关系（P.216)2.2.2.1 下义关系（P.216)2.2.2.2 部分／整体关系（P.220)2.2.2.3 同义关系（P.220)2.2.2.4 反义关系（P.221)互补反义词、分等级性的反义词、关系对立反义词2.3 词语歧义（P.224)2.3.1 一词多义（P.224)2.3.2 同音（同形）异义词（P.224)3.句子语义学（P.226)5.3 完整的短语标记分析法（P.127)5.4 部分短语标记分析法（P.130)5.5 括号分析法（P.130)5.6 带标记的括号分析法（P.130)6.小结（P.131)Exx.1-8第八章语义学1.何谓意义？（P.210)2.词汇语义学（P.212)2.1 成分分析法（P.213)2.2 语义场（P.215)2.2.1 何谓语义场？（P.215)2.2.2 语义关系（P.216)2.2.2.1 下义关系（P.216)2.2.2.2 部分／整体关系（P.220)2.2.2.3 同义关系（P.220)2.2.2.4 反义关系（P.221)互补反义词、分等级性的反义词、关系对立反义词2.3 词语歧义（P.224)2.3.1 一词多义（P.224)2.3.2 同音（同形）异义词（P.224)3.句子语义学（P.226)3.1 决定句子意义的主要因素（P.228)3.2 语义功能（P.231)3.3 语法功能与语义功能（P.231)3.4 语义反常（P.232)4.小结（P.233)Exx.1-8三、说明1.本大纲与教材内的章节略有区别。

第一章：绪论1．什么是语言学？1．1定义语言学常被定义为是对语言进行系统科学研究的学科。

语言学研究的不是某一种特定的语言，而是人类所有的语言。

为了揭示语言的本质，语言学家首先要对语言实际使用进行观察，并在此基础上形成有关语言使用的概括性假设，这些初步形成的假设要在语言使用中进行进一步的检验，最终形成一条语言理论。

1．2语言学的研究范畴:语言学研究有不同的侧重。

对语言体系作全面研究的语言学研究称为普通语言学。

语音学主要是对语言声音媒介的研究，它不只是研究某一特定的语言的声音媒介，而是所有语言的声音媒介。

音系学与语音学不同，它主要研究特定语言的语音体系，即音是如何结合在一起产生有意义的单位。

形态学主要研究单词的内部语义结构，及这些叫做词素的语义最小单位是如何结合构成单词。

句法学主要研究构成潜在句子的句法规则。

语义学以研究语义为目的，传统语义学主要研究抽象的意义，独立于语境之外的意义，语用学也是研究语义，但是它把语义研究置于语言使用语境中加以研究。

语言不是一个孤立的现象，而是一种社会现象，各种社会因素都会对语言的使用产生影响。

从社会的角度来研究语言的科学被称之为社会语言学。

语言和社会之间的关系是社会语言学研究的主要内容。

心理语言学主要从心理学的角度来研究语言。

它要研究人们在使用语言时大脑的工作机理，如人是如何习得母语的，人的大脑是如何加工和记忆语言信息等问题。

把语言学的研究成果应用到实践中的科学形成了应用语言学。

狭义上，应用语言学指把语言理论和原则运用于语言教学的科学，在广义上，它指把语言理论与原则应用于解决实际问题的科学。

除此之外还有人类语言学、神经语言学、数学语言学、计算语言学等。

1．3语言学研究中的几对基本概念1．3．1规定性和描述性语言学研究是描述性的，不是规定性的。

这是语言学和传统语法的一个重要区别。

语言学研究的目的是对人们使用的语言进行客观描述与分析，而不是对语言的使用作出规定。

传统语法是规定性的，它主要建立在笔头语言基础之上，旨在规定一系列的语法规则，并且把这些语法规则强加给语言使用者。