ANSWERS1 The Market1. Suppose that there were 25 people who had a reservation price of $500, and the 26th person had a reservation price of $200. What would the demand curve look like?1.1. It would be constant at $500 for 25 apartments and then drop to $200.2. In the above example, what would the equilibrium price be if there were 24 apartments to rent? What if there were 26 apartments to rent?What if there were 25 apartments to rent?1.2. In the first case, $500, and in the second case, $200. In the third case, the equilibrium price would be any price between $200 and $500.3. If people have different reservation prices, why does the market demand curve slope down?1.3. Because if we want to rent one more apartment, we have to offer a lower price. The number of people who have reservation prices greater than p must always increase as p decreases.4. In the text we assumed that the condominium purchasers camefrom the inner-ring people—people who were already renting apartments. What would happen to the price of inner-ring apartments if all of the condominium purchasers were outer-ring people—the people who were not currently renting apartments in the inner ring?1.4. The price of apartments in the inner ring would go up since demand for apartments would not change but supply would decrease.5. Suppose now that the condominium purchasers were all inner-ring people, but that each condominium was constructed from two apartments. What would happen to the price of apartments? 1.5. The price of apartments in the inner ring would rise.6. What do you suppose the effect of a tax would be on the number of apartments that would be built in the long run?1.6. A tax would undoubtedly reduce the number of apartments supplied in the long run.7. Suppose the demand curve is D(p) = 100−2p. What price would the monopolist set if he had 60 apartments? How many would he rent? What price would he set if he had 40 apartments? How manywould he rent?1.7. He would set a price of 25 and rent 50 apartments. In the second case he would rent all 40 apartments at the maximum price the market would bear. This would be given by the solution to D(p) = 100−2p = 40, which is p∗ = 30.8. If our model of rent control allowed for unrestricted subletting, who would end up getting apartments in the inner circle? Would the outcome be Pareto efficient?1.8. Everyone who had a reservation price higher than the equilibrium price in the competitive market, so that the final outcome would be Pareto efficient. (Of course in the long run there would probably be fewer new apartments built, which would lead to another kind of inefficiency.)2 Budget Constraint1. Originally the consumer faces the budget line p1x1 + p2x2 = m. Then the price of good 1 doubles, the price of good 2 becomes 8 times larger, and income becomes 4 times larger. Write down an equation for the new budget line in terms of the original prices and income.2.1. The new budget line is given by 2p1x1 +8p2x2 =4m.2. What happens to the budget line if the price of good 2 increases, but the price of good 1 and income remain constant?2.2. The vertical intercept (axis) decreases and the horizontal intercept (axis) stays the same. Thus the budget line becomes flatter.3. If the price of good 1 doubles and the price of good 2 triples, does the budget line become flatter or steeper?2.3. Flatter. The slope is −2/3.4. What is the definition of a numeraire good?2.4. A good whose price has been set to 1; all other goods’ prices are measured relative to the numeraire good’s price.5. Suppose that the government puts a tax of 15 cents a gallon on gasoline and then later decides to put a subsidy on gasoline at a rate of 7 cents a gallon. What net tax is this combination equivalent to? 2.5. A tax of 8 cents a gallon.6. Suppose that a budget equation is given by+= m. The government decides to impose a lump-sum tax of u, a quantity tax on good 1 of t, and a quantity subsidy ongood 2 of s. What is the formula for the new budget line?2.6. (+ t)+(−s)= m−u.7. If the income of the consumer increases and one of the prices decreases at the same time, will the consumer necessarily be at least as well-off?2.7. Yes, since all of the bundles the consumer could afford before are affordable at the new prices and income.3 Preferences1. If we observe a consumer choosing (,)when(,) is available one time, are we justified in concludingthat (,)>(,)?3.1. No. It might be that the consumer was indifferent between the two bundles. All we are justified in concluding is that(,)> (,).2. Consider a group of people A, B, C and the relation “at least as tall as,” as in “A is at least as tall as B.” Is this relation transitive? Is it complete?3.2. Yes to both.3. Take the same group of people and consider the relation “strictly taller than.” Is this relation transitive? Is it reflexive? Is it complete?3.3. It is transitive, but it is not complete—two people might be the same height. It is not reflexive since it is false that a person is strictly taller than himself.4. A college football coach says that given any two linemen A and B, he always prefers the one who is bigger and faster. Is this preference relation transitive? Is it complete?3.4. It is transitive, but not complete. What if A were bigger but slower than B? Which one would he prefer?5. Can an indifference curve cross itself? For example, could Figure3.2 depict a single indifference curve?3.5. Yes. An indifference curve can cross itself, it just can’t cross another distinct indifference curve.6. Could Figure 3.2 be a single indifference curve if preferences are monotonic?3.6. No, because there are bundles on the indifference curve that have strictly more of both goods than other bundles on the (alleged) indifference curve.7. If both pepperoni and anchovies are bads, will the indifference curve have a positive or a negative slope?3.7. A negative slope. If you give the consumer more anchovies, you’ve made him worse off, so you have to take away some pepperoni to get him back on his indifference curve. In this case the direction of increasing utility is toward the origin.8. Explain why convex preferences means that “averages are preferred to extremes.”3.8. Because the consumer weakly prefers the weighted average of two bundles to either bundle.9. What is your marginal rate of substitution of $1 bills for $5 bills? 3.9. If you give up one $5 bill, how many $1 bills do you need to compensate you? Five $1 bills will do nicely. Hence the answer is −5 or−1/5, depending on which good you put on the horizontal axis.10. If good 1 is a “neutral,” what is its marginal rate of substitution for good 2?3.10. Zero—if you take away some of good 1, the consumer needs zero units of good 2 to compensate him for his loss.ANSWERS A1311. Think of some other goods for which your preferences might be concave.3.11. Anchovies and peanut butter, scotch and Kool Aid, and other similar repulsive combinations.4 Utility1. The text said that raising a number to an odd power was a monotonic transformation. What about raising a number to an even power? Is this a monotonic transformation? (Hint: consider the case f(u)=u^2.)4.1. The function f(u)=u^2 is a monotonic transformation for positive u, but not for negative u.2. Which of the following are monotonic transformations?(1) u =2 v−13; (2) u = −1/v^2; (3)u =1/v^2; (4)u = ln v; (5)u = −e^−v; (6)u = v^2; (7) u = v^2 for v>0; (8) u = v^2 for v<0.4.2. (1) Yes. (2) No (works for v positive). (3) No (works for v negative). (4) Yes (only defined for v positive). (5) Yes. (6) No. (7) Yes. (8) No.3. We claimed in the text that if preferences were monotonic, then a diagonal line through the origin would intersect each indifference curve exactly once. Can you prove this rigorously? (Hint: what would happen if it intersected some indifference curve twice?)4.3. Suppose that the diagonal intersected a given indifference curve at two points, say (x,x) and (y,y). Then either x>y or y>x, which means that one of the bundles has more of both goods. But if preferences are monotonic, then one of the bundles would have to be preferred to the other.4. What kind of preferences are represented by a utility function of the form u(x1,x2)=? What about the utility function v(x1,x2)= 13x1 + 13x2?4.4. Both represent perfect substitutes.5. What kind of preferences are represented by a utility function of the form u(x1,x2)=x1 +? Is the utility function v(x1,x2)=x2 1 +2x1+x2 a monotonic transformation of u(x1,x2)?4.5. Quasilinear preferences. Yes.6. Consider the utility function u(x1,x2)=. What kind of pref- erences does it represent? Is the function v(,)=a monotonic transformation of u(,)? Is the function w(,)= a monotonic transformation ofu(,)?4.6. The utility function represents Cobb-Douglas preferences. No. Yes.7. Can you explain why taking a monotonic transformation of a utility function doesn’t change the marginal rate of substitution? 4.7. Because the MRS is measured along an indifference curve, and utility remains constant along an indifference curve.5 Choice1. If two goods are perfect substitutes, what is the demand function for good 2?5.1.=0 when>, = m/when<, and anything between 0 and m/p2 when = .2. Suppose that indifference curves are described by straight lines with a slope of −b. Given arbitrary prices and money income p1, p2, and m, what will the consumer’s optimal choices look like?5.2. The optimal choices will be x1 = m/p1 and x2 = 0 ifp1/p2 <b ,x1 = 0 andx2 = m/p2 if p1/p2 >b, and any amount on the budget line if p1/p2 = b.3. Suppose that a consumer always consumes 2 spoons of sugar with each cup of coffee. If the price of sugar is p1 per spoonful and the price of coffee is p2 per cup and the consumer has m dollars to spend on coffee and sugar, how much will he or she want to purchase?5.3. Let z be the number of cups of coffee the consumer buys. Then we know that 2z is the number of teaspoons of sugar he or she buys. We must satisfy the budget constraint2z + z = m.Solving for z we havez =.4. Suppose that you have highly nonconvex preferences for ice cream and olives, like those given in the text, and that you face prices p1, p2 and have m dollars to spend. List the choices for the optimal consumption bundles.5.4. We know that you’ll either consume all ice cream or all olives. Thus the two choices for the optimal consumption bundles will be x1 = m/, x2 = 0, or x1 = 0, x2 = m/.5. If a consumer has a utility function u(x1,x2)=x1x4 2, what fraction of her income will she spend on good 2?5.5. This is a Cobb-Douglas utility function, so she will spend 4/(1 + 4) = 4/5 of her income on good 2.6. For what kind of preferences will the consumer be just as well-offfacing a quantity tax as an income tax?5.6. For kinked preferences, such as perfect complements, where the change in price doesn’t induce any change in demand.6 Demand1. If the consumer is consuming exactly two goods, and she is always spending all of her money, can both of them be inferior goods?6.1. No. If her income increases, and she spends it all, she must be purchasing more of at least one good.2. Show that perfect substitutes are an example of homothetic preferences.6.2. The utility function for perfect substitutes is u(,)=+ . Thus ifu(,) >u (,), we have + >+ . It follows that t+ t> t+ t, so that u(t,t) >u (t, t).3. Show that Cobb-Douglas preferences are homothetic preferences.6.3. The Cobb-Douglas utility function has the property that u(t,t)==2 = t 2 = t*u(x1,).Thus if u(,) >u (,), we know that u(t,t) >u (t,), so that Cobb-Douglas preferences are indeed homothetic.4. The income offer curve is to the Engel curve as the price offer curve is to ...?6.4. The demand curve.5. If the preferences are concave will the consumer ever consume both of the goods together?6.5. No. Concave preferences can only give rise to optimal consumption bundles that involve zero consumption of one of the goods.6. Are hamburgers and buns complements or substitutes?6.6. Normally they would be complements, at least for non-vegetarians.7. What is the form of the inverse demand function for good 1 in the case of perfect complements?6.7. We know that x1 = m/(p1 + p2). Solving for p1 as a function of the other variables, we have p1 = m x1 −p2.8. True or false? If the demand function is x1 = −p1, then the inverse demand function is x = −1/p1.6.8. False.7 Revealed Preference1. When prices are (p1,p2) = (1 ,2) a consumer demands (x1,x2) =(1 ,2), and when prices are ( q1,q2) = (2 ,1) the consumer demands (y1,y2) = (2 ,1). Is this behavior consistent with the model of maximizing behavior?7.1. No. This consumer violates the Weak Axiom of Revealed Preference since when he bought (x1,x2) he could have bought (y1,y2) and vice versa. In symbols:p1x1 + p2x2 =1×1+2×2=5> 4=1×2+2×1=p1y1 + p2y2andq1y1 + q2y2 =2×2+1×1=5> 4=2×1+1×2=q1x1 + q2x2.2. When prices are (p1,p2) = (2 ,1) a consumer demands (x1,x2) = (1 ,2), and when prices are ( q1,q2) = (1 ,2) the consumer demands (y1,y2) = (2 ,1). Is this behavior consistent with the model of maximizing behavior?7.2. Yes. No violations of WARP are present, since the y-bundle is not affordable when the x-bundle was purchased and vice versa.3. In the preceding exercise, which bundle is preferred by the consumer, the x-bundle or the y-bundle?7.3. Since the y-bundle was more expensive than the x-bundle when the x-bundle was purchased and vice versa, there is no way to tell which bundle is preferred.4. We saw that the Social Security adjustment for changing prices would typically make recipients at least as well-offas they were at the base year. What kind of price changes would leave them just as well-off, no matter what kind of preferences they had?7.4. If both prices changed by the same amount. Then the base-year bundle would still be optimal.5. In the same framework as the above question, what kind of preferences would leave the consumer just as well-offas he was in the base year, for all price changes?7.5. Perfect complements.8 Slutsky Equation1. Suppose a consumer has preferences between two goods that are perfect substitutes. Can you change prices in such a way that the entire demand response is due to the income effect?8.1. Yes. To see this, use our favorite example of red pencils and blue pencils. Suppose red pencils cost 10 cents a piece, and blue pencils cost 5 cents a piece, and the consumer spends $1 on pencils. She would then consume 20 blue pencils. If the price of blue pencils falls to 4 cents a piece, she would consume 25 blue pencils, a change which is entirely due to the income effect.2. Suppose that preferences are concave. Is it still the case that the substitution effect is negative?8.2. Yes.3. In the case of the gasoline tax, what would happen if the rebate to the consumers were based on their original consumption of gasoline, x, rather than on their final consumption of gasoline, x’?8.3. Then the income effect would cancel out. All that would be left would be the pure substitution effect, which would automatically be negative.4. In the case described in the preceding question, would the government be paying out more or less than it received in tax revenues?8.4. They are receiving tx’ in revenues and paying out tx, so they are losing money.5. In this case would the consumers be better off or worse off if the tax with rebate based on original consumption were in effect?8.5. Since their old consumption is affordable, the consumers would have to be at least as well-off. This happens because the governmentis giving them back more money than they are losing due to the higher price of gasoline.9 Buying and Selling1. If a consumer’s net demands are (5,−3) and her endowment is (4,4), what are her gross demands?9.1. Her gross demands are (9,1).2. The prices are (p1,p2) = (2 ,3), and the consumer is currently consuming (x1,x2) = (4 ,4). There is a perfect market for the two goods in which they can be bought and sold costlessly. Will the consumer necessarily prefer consuming the bundle (y1,y2) = (3 ,5)? Will she necessarily prefer having the bundle (y1,y2)?9.2. The bundle (y1,y2) = (3 ,5) costs more than the bundle (4,4) at the current prices. The consumer will not necessarily prefer consuming this bundle, but would certainly prefer to own it, since she could sell it and purchase a bundle that she would prefer.3. The prices are (p1,p2) = (2 ,3), and the consumer is currently consuming (x1,x2) = (4 ,4). Now the prices change to (q1,q2) = (2 ,4). Could the consumer be better off under these new prices?9.3. Sure. It depends on whether she was a net buyer or a net seller of the good that became more expensive.4. The U.S. currently imports about half of the petroleum that it uses. The rest of its needs are met by domestic production. Could the price of oil rise so much that the U.S. would be made better off?9.4. Yes, but only if the U.S. switched to being a net exporter of oil.5. Suppose that by some miracle the number of hours in the day increased from 24 to 30 hours (with luck this would happen shortly before exam week). How would this affect the budget constraint?9.5. The new budget line would shift outward and remain parallel to the old one, since the increase in the number of hours in the day is a pure endowment effect.6. If leisure is an inferior good, what can you say about the slope of the labor supply curve?9.6. The slope will be positive.10 Intertemporal Choice1. How much is $1 million to be delivered 20 years in the future worth today if the interest rate is 20 percent?10.1. According to Table 10.1, $1 20 years from now is worth 3 cents today at a 20 percent interest rate. Thus $1 million is worth .03×1,000,000 = $30,000 today.2. As the interest rate rises, does the intertemporal budget constraint be- come steeper or flatter?10.2. The slope of the intertemporal budget constraint is equal to −(1+r). Thus as r increases the slope becomes more negative (steeper).3. Would the assumption that goods are perfect substitutes be valid in a study of intertemporal food purchases?10.3. If goods are perfect substitutes, then consumers will only purchase the cheaper good. In the case of intertemporal food purchases, this implies that consumers only buy food in one period, which may not be very realistic.4. A consumer, who is initially a lender, remains a lender even aftera decline in interest rates. Is this consumer better offor worse offafter the change in interest rates? If the consumer becomes a borrower after the change is he better off or worse off?10.4. In order to remain a lender after the change in interest rates, the consumer must be choosing a point that he could have chosen under the old interest rates, but decided not to. Thus the consumer must be worse off. If the consumer becomes a borrower after thechange, then he is choosing a previously unavailable point that cannot be compared to the initial point (since the initial point is no longer available under the new budget constraint), and therefore the change in the consumer’s welfare is unknown.5. What is the present value of $100 one year from now if the interest rate is 10%? What is the present value if the interest rate is 5%?10.5. At an interest rate of 10%, the present value of $100 is $90.91. At a rate of 5% the present value is $95.24.11 Asset Markets1. Suppose asset A can be sold for $11 next period. If assets similar toA are paying a rate of return of 10%, what must be asset A’s current price?11.1. Asset A must be selling for 11/(1 + 0.10) = $10.2. A house, which you could rent for $10,000 a year and sell for $110,000 a year from now, can be purchased for $100,000. What is the rate of return on this house?11.2. The rate of return is equal to (10,000 + 10,000)/100,000 = 20%.3. The payments of certain types of bonds (e.g., municipal bonds) are not taxable. If similar taxable bonds are paying 10% and everyone faces a marginal tax rate of 40%, what rate of return must the nontaxable bonds pay?11.3. We know that the rate of return on the nontaxable bonds, r, must be such that (1−t)= r, therefore (1−0.40)*0.10 =0 .06 = r.4. Suppose that a scarce resource, facing a constant demand, will be exhausted in 10 years. If an alternative resource will be available at a price of $40 and if the interest rate is 10%, what must the price of the scarce resource be today?11.4. The price today must be 40/(1 +0 .10)^10 = $15.42.12 Uncertainty1. How can one reach the consumption points to the left of the endowment in Figure 12.1?12.1. We need a way to reduce consumption in the bad state and increase consumption in the good state. To do this you would have to sell insurance against the loss rather than buy it.2. Which of the following utility functions have the expected utility property? (a) u(c1,c2,π1,π2)=a(π1c1 + π2c2), (b) u(c1,c2,π1,π2)=π1c1 + π2c2 2, (c)u(c1,c2,π1,π2)=π1 lnc1 + π2 lnc2 + 17.12.2. Functions (a) and (c) have the expected utility property (they are affine transformations of the functions discussed in the chapter), while (b) does not.3. A risk-averse individual is offered a choice between a gamble that pays $1000 with a probability of 25% and $100 with a probability of 75%, or a payment of $325. Which would he choose?12.3. Since he is risk-averse, he prefers the expected value of the gamble, $325, to the gamble itself, and therefore he would take the payment.4. What if the payment was $320?12.4. If the payment is $320 the decision will depend on the form of the utility function; we can’t say anything in general.5. Draw a utility function that exhibits risk-loving behavior for small gambles and risk-averse behavior for larger gambles.12.5. Your picture should show a function that is initially convex, but then becomes concave.6. Why might a neighborhood group have a harder time self insuring for flood damage versus fire damage?12.6. In order to self-insure, the risks must be independent. However, this does not hold in the case of flood damage. If one house in the neighborhood is damaged by a flood it is likely that all of the houses will be damaged.13 Risky Assets1. If the risk-free rate of return is 6%, and if a risky asset is available with a return of 9% and a standard deviation of 3%, what is the maximum rate of return you can achieve if you are willing to accept a standard deviation of 2%? What percentage of your wealth would have to be invested in the risky asset?13.1. To achieve a standard deviation of 2% you will need to invest x = σx/σm =2 /3 of your wealth in the risky asset. This will result in a rate of return equal to (2/3)0.09 + (1−2/3)0.06 = 8%.2. What is the price of risk in the above exercise?13.2. The price of risk is equal to (rm − rf)/σm = (9− 6)/3 = 1. That is, for every additional percent of standard deviation you can gain 1% of return.3. If a stock has a β of 1.5, the return on the market is 10%, and the risk- free rate of return is 5%, what expected rate of return should this stock offer according to the Capital Asset Pricing Model? If theexpected value of the stock is $100, what price should the stock be selling for today?13.3. According to the CAPM pricing equation, the stock should offer an expected rate of return of rf + β(rm −rf)=0.05 + 1.5(0.10−0.05) =0 .125 or 12.5%. The stock should be selling for its expected present value, which is equal to 100/1.125 = $88.89.14 Consumer’s Surplus1. A good can be produced in a competitive industry at a cost of $10 per unit. There are 100 consumers are each willing to pay $12 each to consume a single unit of the good (additional units have no value to them.) What is the equilibrium price and quantity sold? The government imposes a tax of $1 on the good. What is the deadweight loss of this tax?14.1. The equilibrium price is $10 and the quantity sold is 100 units. If the tax is imposed, the price rises to $11, but 100 units of the good will still be sold, so there is no deadweight loss.2. Suppose that the demand curve is given by D(p) = 10−p. What is the gross benefit from consuming 6 units of the good?14.2. We want to compute the area under the demand curve to the left of the quantity 6. Break this up into the area of a triangle with a base of 6 and a height of 6 and a rectangle with base 6 and height 4.Applying the formulas from high school geometry, the triangle has area 18 and the rectangle has area 24. Thus gross benefit is 42.3. In the above example, if the price changes from 4 to 6, what is the change in consumer’s surplus?14.3. When the price is 4, the consumer’s surplus is given by the area of a triangle with a base of 6 and a height of 6; i.e., the consumer’s surplus is 18. When the price is 6, the triangle has a base of 4 and a height of 4, giving an area of 8. Thus the price change has reduced consumer’s surplus by $10.4. Suppose that a consumer is consuming 10 units of a discrete good and the price increases from $5 per unit to $6. However, after the price change the consumer continues to consume 10 units of the discrete good. What is the loss in the consumer’s surplus from this price change?14.4. Ten dollars. Since the demand for the discrete good hasn’t changed, all that has happened is that the consumer has had to reduce his expenditure on other goods by ten dollars.15 Market Demand1. If the market demand curve is D(p) = 100 − .5p, what is the inverse demand curve?15.1. The inverse demand curve is P(q) = 200−2q.2. An addict’s demand function for a drug may be very inelastic, but the market demand function might be quite elastic. How can this be?15.2. The decision about whether to consume the drug at all could well be price sensitive, so the adjustment of market demand on the extensive margin would contribute to the elasticity of the market demand.3. If D(p) = 12−2p, what price will maximize revenue?15.3. Revenue is R(p) = 12 p−2p2, which is maximized at p = 3.4. Suppose that the demand curve for a good is given by D(p) = 100/p. What price will maximize revenue?15.4. Revenue is pD(p) = 100, regardless of the price, so all prices maximize revenue.5. True or false? In a two good model if one good is an inferior good the other good must be a luxury good.15.5. True. The weighted average of the income elasticities must be 1, so if one good has a negative income elasticity, the other good musthave an elasticity greater than 1 to get the average to be 1.16 Equilibrium1. What is the effect of a subsidy in a market with a horizontal supply curve? With a vertical supply curve?16.1. The entire subsidy gets passed along to the consumers if the supply curve is flat, but the subsidy is totally received by the producers when the supply curve is vertical.2. Suppose that the demand curve is vertical while the supply curve slopes upward. If a tax is imposed in this market who ends up paying it?16.2. The consumer.3. Suppose that all consumers view red pencils and blue pencils as perfect substitutes. Suppose that the supply curve for red pencils is upward sloping. Let the price of red pencils and blue pencils be and . What would happen if the government put a tax only on red pencils?16.3. In this case the demand curve for red pencils is horizontal at the price , since that is the most that they would be willing to pay for a red pencil. Thus, if a tax is imposed on red pencils, consumers will end up paying for them, so the entire amount of the tax will end。
