Chapter OneClassic Age: Greek Culture and Roman CultureI.Greek culture1. The Historical BackgroundWhenever we talk about the ancient Greece, we cannot fail to mention the Trojan War which lasted ten years beginning from 1194 B.C. and ending in 1184 BC. Many stories have been told about this war. But Homer told the story more vividly in his Iliad.In the 5th century B.C. Greece entered a more glorious period when the Greek people drove away the Persian invaders and Athens established democracy in which only the adult male Greek citizens could use their power and rights. Athens developed its economy depending on the slave system. The Olympic Games also originated from ancient Greece, and it revived in 1896.During this period, science, philosophy, literature, art and history writing developed quickly. But when foreign threat was removed, a civil war broke out between Athens and Sparta at the end of the century.In the second half of the 4th century B. C, one of the Greek states called Macedon became more and more powerful under the leadership of Alexander the King who unified the whole Greece as Qinshihuang (the first emperor of the Qin Dynasty) unified the whole China. Macedon enjoyed large territories including parts of Europe, Asia and Africa.But history is always like such that fall comes after rise. No country can avoid such a fate. In 146 B.C. Greece was conquered by the Romans.2. Literature1) Homer (荷马)HomerHomer lived around 700 B.C. It is said that he was a slave and blind. It is considered that he wrote two epics，namely,the Iliad and the Odyssey.The Iliad deals with the war between Troy and the united forces of the states on the mainland of southern Greece.The Odyssey tells the story about the return of Odysseus after the Trojan War to his country Ithaca.2) Lyric PoetryThe famous lyric poet of this time is worth remembering. She is Sappho (萨福).Sappho (ca. 612-580 B.C.), born in Lesbos, is the most important lyric poet of ancient Greece and is famous for her burning love poems because of which the English Romantic poet George Gordon Lord Byron called her “burning Sappho” . Plato called her the tenth Muse.3.DramaGreek drama developed quickly and prosperously in the 5th century B.C. based on its rich tradition. The Greek drama has the following features. First, most early plays were performed at religious festivals. Second, the plays were performed in open-air theaters. Third, actors wore masks. Fourth, there was a big chorus but few actors.In the Greek drama during this period, tragedy is the most noteworthy. The achievements of tragedy are greater than those of comedy. The tragedies mostly wrote about royal families, noble families and great heroes. It gives the impression that the term “tragedy” is applied only to high-born people. In this sense, some tragedies in Chinese drama cannot use this term because some tragedies in Chinese drama talk about the fate of the common people.The Greek drama has something in common with the ancient Chinese drama in which actors wore masks and dramatic faces with diverse colors and designs as symbols of character. In Sichuan drama, the dramatic faces are more mysterious and interesting.A. Aeschylus (埃斯库罗斯, 525-456B.C.)AeschylusB. Sophocles (索福克勒斯, 496-406 B.C.)SophoclesSophocles wrote Oedipus the King (《俄狄浦斯王》)Sophocles made his contribution to the art of drama. He used three actors and decreased the size and the function of the chorus. He made the drama develop in the direction of performing rather than narrating by the chorus.C. Euripides (欧里庇得斯, 484-406 B.C.)EuripidesIn comparison with Aeschylus and Sophocles, Euripides was less influential but more realistic, always concerned with conflicts, on account of which he was referred to as the first playwright of “problem plays”.D. Comedy and Aristophanes （阿里斯托芬, ca. 450-380 B.C.)AristophanesComedy also developed quickly in the 5th century B.C. But it was less brilliant than tragedy.The best comedy playwright is Aristophanes who left 11 plays among which Frogs, Clouds, Wasps and Birds are worth seeing. Aristophanes was bold enough to satirize even some of the famous people of his day, including Socrates and Euripides respectively in his Clouds and Frogs.He was often criticized for his use of coarse language in his plays.1) Herodotus (希罗多德, 484-430 B.C.)HerodotusHerodotus is famous for the writing of wars between the Greeks and the Persians, because he believed that “the great and wonderful deeds done by Greeks and Persians should not lack renown.”The remarkable features of his history writing are his application of anecdotes, digressions and lively dialogue, Herodotus, though not very accurate, as the forerunner of history writing, is thus often called “Father of History”.5. PhilosophyThe Greek people’s curiosity about things a nd the nature of them cultivated their enquiring mind to search, doubt, speculate, imagine and form new ideas. Imagination is not science, but it is the foundation of science and base of philosophy. So the Greeks created their mythologies and formed their ideas about the universe and its operation.1) Pythagoras (毕达哥拉斯, c a. 580-500 B.C.)Pythagoras, founder of scientific mathematics, is one of the early philosophers who boldly thought about the universe. In his eyes, only numbers spoke and all things in the world were numbers. He used numbers to understand the world and the universe2) Socrates (苏格拉底, c a. 470-399 B.C.)SocratesSocrates is often mentioned together with Plato and Aristotle whenever people talk about the ancient Greek philosophy and thinking. Socrates taught Plato. Plato taught Aristotle. They were all great masters in the field of philosophy. In terms of teaching methodology, it is Socrates who invented the teaching method of interrogative and interactive approach in the same manner as Confucius did when he taught his disciples.3) Plato (柏拉图, ca. 428-348 B.C.)PlatoPlato, as the disciple of Socrates, made his greatest contribution to the world inwriting The Dialogues, a collection of Socrates’ life and ideas, like the Analects in which Confucius’ teaching and his dialogues with his dis ciples were recorded.4) Aristotle (亚里士多德, 384-322 B.C.)AristotleTo Athens, Aristotle was a foreigner, who was born in Stagire. He was Plato’s disciple, but he was more versatile in that he taught and wrote about logic, ethics, politics, metaphysics, psychology, physics, zoology, poetry and rhetoric. Most of his ideas on the above-mentioned fields dominated the world culture for over a thousand years. So it is not overstatement to say that Aristotle is the “father of science or knowledge”.5. ScienceBesides many people who were both philosophers and scientists like Pythagoras, Democritus, Plato and Aristotle, two other men were worth mentioning. One was Euclid（欧几里德, 330-275 B. C.）, who was, noted for his Element s (《解析几何》), called the father of geometry. The other was Archimedes（阿基米德, 287-212 B. C.) .6. Art, Architecture, Sculpture and Pottery1) ArtGreek art is the witness of Greek civilization, because it reflected the Greek civilization in many fields including science, literature, philosophy, mythology and whatever the Greek people admired and worshipped. It recorded the progress of the Greek civilization in the form of art.2) ArchitectureIt is always a wonder to see the ancient Greeks to have built so many miraculous buildings at the early times when construction machinery was under-developed. Parthenon (巴特浓神庙) was one of the brilliant examples. It was built in 438 B.C. It was a temple 240 feet long and 110 feet wide, with many spectacular columns evenly spaced.Parthenon in the twilightParthenon at daytimeThere were three styles of Greek architecture, namely, the Doric style （多力克式）, the Ionic style（挨奥尼克式）and the Corinthian style（科林斯式）.The following picture is the Acropolis at Athens（雅典卫城）which was built in the 5th century B. C. for the purpose of praising Athens and holding religious activities.The Acropolis at Athens3) SculptureThe ancient Greek sculptures were all connected with gods or goddesses who were presented as lifeless figures. Sculpture developed quickly in the 5th century B.C. the sculpture began to show beauty and strength of the people or things sculptured. A.Discus Thrower（铁饼运动员; 掷铁饼者）The Discus Thrower was the work of Myron (米隆，date of birth unknown, but active 480-440 B. C.). T he sculpture shows the sculptor’s skill in presenting the thrower’s beauty, strength and balance. As a duplicate of the former bronze statue, this statue made of marble can clearly display even the muscles and ribs of the handsome young man.Discus Thrower4) PotteryPottery, unlike sculptures, was closely connected with daily needs in life at home and abroad.There were mainly Black-figure paintings (700-600 B.C.) and Red-figurepaintings (—50 B.C.).The Black-figure paintings are paintings on pottery with red background and black figure. The red-figure paintings are paintings on pottery with black background and pink figure.7. Influence and ContributionThe influence of Greek culture can be felt in many ways and fields. The ancient Greek culture made its greatest contribution to the world culture, especially in the Renaissance in Europe. The ancient Greeks made their never-dying contribution to the whole world with their invention of mathematics, philosophy, history writing and other things. They made the utmost achievements in all walks of life.The Greeks’ spirit of innovation or invention and their effort to understand the world with daring spirit set a good example for the whole world.In literature, the Greeks heavily influenced the later writers of many countries at all times. Many of the Greek works are studied, quoted and borrowed from by the later writers. The Greek literature has always been one the fountain heads for writers of different countries. To some writers, the Greek literature has been the inspiration for their creation. Many writers modeled on the Greek writers for their masterpieces.II. Roman Culture1. The Historical BackgroundThe Romans also had their long civilization. In about 2000 B.C., different tribes from many places, among them a Latin race, entered the present Italy. In the 8th century B.C., they moved to Rome. Between the end of the 7th century and the end of the 6th century, tribes began to form city states. From the 5th century B.C., Rome became more powerful and conquered many city-states. In 146 B.C., it conquered Corinth, which, together with the whole Greece became a province of Roman Empire. Through wars and diplomatic measures, the Roman Empire became a large empire covering many parts of Africa, Europe and Asia. In 27 B.C., the republic became an empire with Octavius taking power calling himself emperor with the title Augustus.Beginning from the 3rd century, the empire became weaker and was often confronted with threats from invaders such as the Goths and the Huns. In 324, Constantine became the only ruler. He moved the capital to Byzantium which he renamed it as Constantinople. In 395, the empire was divided into the West Empire where people spoke Latin and the East Roman Empire (also called Byzantine Empire) where people spoke Greek. The capital of the East Roman Empire was Constantinople (the ancient Byzantium and modern Istanbul).In the West Empire, economic crises appeared constantly. Foreign invasions came unceasingly. In 410, the Goths took Rome. In 452, the Huns took some part of Italy. In 455, the Vandals took Rome again. In 476, when the Goths took Rome again, they deposed the last emperor of the West Empire. This marked the ending of the West Roman Empire.Around the 7th century, the East Roman Empire entered feudalism after it underwent a series of uprisings, invasions and reforms. In 1453, the East Roman Empire was ended by the Turks.In the forming of the Roman Empire with a territory much larger than that of Greek Empire in times of Alexander the Great, the Romans relied on a strong army commonly called the Roman legions with a very well-organized discipline and battle tactics, quite confident in both their military and management capabilities. It swept over and occupied many places where they built roads and castles. There are still many traces of their roads in Britain even now.In the development of the empire, the Romans also relied on the laws they made which benefited not only the rulers but also the common people. Many of the laws were codified which foreshadowed the modern law in the west. In this field, the Romans made greater contribution to the world civilization than the Greeks.2. Literature1) Roman MythologyThe Roman mythology is a rich legacy the Romans left for the world civilization and the world culture. It is the evidence of the Roman people’s imagination andwisdom which shows the wishes of the people in their stories of different kinds about different gods and common people. But it is said the Roman mythology is an imitation of the Greek mythology.The famous worth remembering is Vergil2) ProseTwo prose writers who were politicians at the same time were more active during this period and they should be specially mentioned here.A.Marcus Tullius Cicero (马库斯·图留斯·西塞罗, 106-43B.C.)Marcus Tullius CiceroB. Gaius Julius Caesar (盖乌斯·尤利乌斯·恺撒, 102/100? - 44 B.C.)Gaius Julius Caesar3) PoetryA. Titus Lucretius Carus （提图斯·卢克莱提乌斯·卡鲁斯，根据英语词译为“卢克莱修”, ca. 99/95-55/51B.C.)Lucretius was the first important Roman poet and materialist philosopher, a contemporary of Virgil.B. Publius Vergilius V. Maro，usually called Virgil (普布留斯·维吉留斯·马罗, 根据英文名字译为“维吉尔”, 70-19 B.C.)VirgilPublius Vergilius V. Maro，usually called Virgil，born in a village in Gaul, received his education, at 17, in Rome and southern Italy where he studied philosophy, rhetoric, mathematics and medicine after which he returned to his hometown about 44 B. C. He wrote poetry and did farm work in the fields.Virgil occupies a very important place in European literature in that he lived in the closing period of classical civilization and in a period when Christianity was about to reign the European thought and life. His position foreshadowed that of Dante who lived at the turn of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance in modern times. Dante adored and worshipped Virgil whom he referred to as his teacher in his Divine Comedy.3. Architecture and Sculpture1) ArchitectureA. The Pantheon (罗马万神殿)The PantheonThe Pantheon, a Greek word meaning “all the gods”, was built in 27 or 25 B.C. and was reconstructed in the 2nd century A.D. It is the only well-preserved building built in the period of the Roman Empire. In the heart of the Romans, it is the temple for all the gods or goddesses including Gaea (地神该亚), Uranus (天神乌拉诺斯), Titans(泰坦巨神), Cronus (天神克洛诺斯), Rhea (泰坦女神瑞亚), Prometheus (泰坦巨神普罗米修斯), Epimetheus (泰坦巨神厄庇米修斯), Zeus (天神宙斯), Hera (天后赫拉), Poseidon (海神波塞冬), Hades (冥王哈得斯), Demeter (农神得墨忒耳), Hestia (灶神赫斯提亚), Apollo (太阳神阿波罗), Artemis (月亮女神阿耳忒弥斯), Aphrodite (爱与美之神阿佛洛狄忒), Athene (智能女神雅典娜), Persephone (冥后珀耳塞福涅), Ares (战神阿瑞斯), Hephaestus (火神赫淮斯托斯), Hebe (青春女神赫拍), Hermes (神使赫耳墨斯), Dionysus (酒神狄俄倪索斯), Eros (小爱神厄洛斯) , Pan (牧神潘), Nike (胜利女神尼姬), Heracles (英雄赫拉克勒斯). It is very spacious inside and its interior decoration is much better than the outer appearance. The opening for natural lighting on the roof is 9metersin diameter. There is not any supporting pillar in the spacious temple which is 43 metersin height and width. It is a wonder of architecture.The front of the Pantheonb. The Colosseum (古罗马圆形大竞技场)The ColosseumThe Colosseum (Amphitheatrum Flavium, 弗莱文圆形剧场，亦译：罗马斗兽场、罗马大角斗场、罗马竞技场、罗马圆形竞技场、科洛西姆、哥罗塞姆) is situated south of the Venice Square in the center of Rome. It is 20,000 square meters in area with a big diameter of 188 meters and the small diameter of 156 meters. The circumference is 527 meters and the height of the wall is 57 meters. It can seat nearly 90,000 people. The colosseum is the symbol of Rome. It is also a witness of the ancient Romans’wisdom in that the mechanics of the colosseum was quite like that of a present arena. It had very good systems showing where the animals entered, where the fighters entered, from where the wounded were carried out, son so forth. Anyone who sees itwould marvel at the achievements of the architects. Of course, it is also a witness of the cruelty of the rulers who delighted to see the fights between men and fierce animals.A bird’s eye-view of the ColosseumThe Colosseum at night2) SculptureThe creation of the Romans on art is the sculpture-portrait style in their images of wax which aims to show respect to the dead and the powerful.The System of RoadLaw System。
