当代语言学导论 课文重点 重点词汇 考试内容 课后习题答案

当代语言学导论第一章,人类的语言《圣经》里本来有很多关于语言的故事，《旧约〉里有一个巴别塔故事，最为著名。

这个故事说，天下人的语言一开始都是相同的，他们聚在一起，决定建造一座直通天顶的塔，传扬人类的名字，以免人类始终分散在大地上。

耶和华上帝害怕人类要是做成了这件事，以后无论要做什么，就没有什么做不成的了，于是，他变乱了人们的口音，使人们互相之间语言不通，从此分散在各地，放弃了共同建设高塔的事业。

人类有能力改变世界。

人类对自己那种其他生物无法与其媲美的力量和智慧感到无比自豪。

那么，人类拥有什么特性去证明自己有能力改变世界呢,这绝非是他的肌肉，因为有些物种的肌肉比其更加结实;也不可能是他的感觉器官，因为有些物种能感知超声波和红外线，比人更厉害。

考察起来，人类的优势就在于它独特的天资—说话的能力，或者说，通过语言进行交流的能力。

通过语言，人类相互传递思想和感情，并且把他们积累的知识和信念传给他们的孩子。

没有语言，其他的物种根本不能形成并交换有逻辑的思想，更加谈不上解开世界之谜和有意识的改造这个世界。

语言的力量在远古就被人类意识到了，比如，古犹太人就用语言来书写他们的犹太法典:“上帝不费吹灰之力，只用一个词语就创造了世界。

”虽然有些神秘，但是这经文却指出“人们看到了语言是世界的本原因素。

”在几乎所有的古代文学中，我们都能找到关于有关语言作用的神话。

它使得上帝更加方便自如地表达意愿;它满足了人类赞扬上帝的欲望，它给予了凡人力量去挑战上天，事实上，语言是力量的载体，能控制，创造和改变一切。

在剑桥语言大百科全书里，用了以下的说法来描述语言在人类生活中所起的中心作用:当我们观察自己周围的时候，会情不自禁的对那几千种表达不同世界观，文学和生活方式的语言和方言而倍感震撼。

当我们回顾前辈的思想时，我们只能看到自己语言范畴之内的东西，当我们瞻望未来，我们只能够用语言去计划前程;当我们放眼宇宙，通过飞船向太空发出信号，告知可能存在的关心我们的天外居民我们所在位置时，用的都是语言。

课后习题详解第一章语言和语言学第一节语言的性质和范围一、为什么说社会性是自然语言的本质属性？为什么说语言是人类最重要的交际工具？答：（1）社会性是自然语言的本质属性。

自然语言从形成到发展变化，甚至直到消亡，都取决于社会意志和社会需要。

①自然语言系统由特定社会群体共同约定俗成，不由个别人或少数人创造。

a．语言符号形式和意义之间的关系由社会群体共同约定。

个人最初或者临时用某种语音代表某种语义，得到社会群体共同认可，并加以仿效，才能进入语言系统，成为语言符号。

b．语言符号的组合规则由社会群体共同约定，它取决于社会群体使用语言的惯例。

任何个人或少数人都无法制定或者何个人或少数人都无法制定或者改变语言的组合规则。

②语言的发展变化离不开社会。

a．新词语的产生，旧词语的消亡，都取决于社会交际的需要；b．语音、语义、语法的变化，都是为了满足社会交际的需要；c．语言的发展变化都取决于社会集体意志，个人意志不能决定语言的发展变化。

③语言的消亡取决于社会需要。

一种语言如果不再为社会交际所需要，不再作为社会交际的工具使用，就会消亡。

例如，西方古拉丁语的消亡，中国满语的趋近消亡。

总之，自然语言从产生到消亡都取决于社会，所以社会性是自然语言的本质属性。

（2）语言是人类最重要的交际工具。

①语言是一种交际工具。

a．语言具有交际过程，它包括五个部分：编码-发出-传递-接收-译码。

b．交际功能决定语言的生死存亡。

第一，语言的产生取决于交际功能，人们“已经到了彼此间有些什么非说不可的地步”；第二，语言的消亡取决于交际功能，语言不再为社会交际需要时就会消亡。

②语言是人类特有的交际工具。

人类语言符号和其他动物的交际方式如叫喊、舞蹈等，有本质的区别。

a．任意性。

动物“语言”中一定程度的任意性局限于一个题目，是僵硬的，不能与人类语言符号的任意性同日而语。

b．单位的明晰性。

人类语言有界限清晰的单位，动物以囫囵一团的叫喊或舞蹈动作来表示某一固定的意思，分析不出单位。

《语言学导论》(练习题及答案)语言学导论练题及答案1. 什么是语言学？语言学是研究语言的科学。

它涉及语言的结构、演化、语音、语法、语义、语用等方面的研究。

2. 语言学的主要分支有哪些？- 语音学：研究语音的产生、传播和感知。

- 语法学：研究语言的规则和结构。

- 语义学：研究语言意义的构成和理解。

- 语用学：研究语言在特定情境下的使用和交际功能。

- 社会语言学：研究语言与社会的关系。

3. 什么是语言的结构？语言的结构是指语言中各个层次（如语音、词汇、句子等）的组织方式和规则。

4. 语音学研究的是什么？语音学研究语音的产生、传播和感知。

它关注语音的音素、音位、音节以及音系等方面。

5. 语法学研究的是什么？语法学研究语言的规则和结构。

它涉及句子的构成和分析，包括词类、短语、句法关系等。

6. 语义学研究的是什么？语义学研究语言意义的构成和理解。

它关注词汇、句子和篇章层面的语义关系和意义表达。

7. 语用学研究的是什么？语用学研究语言在特定情境下的使用和交际功能。

它关注言语行为、话语策略和交际意图等。

8. 社会语言学研究的是什么？社会语言学研究语言与社会的关系。

它探讨语言在不同社会群体中的变化、语言的地位和使用情境等。

9. 语言学在日常生活中的应用有哪些？- 语言教育：帮助人们研究和教授语言。

- 语音技术：开发语音识别和合成等技术。

- 翻译和口译：促进不同语言之间的交流和理解。

- 语言规范：制定语法规则、文字标准等。

- 语义分析：帮助机器理解和处理自然语言。

10. 语言学为理解人类语言能力提供了哪些洞见？语言学研究揭示了语言是人类认知和交流的基本工具，提供了对语言产生、理解、学习和变化的深入认识。

当代语⾔学的第⼀题英⽂及答案Key to the multiple-choice and judgment exercisesChapter 1II. 1) Plato 2) Aristotle 3) Xun Zi 4) (Noam) Chomsky5) (Ferdinand de) SaussureChapter 2II. 1) Plato 2) Herder 3) Galileo 4) William Johns5) the Linguistic Society of ParisIII. 1) syntax 2) pragmatics 3)morphology 4) phonetics5) phonology 6) semantics 7) semanticsIV. 1) psycholinguistics 2) historical linguistics3) sociolinguistics 4) psycholinguistics5) sociolinguistics 6) applied linguistics (in the broad sense)7) applied linguistics 8) psycholinguisticsChapter 3II. Order of the speech organs on the left corresponding to their proper definitions on the right: soft palate; alveolar ridge; pharynx; hard palate; vocal cords; trachea; larynxIII. 1) b 2) t 3) ?4) m 5) f 6)l 7) d?8) j 9) ?10) sIV. (The correct feature is given after the arrow)1) b) front → central2) a) semi-open → open3) c) low → high4) c) high → mid5) d) rounded → unroundedV. 1) incorrect. inside the chest → inside the head2) correct.3) incorrect. auditory phonetics → acoustic phonetics4) correct.5) incorrect. A syllable cannot contain more than one vowels. Even if a diphthong or thiphthong is contained, it is still a single vowel, pronounced within one chest pulse.6) incorrect. The location of the words “Chinese” and “English” in the statements should be exchanged.7) correct8) correctChapter 4II. 1) morphemes 2) Bound 3) Compounds 4) idiomatic5) agglutinatingIII. 1) The older gentleman voted wisely .a a c a a a c a b2) The children skipped rope and played games joyfullya a c a c a a a c a c ab b3) 他们赛跑拿了第⼀。

语言学导论课后答案【篇一：语言学导论复习题】txt>i. blank-filling1. the description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronice ______________ linguistic study; the descriptionof a language as it changes through time is a diachronic _____linguistic study. modern linguists tend to prefer a synchronic approach to a diachronic ______ one.2. speech _____ and writing _____ are the two major media oflinguistic communication. modern linguistics regards the speech language as the primary medium of humanlanguage.3. if a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive ; if the linguistic study aims to lay downrules for “ correct and standard ” behavior in using language, it is said to be prescriptive _____ .4. langue _____ refers to the abstract linguistic systemshared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.5. language is a system of arbitrary _____ vocal symbolsused for human communication _____ .6. competence ____ can be defined as the ideal user?sknowledge of the rules of his language, and performance can be defined as the actual realization ofthis knowledge in linguistic communication.7. language is arbitrary _____ in the sense that there is nointrinsic 本质的connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.8. the fact that children acquire spoken language before they can read or write also indicates that language is primarily vocal .9. language is productive ____ or creative in that its userscan produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.10. language can be used to refer to things which are present or absent, real or imagined matters in the past, present, orfuture, or in far-away places. this is what displacement _____means.11. the study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.12. linguistics can be defined as the systematic ____ studyof language _____ .13. duality of structures is also referred to as double _____articulation 结构双重性________ .ii. multiple choice1. the distinction between langue and parole was made by the swiss linguist ___ in the early 20th century.a. noam. chomskyb. f. de saussurec. charles hockettd. j.r. firth2. the distinction between competence and performance was made by the american linguist ___ in the late 1950?s.a. noam. chomskyb. f. de saussurec. charles hockettd. j.r. firth3. a modern linguist would not prefer to be a(n) ___.a. observerb. analyzerc. judged. recorderii. true or false judgement( ) 1. langue is concrete while parole is abstract. langue is relatively stable whileparole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.( ) 2. similar to saussure, chomsky thinks that what linguists should study is theideal speaker?s performance, not his competence.( ) 3. modern linguistics is prescriptive while traditional grammar is descriptive.( ) 4. modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.( ) 5. traditional grammar forced languages into a latin-based framework. ( ) 6. in modern linguistics, a diachronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a synchronic one.( ) 7. “ language is a system ” means that elements of language are combinedaccording to rules.( ) 8. language is culturally as well as genetically transmitted.( ) 9. linguistics studies not any particular language, but languages in general.( ) 10. in a broad sense applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistictheories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.( ) 11.a modern linguist is interested in what is said, not in what he thinks ought to be said.keys:i. blank-filling1. synchronic, diachronic, synchronic, diachronic2. speech, writing, speech3. descriptive, prescriptive4. langue, parole5. arbitrary, communication6. competence, performance7. arbitrary8. vocal9. productive10. displacement11. general12. systematic/scientific, language13. double articulationii. multiple choice1. b2. a3. c iii. true or false judgement1. f2. f3. f4. t5. t6. f7. t8. f9. t 10. f11. t2 phonologyi. blank-filling1. phonetics _____ is defined as the study of the phonicmedium of language.2. the three important branches of phonetics are: (1) 发音学articulatory phonetics, which studies how a speakeruses his speech organs to articulate the sounds;(2) 听觉acoustic _____ phonetics, which studies the physicalproperties of speech sounds and (3) 声学acoustic _______ phonetics, which studies how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.4. vibration of the vocal ______ cords ____ results in aquality of speech sounds called “ voicing ____________ ”, which is a feature of all vowels and some consonants in english.5. there are two ways to transcribe speech sounds. the transcription with letter-symbols only and the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics. the former is called broad transcription while the latter is callednarrow ______ transcription.6. the sound [p] is pronounced differently in the two words pit and spit. in the word pit, the sound[p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent. in the case of pit, the [p] sound issaid to be aspirated and in the case of spit, the [p] sound is unaspirated .7. speech sounds in english can be divided into two broad categories: vowels _______________ and consonants _____ .8. when the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting air go through without causing vibration, the sounds produced in such a condition are voiceless ______________________ .9. in terms of manner of articulation the english consonants can be classified into the following types: stops ____________ ,fricatives ______ , affricates _____ , liquids _____ ,nasals ______ , glides ____ . in terms of place of articulation,the english consonants can be classified into the following types: bilabial , labiodental ______ , dental _________ ,alveolar _____ , palatal _____ , velar _____ , glottal _____ consonants.10. english vowels may be distinguished as front ____ ,central _____ , and back _____ according to which part of thetongue is held highest.11. according to the openness of the mouth, we can classify the vowels into: close ______________ vowels, semi close _____vowels, semi open _____ vowels and open ______ vowels.12. vowels can be classified according to the shape of the lips. in english, all the front vowels are uounded _____________ vowels andmost back vowels are rounded _____ .13. the english vowels can be classified according to the length of the sound. the long vowels are all tense ________________vowels and the lax _____ vowels are lax vowels.14. a phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone __________________ in a certainphonetic context.15. the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.16. phonetically similar sounds might be related in two ways. if they are two distinctive phonemes they are said to form a phonemic contrast . if they are allophones of thesame phoneme, then they are said to be in complementary distribution .17. when two different forms are identical in every way except for one soundsegment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal __________ pair19. rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential ________________ rules.21. the parts of speech that are normally stressed in an english sentence are nouns __________________ , main ______ verbs,adjectives ____ , adverbs _____ , numerals _____ anddemonstrative _____ pronouns; the other categories of wordslike articles _____ , person _____ pronouns, auxiliary _____verbs, preposition _____ , and conj unctions _____ are usuallynot stressed.25. in english we can produce a sound by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions, the sound thus produced is calleda diphthong _____________________________ .26. speech _____ sounds are sounds that convey meaning inhuman communication.27. ipa is the short form for international _____phonetic _____ alphabet ____ or i _____ p _____association _____ .28. in english glides are sometimes called semivowels _____ .the english glides are _w ____ and ___j ___.29. a phoneme consists of a set of distinctive 与众不同的_____ features. it is just because of these features that a phoneme is capable of distinguishing meaning. ii. multiple choice1. which of the following is not a suprasegmental feature?a. phonemeb. stressc. toned. intonation2. the english word that contains a voiceless bilabial unaspirated stop is .a. peakb. speakc. tip c. topic3. chinese is a(n) ___ language.a. intonationb. tonec. pitchd. stress4. the rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called _______________________ .a. sequential rulesb. combining rulesc. assimilation rulesd. deletion rules5. which of the following is a minimal pair?a. fear, pearb. put, hutc. bit, beatd. beat, beastiii. true or false judgement( ) 2. linguists are interested in all sounds produced by humans.( ) 3. the “ same” sounds we claim to have heard are in most cases only phonetically similar, but rarely phonetically identical.( ) 4. narrow transcription is normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes.( ) 6. a phoneme is a phonological unit, it is a unit that is of distinctive value.( ) 7. the location of stress in english does not distinguish meaning.( ) 10. conventionally phonemes are placed within square brackets, and phones in slashes.keys: blank-filling 1.phonetics2. rticulatory, acoustic, auditory4.vocal cords, voicing5.broad, narrow6. aspirated, unaspirated7. vowels, consonants8. voiceless9. stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals, glides; bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar, glottal10. front, central, back11. close, semi-close, semi-open, open12. uounded, rounded13. tense, lax14. phone15. allophones16. phonemic contrast, complementary distribution17. minimal pair19.sequential21.nouns, main, adjectives, adverbs, numerals, demonstrative; articles, person, auxiliary, prepositions, conjunctions 25.diphthong26.speech27.international phonetic alphabet, international phonetic association28.semivowels, [w], [j]29.distinctive multiple choice 1-5abbac true or false judgement 2.f 3.t 4.f 6.t 7.f 10.f3. morphologyi. blank filling1. in english, nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs are sometimes called o class words since we can regularlyadd new words to these classes. the other syntactic categories, such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns, are sometimes called c class words since new words arenot usually added to them.2. m _____ refers to the study of the internal structure ofw _____ , and the rules by which words are formed.3. the most basic element of meaning is traditionally called m .4. some morphemes occurs only before other morphemes. suchmorphemes are called p _________ ; other morphemes occuronly after other morphemes, such morphemes are called s .5. when some morphemes are conjoined to other morphemes a new word is formed, such morphemes are called d _______________ morphemes.6. bound morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case and so on are referred to as i ____________________________ morphemes.篇二：《语言学概论》练习题答案】＞一、名词解释1 、语言学：语言学是以人类语言作为研究对象的学科，研究人类语言的性质、结构、发展等。

现代英语语言学导论课后答案温宏社主编1、Now people can _______ with their friends far away by e-mail, cellphone or letter. [单选题] *A. keep onB. keep in touch(正确答案)C. keep upD. keep off2、36．The students will go to the Summer Palace if it __________ tomorrow. [单选题] * A．won’t rainB．isn’t rainingC．doesn’t rain (正确答案)D．isn’t rain3、She serves as a secretary in a university. [单选题] *A. 为…服务B. 担任…职务(正确答案)C. 竞争…服务D. 申请…职务4、I like booking tickets online，because it is _______. [单选题] *A. boringB. confidentC. convenient(正确答案)D. expensive5、It is reported（）three people were badly injured in the traffic accident. [单选题] *A. whichB. that(正确答案)C.whileD.what6、______this story, and you will realize that not everything can be bought with money. [单选题] *A. ReadingB. ReadC. To readD.Being read(正确答案)7、I_____you that I had made the right decision. [单选题] *A.ensuredB.insuredC.assured(正确答案)D.for sure8、—Are these your sheep? [单选题] *A）on grass at the foot of the hill.(正确答案)B. feedC.is fedD. is feeding9、Sometimes only（）10 out of 500 or more candidates succeed in passing all the tests. [单选题] *A. as many asB. as few as(正确答案)C. as much asD. as little as10、The boy’s mother always _______ him a story before he goes to bed. [单选题] *A. saysB. speaksC. tells(正确答案)D. talks11、Mary wanted to travel around the world all by herself, but her parents did not _______ her to do so. [单选题] *A. forbidB. allowC. follow(正确答案)D. ask12、--Do you have a _______?--Yes, I _______ at a clothes store. [单选题] *A. work; workB. work; jobC. job; jobD. job; work(正确答案)13、Our school is beautiful. How about _______? [单选题] *A. theirs(正确答案)B. theirC. theyD. them14、( ) .Would you please ______me the gifts from your friends? [单选题] *A.to showB. showingC. show(正确答案)D. shown15、I _____ of her since she left school three years ago. [单选题] *A. didn’t hearB. haven’t heard(正确答案)C. was not hearingD. shall not heard16、These apples smell _____ and taste ______. [单选题] *A. well; wellB. good; good(正确答案)C. well; goodD. good; well17、_______ after dinner is good for our health. [单选题] *A. WalksB. Walking(正确答案)C. WalkedD. Walk18、69．Online shopping is easy, but ________ in the supermarket usually ________ a lot of time. [单选题] *A．shop; takesB．shopping; takeC．shop; takeD．shopping; takes(正确答案)19、44．—Hi, Lucy. You ________ very beautiful in the new dress today.—Thank you very much. [单选题] *A．look(正确答案)B．watchC．look atD．see20、He was very excited to read the news _____ Mo Yan had won the Nobel Prize for literature [单选题] *A. whichB. whatC. howD. that(正确答案)21、-We’ve spent too much money recently–well,it isn’t surprising. Our friend and relatives_______around all the time [单选题] *ingB. had comeC. were comingD have been coming(正确答案)22、He _______ maths. [单选题] *A. does well in(正确答案)B. good atC. is well inD. does well at23、I walked too much yesterday and （）are still aching now. [单选题] *A. my leg's musclesB. my leg muscles(正确答案)C. my muscles' of legD. my legs' muscles24、81．Some birds are flying ________ the lake. What a beautiful picture! [单选题] *A．forB．underC．inD．above(正确答案)25、The notice put _______ on the wall says “No Smoking”. [单选题] *A. up(正确答案)B. offC. awayD. out26、41．—________ do you take?—Small, please. [单选题] *A．What size(正确答案)B．What colourC．How manyD．How much27、Just use this room for the time being ,and we’ll offer you a larger one _______it becomes available [单选题] *A. as soon as(正确答案)B unless .C as far asD until28、His mother’s _______ was a great blow to him. [单选题] *A. diedB. deadC. death(正确答案)D. die29、Jim is a(n) _______. He is very careful and likes to work with numbers. [单选题] *A. secretaryB. tour guideC. accountant(正确答案)D. English teacher30、I _______ to the tape yesterday evening. [单选题] *A. lookB. listenC. listened(正确答案)D. hear。

Chapter 4 MorphologyWhat is morphology?The total number of words stored in the brain is called the lexicon.Words are the smallest free units of language that unite sounds with meaning.Morphology is defined as the study of the internal structur e and the formation of words.Morphemes and allomorphsThe smallest meaningful unit of language is called a morpheme.A morpheme may be represented by different forms, called allomorphs.“zero” form of a morpheme and suppletivesSome countable n ouns do not change form to express plurality. Similarly, some regular verbs do not change form to indicate past tense. In these two cases, the noun or verb contains two morphemes, among which there is one “zero form” of a morpheme.Some verbs have irreg ular changes when they are in past tense. In this case, the verbs also have two morphemes. Words which are not related in form to indicate grammatical contrast with their roots are called suppletives.Free and bound morphemesSome morphemes constitut e words by themselves. These morphemes are called free morphemes.Other morphemes are never used independently in speech and writing. They are always attached to free morphemes to form new words. These morphemes are called bound morphemes. The distinct i on between a free morphemes and a bound morpheme is whether it can be used independently in speech or writing.Free morphemes are the roots of words, while bound morphemes are the affixes (prefixes and suffixes).Inflexional and derivational morpheme sInflexional morphemes in modern English indicate case and number of nouns, tense and aspect of verbs, and degree of adjectives and adverbs.Derivational morphemes are bound morphemes added to existing forms to construct new words. English affixes a re divided into prefixes and suffixes.Some languages have infixes, bound morphemes which are inserted into other morphemes.The process of putting affixes to existing forms to create new words is called derivation. Words thus formed are called derivatives.Conclusion: classification of morphemesMorphemesFree morphemesBound morphemesInflexionalDerivational: affixesPrefixes: -s, -’s, -er, -est, -ing, -ed, -sSuffixesFormation of new wordsDerivationDerivation forms a wo rd by adding an affix to a free morpheme.Since derivation can apply more than once, it is possible to create a derived word with a number of affixes. For example, if we add affixes to the word friend, we can form befriend, friendly, unfriendly, friendliness, unfriendliness, etc. This process of adding more than one affix to a free morpheme is termed complex derivation.Derivation does not apply freely to any word of a given category. Generally speaking, affixes cannot be added to morphemes of a different language origin.Derivation is also constrained by phonological factors.Some English suffixes also change the word stress.CompoundingCompounding is another common way to form words. It is the combination of free morphemes. The majority of E nglish compounds are the combination of words from the three classes –nouns, verbs and adjectives – and fall into the three classes.In compounds, the rightmost morpheme determines the part of speech of the word.The meaning of compounds is not always the sum of meaning of the components.ConversionConversion is the process putting an existing word of one class into another class.Conversion is usually found in words containing one morpheme.ClippingClipping is a process that shortens a pol y syllabic word by deleting one or more syllables.Clipped words are initially used in spoken English on informal occasions.Some clipped words have become widely accepted, and are used even in formal styles. For example, the words bus (omnibus), vet (veterinarian), gym (gymnasium), fridge (refrigerator) and fax (facsimile) are rarely used in their complete form.BlendingBlending is a process that creates new words by putting together non-morphemic parts of existing words. For example, smog (smoke + frog), brunch (a meal in the middle of morning, replacing both breakfast and lunch), motel (motor + hotel). There is also an interesting word in the textbook for junior middle school students –“plike” (a kind of machine that is like both a plane and a bike).Back-formationBack-formation is the process that creates a new word by dropping a real or supposed suffix. For example, the word televise is back-formed from television. Originally, the word television is formed by putting the prefix tele- (far) to the root vision (viewing). At the same time, there is a suffix –sion in English indicating nouns. Then people consider the –sion in the word television asthat suffix and drop it to form the verb televise.Acronyms and abbreviationsAcronyms and abbrevia tions are formed by putting together the initial letters of all words in a phrase or title.Acronyms can be read as a word and are usually longer than abbreviations, which are read letter by letter.This type of word formation is common in names of org anizations and scientific terminology.EponymsEponyms are words that originate from proper names of individuals or places. For example, the word sandwich is a common noun originating from the fourth Earl of Sandwich, who put his food between two slices of bread so that he could eat while gambling.CoinageCoinage is a process of inventing words not based on existing morphemes.This way of word formation is especially common in cases where industry requires a word for a new product. For example, Kodak and Coca-cola.For more detailed explanation to the ways of word formation, see my notes of Practical English Grammar.转自[英美者]-英语专业网站：/cn/Html/M/Linguistics/86983.html Chapter 3 PhonologyWhat is phonology?Phonology is the study of sound systems and patterns.Phonology and phonetics are two studies different in perspectives, which are concerned with the study of speech sounds.Phonology focuses o n three fundamental questions.What sounds make up the list of sounds that can distinguish meaning in a particular language? What sounds vary in what ways in what context?What sounds can appear together in a sequence in a particular language?Pho nemes and allophonesA phoneme is a distinctive, abstract sound unit with a distinctive feature.The variants of a phoneme are termed allophones.We use allophones to realize phonemes.Discovering phonemesContrastive distribution – phonemesIf sounds appear in the same environment, they are said to be in contrastive distribution.Typical contrastive distribution of sounds is found in minimal pairs and minimal sets.A minimal pair consists of two words that differ by only one sound in the same position.Minimal sets are more than two words that are distinguished by one segment in the same position.The overwhelming majority of the consonants and vowels represented by the English phonetic alphabet are in contrastive distribution.Some sounds can hardly be found in contrastive distribution in English. However, these sounds are distinctive in terms of phonetic features. Therefore, they are separate phonemes.Complementary distribution – allophonesSounds that are not found in the sam e position are said to be in complementary distribution.If segments are in complementary distribution and share a number of features, they are allophones of the same phoneme.Free variationIf segments appear in the same position but the mutual subs titution does not result in change of meaning, they are said to be in free variation.Distinctive and non-distinctive featuresFeatures that distinguish meaning are called distinctive features, and features do not, non-distinctive features.Distinc tive features in one language may be non-distinctive in another.Phonological rulesPhonemes are abstract sound units stored in the mind, while allophones are the actual pronunciations in speech.What phoneme is realized by what allophones in what specific context is another major question in phonology.The regularities that what sounds vary in what ways in what context are generalized and stated in phonology as rules.There are many phonological rules in English. Take the following ones as exam ples.[+voiced +consonant] – [-voiced]/[-voiced +consonant]_[-voiced +bilabial +stop] – unaspirated/[-voiced +alveolar +fricative]_Syllable structureA syllable is a phonological unit that is composed of one or more phonemes.Every syllable h as a nucleus, which is usually a vowel.The nucleus may be preceded by one or more consonants called the onset and followed by one or more consonants called the coda.Sequence of phonemesNative speakers of any language intuitively know what sounds can be put together.Some sequences are not possible in English. The impossible sequences are called systematic gaps.Sequences that are possible but do not occur yet are called accidental gaps.When new words are coined, they may fill some accident a l gaps but they will never fillsystematic gaps.Suprasegmental featuresFeatures that are found over a segment or a sequence of two or more segments are called suprasegmental features.These features are distinctive features.StressStress is the perceived prominence of one or more syllabic elements over others in a word.Stress is a relative notion. Only words that are composed of two or more syllables have stress. If a word has three or more syllables, there is a primary stress and a sec ondary stress.In some languages word stress is fixed, i.e. on a certain syllable. In English, word stress is unpredictable.IntonationWhen we speak, we change the pitch of our voice to express ideas.Intonation is the variation of pitch to distin guish utterance meaning.The same sentence uttered with different intonation may express different attitude of the speaker.In English, there are three basic intonation patterns: fall, rise, fall-rise.ToneTone is the variation of pitch to disting uish words.The same sequence of segments can be different words if uttered with different tones.Chinese is a typical tone language.-转自[英美者]-英语专业网站：/cn/Html/M/Linguistics/86123.html Chapter 2 PhoneticsWhat is phonetics?Phonetics is termed as the study of speech sounds.Sub-branches of phoneticsArticulatory phonetics – the production of speech soundsAcoustic phonetics – the physical properties of speech soundsAuditory phonetics – the perceptive mechanism of speech soundsThe speech organsWhere does the air stream come from?From the lungWhat is the function of vocal cords?Controlling the air streamWhat are the cavities?O ral cavityPharyngeal cavityNasal cavityTranscription of speech soundsUnits of representationSegments (the individual sounds)Phonetic symbolsThe widely used symbols for phonetic transcription of speech sounds is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).The IPA attempts to represent each sound of human speech with a single symbol and the symbols are enclosed in brackets [ ] to distinguish phonetic transcriptions from the spelling system of a language.In more detailed transcripti o n (narrow transcription) a sound may be transcribed with a symbol to which a smaller is added in order to mark the finer distinctions.Description of speech soundsDescription of English consonantsGeneral feature: obstructionCriteria of conson ant descriptionPlaces of articulationManners of articulationV oicing of articulationPlaces of articulationThis refers to each point at which the air stream can be modified to produce a sound.Bilabial: [p] [b] [m] [w]Labiodental: [f] [v]Interdental: [ ] [ ]Alveolar: [t] [d] [s] [z] [l] [n] [r]Palatal: [ ] [ ] [t ] [d ] [j]Velar: [k] [g] [ ]Glottal: [h]Manners of articulationThis refers to how the air stream is modified, whether it is completely blocked or partially obstructed.Stops: [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]Fricatives: [s] [z] [ ] [ ] [f] [v] [ ] [ ] [h]Affricates: [t ] [d ]Liquids: [l] [r]Glides: [w] [j]Nasals: [m] [n] [ ]V oicing of articulationThis refers to the vibrating of the vocal cords when sounds are produced.V oiced soundsV oiceless soundsDescription of English vowelsGeneral feature: without obstructionCriteria of vowel descriptionPart of the tongue that is raisedFrontCentralBackExtent to which the tongue rises i n the direction of the palateHighMidLowKind of opening made at the lipsPosition of the soft palateSingle vowels (monophthongs) and diphthongsPhonetic features and natural classesClasses of sounds that share a feature or features a re called natural classes.Major class features can specify segments across the consonant-vowel boundary.Classification of segments by features is the basis on which variations of sounds can be analyzed.第三章“词汇”问题和练习1. 解释下列术语语素复合词屈折变化词缀派生词词根语素变体词干粘着语素自由语素词位词汇语法词词汇词封闭类开放类混成法借词混合借词转移借词缩略语脱落逆构词法同化异化俗词源2. 给下列词加上适当的否定前缀a. removable m. syllabicb. formal n. normalc. practicable o. workabled. sensible p. writtene. tangible q. usualf. logical r. thinkableg. regular s. humanh. proportionate t. relevanti. effective u. editablej. elastic v. mobilek. ductive w. legall. rational x. discreet3. 语素被定义为表达和内容关系的最小单位。

课后习题以及答案导论一：填空。

1、语言学的三大发源地是（）、（）和（）。

2、语言学是（）世纪成为独立的学科的，其标志是（）。

3、现代语言学的标志性著作是瑞士语言学家（）的（）。

4、语言交际过程可分为（）---（）-----（）----( )-----( )五个阶段。

5、印度最早的经典所使用的语言是( ).6、（）、（）、（）是中国“小学”的主要研究内容。

二：判断正误。

1、语文学主要是研究古代的口语和书面语。

2、语言有自身结构的独立性，与系统之外的社会环境没有关系。

3、理论语言学是研究语言一般规律的，不受具体语言研究影响。

4、语言形式和内容的关系是语言研究的根本问题。

三：思考题。

1、语言与人类社会生活有哪些密切联系？2、语文学研究有哪些特征？3、语言学学科内部都有哪些研究分类？如何看待它们之间的答案一、填空1、古希腊、古印度、古代中国2、19、历史比较语言学的出现3、索绪尔、《普通语言学教程》4、编码、发送、传递、接收、解码5、梵语6、音韵学、文字学、训诂学二、判断正误1、×。

语文学主要是研究古代的书面语，因为语文学研究所关注的，首先是反映在古代书面文献中的古代思想观念、政治制度等的，其直接目的大多是解读古典文献，而不是自觉地探索语言自身的规律，对当时的口语研究不是很关注。

2、×。

语言有自身结构的独立性，也与系统之外的社会环境密切联系。

语言学除了关注语言本体的结构性质和发展规律，同时也要探究语言系统与人、与社会之间错综复杂的关系。

而且语言一直在随着社会的发展而变化，会受到社会环境的影响。

3、×。

一般把研究某种具体语言的语言学称为汉语语言学或英语语言学等等，把侧重理论探讨的称为理论语言学。

理论语言学一般注重考察人类语言的共同规律和普遍特征，而不是学习研究某一门具体语言。

它所研究的是从具体的语言现象中总结、归纳出普遍的系统的理论和规律，并用这个理论指导各个具体语言的学习研究。

课后习题思考题1.答：人们在各个领域的活动中都离不开语言，语言活动深入到人类生活的一切领域，这种情况必然使语言学和其他学科发生密切的联系，因此说，语言学在现代科学体系中处于领先和关键的重要地位。

⑴语言学的特定研究对象，即人类的语言几乎牵涉到现代科学的每个学科。

现代许多学科的发展最后都与语言问题、思维问题等有关，语言学的突破必将为这些学科的发展起到促进作用。

⑵语言学与社会科学、自然科学有着密切的联系，围绕着语言学，已经形成了众多的边缘学科。

2.答：语言的应用研究统称为应用语言学，它着重解决现实中与语言有关的各种实际问题，把语言学的基础研究成果转化为社会效益。

根据研究范围的不同，应用语言学有狭义和广义之分。

狭义应用语言学主要以语言教学问题为研究对象, 基本可以看作是语言教学的理论与方法的科学。

语言教学包括第一语言教学即本族语的教学和第二语言教学即外族语的教学。

第一语言的学习非常重要，因为它是学习各门知识的基础和手段，也是进行各种交际活动的工具。

第二语言教学包括本族人学习外族语及教外族人学习本族语。

广义应用语言学是把语言学的研究成果同有关学科的某些实用研究结合起来，着重解决有关学科及语言学本身所涉及的应用方面的问题。

它主要包括语言统计、信息传递、自动控制、情报检索、机器翻译、人机对话、人工智能、自然语言理解、语言文字信息处理等。

此外，还涉及到语言规划、语言的使用等问题。

3.答：转换生成语言学的创始人是美国语言学家诺姆-乔姆斯基。

转换生成语言学的研究对象是语言能力而不是语言行为。

1957年，乔姆斯基出版《句法结构》一书，标志着转换生成语言学的诞生。

转换生成语法理论是欧美语言学理论中最有影响的一种，因此，它的诞生被称为“乔姆斯基革命”。

乔姆斯基的生成语法学理论使我们在一定程度上摆脫了行为主义言语获得理论的束缚，认识到婴儿言语获得过程中神经系统的重要作用，同时也向我们提出了研究言语过程的心理机制的问题，这是很有理论意义和借鉴价值的。

英语语言学导论第二版课后题答案这篇课件介绍的是英语语言学导论第二版的课后题，也就是 predictional node,可以说是很多英语学习者学英语的入门。

这本课教程主要包括四个部分，第一是基础知识：英语语言学导论第二版的学习指南；第二是词汇、语法等部分内容；第三句话；第四个单元：基本语法和常识性语法。

由于这些部分主要针对英语学习者的，所以大部分人都不会太过深入。

第一部分主要介绍基本语法和常识性语法。

第二段从词汇开始教起，介绍常见单词表方法和有关单词表规则。

第三部分就是理论部分，主要对相关理论进行介绍和讲解。

第四部分则是一些语法结构、语法知识方面的练习和讲解，包括长难句设计和语义分析法等方面内容。

一、基本语法基本语法主要是指由名词、动词、形容词、谓词和定冠词等组成的句式结构。

语法有两个重要的特点，一是强调在逻辑上主谓一致和主谓宾一致；二是强调在形式上主谓一致和主宾一致。

在英文里，句式的基本形式是名词或形容词+名词修饰短语，这就决定了句子的结构是主宾并列式组合而非主谓宾非主有定冠词修饰短句。

这种结构以主从为主，主从搭配为辅，辅音连用为主就成了这种结构典型例句。

如: go up with not a london’s a doing; to was in the way for the doing; was the doing of this will with london; but as that way so that in the denim; proposition of that to that dots等。

这种结构式语法类型。

还有一些例子表明主谓一致或主次有序在形式上没有明显区别。

这种结构式还可以用不同形式表示宾语、代词和不定冠词等等；也有一些句子仅在主句之间使用谓词介辞方式而不运用动词主句的时候会用谓语短词组替代原句主句中未出现过的或不需要过多动词介辞元素（如 frontiers、 state等）而不用宾语或非宾语修饰动词和介词短语等。

当代语言学导论课后练习第一题答案黎神华桂林电子科技大学Language touches every part of our lives; it gives words to用言语表达our thoughts, voice to our ideas, and expression to our feelings. It is a rich and varied human ability—one that we can use without even a thought, that children seem to acquire automatically, and that linguists have found to be complex yet describable.语言贯穿于我们生活的全部，予我们的思维以言辞，予我们的理念以话语，予我们的情感以表述。

它是一种人类所拥有的丰富而多样的能力—想用就用，无须思索；天下儿童，自能习得；语言学家知其固然复杂，却可描述。

Linguistics is the study of the nature, structure, and variation of language, including phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics.语言学是研究语言的本质、结构和变化的科学，包括有语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学和语用学。

Linguistic knowledge as represented in the speaker’s mind is called a grammar. Linguistic theory is concerned with涉及revealing揭示the nature of the mental grammar心理语法which represents speakers’ knowledge of their language.语言学知识作为说话者大脑里的表述被称为语法。

语⾔学课后习题答案语⾔学概论作业Chapter 11.How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: linguistics is thescientific study of language?To understand this definition, we should focus on three words in this sentence: scientific, study and language. First of all, scientific here means a study which is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. The linguist studies it to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system. Secondly, the word study here refers to investigation or examination. Thirdly, Language here is general term. It refers to any human language, Chinese spoken by the Chinese, English by the English people, German by the Germans, or even Esperanto, an artificial language. Language here also means the dialects or variants of a common language such as Cantonese, a variant of Mandarin.Therefore, this whole sentence can be interpreted that linguistics is a language study through the systematic investigation of linguistic data and some general theory of language structure.2.What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?Phonetics:the study of sounds used in linguistic communication.It describes individual speech sounds and indicates their physical or phoneticproperties.Phonology:it studies the ways in which these sounds form patterns and systems and how they work to convey meaning in the system oflanguage.Morphology: a field of linguistics focused on the study of the forms and formation of words in a languageSyntax:A set of rules that govern how words are combined to form phrases and sentences.Pragmatics: the study of the use of language in a social context.3.In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?①Linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.②Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.③Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does notforce languages into a Latin-based framework.4.Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?In modern linguistics, the linguists seem to give priority to synchronic studies other than diachronic ones. Because it is believed that unless the various states ofa language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would bedifficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development. That is to say, the diachronic studies should be based on synchronic ones. Synchronic descriptions are often thought of as being description of a language in its current existence. And most linguistic studies are of this type.5.For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than towriting?①The writing system is invented by its users when needed②Today there are languages which can only be spoken but not written③Speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of informationconveyed in daily communication④Each human being first acquires speech and then learns writing⑤Modern linguistics tends to pay more attention to authentic speech as spokenlanguage reveals more true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of speech.6.How is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’sdistinction between competence and performance?They are similar in two aspects: the definition and the content of study.On one hand, Saussure defines langue as the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole as the realization of langue in actual use. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. We can see that langue and competence both refer to the abstract issue, conventions and knowledge, and parole and performance both are their actual realization, the concrete use.On the other hand, in Saussure’s opinion, what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole as parole is too varied and confusing. And this is the same as Chomsky. He thinks linguists should study the ideal speaker’s competence, not his performance, which is too haphazard to be studied.7.What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good,comprehensive definition of language?The important characteristics which should be included in a good definition of language are separately: systematic, arbitrary and vocal.First of all,language is a system. It has its own set of rules for people to abide by, or people will use the language in a wrong way.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for. The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of languge.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.8.What are the main features of human language that have been specified byC.Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communicationsystem?1)Arbitrariness: no natural/motivated/logical relationship between the sign andwhat the sign stands for.2)Productivity:provides opportunities for sending messages that have neverbeen sent before and for understanding novel messages.3) Duality:language is a system, which consists of two sets of stuctures, or twolevels.4) Displacement: can be used to refer to things real or imagined, past, present orfuture5) Cultural transmission9.What are the major functions of language?1)descriptive function2)expressive function3)social functionChapter 31.Divide the following words into their separate morphemes by placing a “+”between each morpheme and the next:a.microfilm: micro+filmb.bedraggled: be+draggle+edc.announcement: announce+mentd.predigestion: pre+digest+ione.telecommunication: tele+communicate+ionf.forefather: fore+fatherg.psychophysic: psycho+physich.mechanist: mechan+ist2.Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning and specify the types of stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.1)suffix: -ingmeaning: denoting a verbal action, an instance of this, or its resultstem type: added to verbsexamples: fighting: denote the action of battlebuilding: denote the action of consruction2)suffix: -ablemeaning: able to bestem type: added to verbsexamples: avoidable: able to be prevented fromcalculable: able to be measured or assessed3)suffix: -istmeaning:denoting a member of a profession or business activitystem type: added to nounsexamples: dramatist : a person who writes playsdentist: a person who treats the teeth disease3.Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be prefixed to. Give at least two examples of each.1)prefix: un-meaning: denoting the absence of a quality or state; notstem type: added to nounsexamples: unacademic: not adopting or characteristic of a scholarlyapproach or languageunhappy: not happy2)prefix: anti-meaning: opposed to; againststem type: added to nounsexamples: anti-abortion: opposing or legislating against medicallyinduced abortionanti-art: against the traditional art3)prefix: re-meaning:once more; afresh; anewstem type: added to verbsexamples: restart: start once morereaccustom: accustom (someone) to something again4.The italicized part in each of the following sentences is an inflectional morpheme. Study each inflectional morpheme carefully and point out its grammatical meaning.1)Sue moves in high-society circles in London.The third person singular2)A traffic warden asked John to move his car.The past tense3)The club has moved to Friday, February 22nd.The present perfect4)The branches of the trees are moving back and forth.The present progressive5.Detemine whether the words in each of the following groups are related to one another by process of inflection or derivation.a)go, goes, going, goneprocess of inflectionb)discover, discovery, discoverer, discoverable, discoverabilityprocess of derivationc)inventor, inventor’s inventors, inventors’process of inflectiond)democracy, democrat, democratic, democratizeprocess of derivation6.The following sentences contain both derivational and inflectional affixes. Underline all of the derivational affixes and circle the inflectional affixes.a)The farmer’s cows escaped.Derivational affixes: -erInflectional affixes: …s, -s, -edb)It was raining.Derivational affixes:noneInflectional affixes: -ingc)Those socks are inexpensive.Derivational affixes: in-Inflectional affixes: -sd)Jim needs the newer copy.Derivational affixes: -erInflectional affixes: -se)The strongest rower continued.Derivational affixes: -est, -erInflectional affixes: -edf)She quickly closed the book.Derivational affixes: -lyInflectional affixes: -edg)The alphabetization went well.Derivational affixes:-ionInflectional affixes: wentChapter 51.What are the major views concerning the study of meaning?1)The naming theory was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. Thelinguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for; words are just names or labels for things. The semantic relationship holding between words and things is the relationship of naming.2)The conceptualist view: This view holds that there is no direct link betweena linguistic form and what it refers to; rather, in the interpretation of meaningthey are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. This is best illustrated by the semantic triangle suggested by Ogden and Richards:3)Contextualism: Representatively proposed by the British linguist J. R. Firthwho had been influenced by the Polish anthropologist Malinowski and the German philosopher Wittgenstein.It holds that meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context –elements closely linked with language behavior. …the meaning of a word is its use in the language.4)Behaviourism: Based on contextualist view by Bloomfield who drew onbehaviorist psychology in defining “meaning”.Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language from as the “situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.”This theory, somewhat close tocontextualism, is linked with psychological interest.2.What are the major types of synonyms in English?1)dialectal synonyms-----synonyms used in different regional2)Stylistic synonyms: synonyms differing in style3)Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning4)Collocational synonyms: what words they go together with5)Semantically different synonyms: differ from the words themselves3.Explain with examples “homonymy”, “po lysemy”, and “hyponymy”.1)Homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words havingdifferent meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones. When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs. When tow words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms. The examples are as followed:Homophones: rain/reign night/knight piece/peaceHomographs: bow v./bow n. tear v./tear n.Complete homonyms: fast adj./fast v.2)Polysemy: while different words may have the same or similar meaning, thesame one word may have more than one meaning. This is what we call polysemy, and such a word is called a polysemic word. The more commonly used a word is, the more likely it has acquired more than one meaning. For example, the word table has at least six meanings when we look it up in the dictionary:1. a piece of furniture2.all the people seated at a table3.the food that is put on a table4. a thin flat piece of stone, mental, wood, etc5.orderly arrangement of facts, figures, etc6.part of a machine-tool on which the work is put to beoperated on3)Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, moreinclusive word and a more specific word. The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate, and the more specific words are calledits hyponyms. Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms to each other. For example,Superordiante: flowerHyponyms: rose, tulip, carnation, lily, morning golory4.How can words opposite in meaning be classified? To which category does eachof the following pairs of antonyms belong?①north/south ②vacant/occupied ③literate/illiterate ④above/below⑤doctor/patient ⑥wide/narrow ⑦poor/rich ⑧father/daughterGradable antonyms: literate/illiterate wide/ poor/richComplementary antonyms: vacant/occupiedRelational opposite: north/south dotor/patient father/daughter5.Identify the relations between the following pairs of sentences:①Tom’s wife is pregnant. Tom has a wife.②My sister will soon be divorced. My sister is a married woman.③He likes seafood. He likes crabs.④They are going to have another baby. They have a child.X presupposes Y(Y is a prerequisite of X): ①②④X entails Y(Y is an entailment of X): ③6.In what way is componential analysis similar to the analysis of phonemes intodistinctive features?Componential analysis is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features. And that is similar to the analysis of phonemes into distinctive features.7.What is grammaticality? What might make a grammatically meaningful sentencesemantically meaningless?The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality, especially its grammatical well-formedness. Selectional restrictions, which means the constraints on what lexical items can go with what others, might make a grammatically meaningful sentence semantically meaningless.8.Try to analyze the following sentences in terms of predication analysis:①The man sells ice-cream. ②Is the baby sleeping?③It is snowing. ④The tree grows well.1.MAN, ICE-CREAM(SELL)2.BABY(SLEEP)3.(BE SNOW)4.TREE(GROW)Chapter 6 PRAGMATICS1. What does pragmatics study? How does it differ from traditional semantics?答：Generally speaking, pragmatics is the study of meaning in the context. It studies meaning in a dynamic way and as a process. In order to have a successful communication, the speaker and hearer must take the context into their consideration so as to effect the right meaning and intention. The development and establishment pragmatics in 1960s and 1970s resulted mainly from the expansion of the study semantics. However, it is different from the traditional semantics. The major difference between them lies in that pragmatics studies meaning in a dynamic way, while semantics studies meaning in a static way. Pragmatics takes context into consideration while semantics does not. Pragmatics takes care of the aspect of meaning that is not accounted for by semantics.2. Why is the notion of context essential in the pragmatic study of linguistic communication?答：The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. Various continents of shared knowledge have been identified, e.g. knowledge of the language they use, knowledge of what has been said before, knowledge about the world in general, knowledge about the specific situation in which linguistic communication is taking place, and knowledge about each other. Context determines the speaker's use of language and also the heater's interpretation of what is said to him. Without such knowledge, linguistic communication would not be possible, and without considering such knowledge, linguisticcommunication cannot be satisfactorily accounted for in a pragmatic sense. Look at the following sentences:(1) How did it go?(2) It is cold in hem.(3) It was a hot Christmas day so we went down to the beach in the afternoon and had a good time swimming and surfing.Sentence (1) might be used in a conversation between two students talking about an examination, or two surgeons talking about an operation, or in some other contexts; (2) might be said by the speaker to ask the hearer to turn on the heater, or leave the place, or to put on more clothes, or to apologize for the poor condition of the room, depending on the situation of context; (3) makes sense only ii the hearer has the knowledge that Christmas falls in summer in the southern hemisphere.3. How are sentence meaning and utterance meaning related, and how do they differ?答： A sentence is a grammatical concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication. But if we think of a sentence as what people actuallyutter in the course of communication, it becomes an utterance, and it should be considered in the situation in which it is actually uttered (or used). So it is impossible to tell if “The dog is barking” is a sentence or an utterance. It can be either. It all depends on how we look at it and how we are going to analyze it. If we take it as a grammatical unit and consider it as a self-contained unit in isolation from context, then we are treating it as a sentence. If we take it as something a speaker utters in a certain situation with a certain purpose, then we are treating it as an utterance.Therefore, while the meaning of a sentence is abstract, and decontextualized, that of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. The meaning of an utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. Now, take the sentence "My bag is heavy" as an example. Semantic analysis of the meaning of the sentence results in the one-place predication BAG (BEING HEAVY). Then a pragmatic analysis of the utterance meaning of the .sentence varies with the context in which it is uttered. For example, it could be uttered by a speaker as a straightforward statement, telling the hearer that his bag is heavy. It could also be intended by the speaker as an indirect, polite request, asking the hearer to help him carry the bag. Another possibility is that the speaker is declining someone's request for help. All these are possible interpretations of the same utte rance “My bag is heavy”. How it is to be understood depends on the context in which it is uttered and the purpose for which the speaker utters it.While most utterances take the form of grammatically complete sentences, some utterances do not, and some cannot even be restored to complete sentences.4. Try to think of contexts in which the following sentences can be used for other purposes than just stating facts:a) The room is messy.b) Oh, it is raining!c) The music of the movie is good.d) Y ou have been keeping my notes for a whole week now.答：a) A father entered his son’s room and found it is very messy. Then when he said, “The room is messy,”he was blaming his son for not tidying it up.b) A son asked his father to play with him outside. So when the father said, “Oh, it?s raining”, he meant they couldn?t play outside.c) Two persons just watched a movie and had a discussion of it. One person said, “The story of the movie is very moving”, so when the other person said, “The music of the movie is good”, he meant he didn't think the story of the movie was good.d) A person wanted his notes back, so when he said, “you have been keeping my notes for a whole week now”, he was demanding the return of his notes.5. According to Austin, what are the three acts a person is possiblyperforming while making an utterance. Give an example.答：According to Austin's new model, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act.A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker?s intention; it is the act performed in saying something. A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something. Let's look at an example:Y ou have left the door wide open.The locutionary act performed by the speaker is his utterance of the words “you”, “have”, “door”, “open”, etc. thus expressing what the words literally mean.The illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance he has expressed his intention of speaking, i.e. asking someone to close the door, or making a complaint, depending on the context.The perlocutionary act refers to the effect of the utterance. If the hearer gets the speaker's message and sees that the speaker means to tell him to close the door, the speaker has successfully brought about the change in the real world he has intended to; then the perlocutionary act is successfully performed.6. What are the five types of illocutionary speech acts Searle has specified? What is the illocutionary point of each type?答：(1) representatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true(2) directives: trying to get the hearer to do something(3) commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action(4) expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing(5) declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying somethingThe illocutionary point of the representatives is to commit the speaker to something's being the case, to the truth of what has been said, in other words, when performing an illocutionary act of representative, the speaker is making a statement or giving a description which he himself believes to be true. Stating, believing, sweating, hypothesizing are among the most typical of the representatives.Directives ate attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do some- thing. Inviting, suggesting, requesting, advising, wanting, threatening and ordering are all specific instances of this class.Commissives are those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action, i.e. when speaking the speakerputs himself under a certain obligation. Promising, undertaking, vowing are the most typical ones.The illocutionary point of expressives is to express the psychological state specified in the utterance. The speaker is expressing his feelings or attitudes towards an existing state of affairs, e.g. apologizing, thanking, congratulating.The last class “declarations” has the characteristic that the successful performance of an act of this type brings about the correspondence between what is said and reality.7. What is indirect language use? How is it explained in the light of speech act theory?答：When someone is not saying I an explicit and straightforward manner what he means to say, rather he is trying to put across his message in an implicit, roundabout way, we can say he is using indirect language. Explanation (略) (见教材p.84-85)8. What are the four maxims of the CP? Try to give your own examples to show how flouting these maxims gives rise to conversational implicature? 答：Cooperative Principle, abbreviated as CP. It goes as follows: Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.To be more specific, there are four maxims under this general principle:(1) The maxim of quantity①Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange).②Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.(2) The maxim of quality①Do not say what you believe to be false.②Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.(3) The maxim of relationBe relevant.(4) The maxim of manner①Avoid obscurity of expression.②Avoid ambiguity.③Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity).④Be orderly.9. What is pragmatic failure? Try to find instances of pragmatic failure in the English used by Chinese learners of English.答：The technical term for breakdowns in the course of communication is pragmatic failure. Pragmatic failure occurs when the speaker fails to use language effectively to achieve a specific communication purpose, or when the hearer fails to recognize the intention or the illocutionary force of the speaker?s utterance in the context of communication.Instances (略) (见教材p.89)syntax1. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady suddenly left.Det A N Qual Vb) The car stopped at the end of the road.Det N V P Det N P Det Nc) The snow might have blocked the road.Det N Aux Aux V Det Nd) He never appears quite mature.N Qual V Deg A2. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) full of peopleAPA P Nfull of peopleb) a story about a sentimental girlNPNP PPDet N P NPDet A Na story about a sentimental girlc) often read detective storiesQual V NPA Noften read detective storiesd) the argument against the proposalsNPNP PPDet N P NPDet Nthe argument against the proposalse) move towards the windowVPV PPP Det Nmove towards the window3. Draw phrase structure trees for each of the following sentences.a) The jet landed.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet N Pst VThe jet landedb) Mary became very ill.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPN Pst V APDeg AMary became very illc) What will you talk about?CPNP C SN Infl NP Infl VPVP NPV P Nd) The apple might hit the man.NP VPDet N Aux V NPDet N The apple might hit the manORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet N V NPDet N The apple might hit the mane) He often reads detective stories.SNP VPN Qual V NPA NHe often reads etective storiesORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPPresN Qual V NPA NHe often reads etective stories4. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.a) A frightened passenger landed the crippled airplane.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A N Pst V NPDet A NA frightened passenger landed the crippled airplaneb) A huge moon hung in the black sky.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A N Pst V PPP NPDet A NA huge moon hung in the black skyc) An unusual event occurred before the meeting.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A N Pst V PPP NPDet NAn unusual event occurred before the meetingd) A quaint old house appeared on the grassy hill.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A NP Pst V PPA N P NPDet A NA quaint old house appeared on the grassy hill5. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.InflP(=S)NP VPN Aux V NPDet A NPN CON NJim has washed the dirty shirts and pantsORInflP(=S)NP VPN Infl V NPDet A NPN CON NJim has washed the dirty shirts and pantsb) Helen put on her clothes and went out.SNP VPN VP CON VP。

P7 3. Discuss the relation of arbitrariness and rules?Words are arbitrary in form, but they are not random in their use. Although the link between form and meaning is arbitrary, there existed certain relationship between them, which can be called rules. The individual does not have the power to change a sign in any way once it has become established in the linguistic community.P12 3.Please explain the primacy of human language over animalcommunication.Human language is primary over animal communication in the following aspects:1) Human has the ability to refer to things far remote in time and space. In contrast, it may beimpossible for an animal to convey such ability.2) Human has the ability to produce and understand an indefinite number of novel utterances,but no animal can communicate creatively with another animal.3) Learning is much more important as a factor in human language than in animalcommunication.4) Human language structure and language use are vastly more complex than any animalcommunication system.5) Animal communication systems are closed-ended, whereas human languages areopen-ended.P18 1. Identify the functions of the following sentences.a)I like your house very much. b)I now declare the meeting closed.c)Nice to meet you d)I met Mary in the library this morning.a. Physiological functionb. Performative functionc. Phatic functiond. InformativefunctionP24 2.Please list five Chinese onomatopoetic words轰隆、乒乓、叽叽嘎嘎、叽里咕噜、汪汪3.What are the functions of onomatopoetic words?Onomatopoetic words are imitations of the sounds of nature, and emotional ejaculations of pain, fear, surprise, pleasure, anger, etc. According to the invention theory, onomatopoetic words form the basis of language, or at least the core of the basic vocabulary.P28 3.What is the real object of linguistics?The real object of linguistics is to find out fundamental rules that underlie all the languages in the world. We need to look into the common features of all languages, the range of variations among languages, the difference of human languages from animal communication, the change and evolution of language, the relation of language to mind and society, and so on.P58 1. What is a phoneme? And what is an allophone?Phoneme is the minimum phonemic unit that is not further analyzable into smaller units susceptible of concomitant occurrence. In other words, a phoneme is a block thatcannot be broken down into smaller parts; it is the smallest element relevant to phonemic analysis. Allophone is the phonetic variant of a phoneme.P62 1. What does the word 'distinctive' mean in the term 'distinctive features'?Distinctive features can be used to distinguish one phoneme from another or one group of sounds from another group. Thus, "distinctive" means serving to identify, distinguishing.P65 1. What does complementary distribution mean?When two or more sounds never occur in an identical phonemic context or environment, they are said to be in complementary distribution. That is to say,complementary distribution refers to the case in which one of two or more soundsoccur in a context to the exclusion of other sound(s), i.e. in a context in which theother sound(s) never occur(s).P69 2. What is the importance of stress in English?Stress in English is very important. English is a stress language. The rhythm of spoken English is to a very large extent determined by strong beats falling on the stressed syllables of words. Thus, a typical spoken utterance of English will consist of a number of rhythmic units. Each unit is dominated by the beat of the stressed syllable. In verse, the wording is characteristically and deliberately organized to yield a regular rhythm, and the units of this rhythm are commonly called 'feet'. This kind of rhythm puts a characteristic stamp on the nature of spoken English.P75 3. How can you identify the meaning of a word?Apart from the conceptual meaning (also called "denotative", "logical" or "cognitive" meaning), a word normally has various associated meanings, including theconnotative meaning, social meaning, affective meaning, reflected meaning, andcollocative meaning. We can turn to the dictionary for its conceptual meaning. As forits various associated meanings, however, we have to relate the word with its context,including the linguistic context as well as the context of situation and the context ofculture.P821. Divide the following words into morphemes by placing a "+" between each morpheme and the next.1) unbearable 2) watchful 3) personification 4) unexceptionally5) uneducated 6) inspiring 7) soft-hearted 8) horsemanship1. 1) un- + bear + -able 2) watch + -ful 3) person+ -ify (i) + -cation4) un- + except+tion + -al + -ly 5) un- +educate +-(e)d 6) inspir(e) + -ing7) soft + heart + -ed 8) horse + man + -ship3. How many allomorphs does the plural form s have?The plural s has 3 phonologically-conditioned allomorphs... and 5morphologically-conditioned allomorphs: (1) -(e)s, as in "cats", "matches"; (2) -(r)en:as in "oxen", "children"; (3) -e-: as in "men", "women"; (4) -ee-, as in "feet", "teeth";and (5) zero, as in "sheep", "deer".P93 2. What is the difference between lexeme and word?A lexeme refers to the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that canbe distinguished from other smaller units whereas a word refers to the smallest formof a language that can occur by itself. A lexeme may be or may not be identical with aword. For example, the definite article "the" is both a lexeme and a word. However,the lexeme "put up with" has three different words.P100 1. Is immediate constituent analysis effective to explain discontinuousconstituents?No. Immediate constituent analysis is solely concerned with the surface structures of language, which only shows the physical manifestation of the language, for example, linear order of a sentence. One approach to explain sentences with discontinuous constituents is to represent them by two phrase markers, which will be structurally related.One phrase marker is derived from another. By transformational grammar, the discontinuous constituents can be accounted for effectively. Transformational rules are responsible for the generation of infinitely many phrase markers not generated directly by the phrase-structure rules.2. Diagram the constituent structure of each of the following.(a) a very old wooden house down the lane(b) His old friend arrived yesterday.P103 2. Use the appropriate phrase structure rules to draw a tree diagram of constituent structure for each of the following sentences:(a) A smart boy fooled the class.(b) The pavilion on the hill collapsed in the wind.(c) Everybody knew that the president would win the election.P110 1. Draw the tree diagrams for the following sentences:(1) She found a book on Madison Street.(2) Jack advised Henry to see the dentist.(3) Jack promised Henry to see the doctor.P115Exercises:What is the relationship between surface structure and deep structure?Surface structure can be derived from deep structure. A surface structure may be represented by more than one phrase marker, which in sense is the same to a single phrase marker. This one single phrase marker is said to be the deep structure. In the operation from deep structure to surface structure, phrase structure rules and modifications are needed to add, delete, or permute constituents. The relations between deep and surface structures are to be revealed through transformational rules. In this process, the order or hierarchic relationship of the constituents is to be changed. The actual pronunciation is based on the surface structureP120 1. The formation of many sentences involves the operation of syntactic movement. Show the deep structures for each of following sentences.(a) The boss of the bus company was severely criticized by the public.(b) The woman threw the rake away in the yard.(c) Will the new school master hire her?(a) The relevant parts for the passive transformational rule of the above sentence are thesubject NP (here the public), the object NP (here the boss, which will change positions with the public), the V (criticize) and AUX, and then a be + en auxiliary will be inserted. The deep structure should be its corresponding active variant, which is The public criticized the boss of the bus company severely.(b) In the derivation of The woman threw the rake away in the yard., the underlying structure,The woman threw away the rake in the yard. is also the deep structure. It is generated by the phrase-structure rules, including the rule which states that a V (verb) consists of a Vprt (verbsthat can combine with verbal particles) and a Prt (verbal particles). In the surface structure, a new phrase marker is produced in which the particle is moved to the right of the NP.(c) The question rule formulates that in order to form a yes-no question from the declarativesentence, move the first auxiliary verb of the main sentence (in this case, will) immediately before the first NP of that sentence (here, the new school master). So, the deep structure of the question should be its declarative variant, which is The new school master will hire her.2. Please display the transformational rules involved in the followingsentences.(a) What can the computer program do for us?A wh interrogative sentence is derived by a movement rule from a deep structure similarto that of the declarative counterpart. So, the sentence like What can the computer program do for us? would derive from a deep structure in the form of The computer program can do "what" for us?. The wh-element occurs initially and is followed by tense and an auxiliary. In this sentence, the object is fronted. First, the interrogative transformation which switches round the auxiliary verb can and the subject the computer program - known as 'I' (inflexion) movement, and in the second step, a 'wh' transformation - known as 'wh' movement - that moves the noun phrase what- "the content", to the front of the sentence, see the following diagram.(b) The window was broken by Jack.This sentence is traditionally called the "passive" sentence, and its variant is "active".This pair is broadly speaking the same in meaning. The formulations of the passive rules must capture the fact that the active sentence and the passive sentence have their NP's (here the window and Jack) in reverse order, and that both a be + en auxiliary and the preposition by occur in the passive sentences and not in the active ones. AUX refers to past tense in this sentence.(c) They gave the door a gentle push.A corresponding sentence to the sentence is They gave a gentle push to the door. Both ofwhich have the same basic meaning, and differ in the order of NP's in the VP. In the corresponding sentence we find NP1 + to + NP2, in the above given sentence. Yet, in the sentence They gave the door a gentle push., we have reversed NP's. Transformational rules capture these facts by viewing the sentence, They gave the door a gentle push. as derived from the sentence, They gave a gentle push to the door., by deleting to and reverses the order of (i.e., permutes) the two NP's. A phrase marker is changed into a new one.P133 Exercise 2:2. What is the difference between sentence meaning and utterance meaning?Sentence meaning refers to the conventional content or literal meaning of a sentence. It is the context-independent meaning. Utterance meaning refers to the meaning of an utterance in the context. In other words, it is the meaning dependent on the context. In some cases, the sentence meaning coincides with the utterance meaning. But in many situations, the utterance meaning differs from the sentence meaning.P140 Exercise 1&3：1、Please explain why there are not true synonyms.True synonyms are rare. The so-called "synonyms" are always different either in their origin, in the shade of meaning, in the affective or stylistic meaning, or in collocation and distribution.3、What category of antonym does each of the following pair of wordsbelong to?a. black, whiteb. buy, sellc. big, smalld. parent, childe. upstairs,downstairs f. polite, rudea)black, white: complementary antonyms; b)buy, sell: relational antonyms;c）big, small: gradable antonyms; d)parent,child:relational antonyms;f)polite,rude: complementary antonyms.P142 Exercise 2:2. What is the semantic relation between the words in the following pairs.1) hand, foot 2) rose, narcissus 3) tree, willow 4) bottle, cork1) hand, foot: These two words are hyponyms (or "subordinates"), each denoting apart of the human body.2) rose, narcissus: These two words are in the semantic relation of hyponymy;they are both the subordinates of the word flower.3) tree, willow: These two words are in the semantic relation of hyponymy: tree isthe hypernym (or "superordinate") and willow is the hyponym (or "subordinate).In other words, a willow is a kind of tree.4) bottle, cork: These two words are in the semantic relation of myronymy. "cork"is part of a bottle.P146 Exercise 3:3. What is the difference between polysemy and homonymy?When a lexeme has a multiplicity of meanings, it is polysemic. Polysemy is the result from the change of meaning and therefore semantic relations of one kind or another can be identified between the various meanings of the lexeme. In contrast, although homonyms share the same phonological form, they have no common semantic features and in many cases have different written forms. They are normally of different etymological origin and are treated in dictionaries as different entries.P150 Exercise 1&2：1. Try to identify the presuppositions that lie behind each of the followingutterances:a) John has stopped smoking. b) She regretted having told him the secret.c) The boy opened the door himself. d) The paper turned red when itwas dipped into the liquid.a) John has stopped smoking. →John had been smoking.b) She regretted having told him the secret.→She had told him the secret.c) The boy opened the door himself. →The door had been closed.d) The paper turned red when it was dipped into the liquid. →The paperwas dipped into the liquid2. What does each of the following utterances entail?a) He lost his bike yesterday. b) They went to the Great Wall.c) Mary's computer is terrific. d) We met two of our friends at the party.a) He lost his bike yesterday. →His bike is missing now.b) They went to the Great Wall. →They are not here at present.c) Mary's computer is terrific.→Mary's computer is good.d) We met two of our friends at the party. →Two of our friends were at theparty.P154 Exercise 2:2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of componential analysis?Componential analysis has a number of advantages over traditional approaches to lexical meanings. Firstly, it throws new light on semantic relations such as synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy and metaphor. Secondly, componential analysis can better explain the validity of syntagmatic combination of words and phrases than the purely syntactic approach. Thirdly, componential analysis gives a better account for the formation of the meaning of a phrase or a sentence. The componential analysis has three disadvantages. Firstly, it is often difficult to determine what semantic features are essential to define a word, and how many are sufficient for the specification. Secondly, when faced with two equally plausible features, it is often difficult to determine which one we should specify.Thirdly, componential analysis seems to be difficult to be apply to function words, such as the, of, and, and ah, for they seem to have no semantic features.P156 Exercise 1:1. Please identify the types of predicate in each of the verbs in the followingsentences.a) He gave me the book. b) It was snowing hard.c) The computer is working properly. d) Someone invented the story.a) This sentence has a three-place predicate gave, which governs threearguments, the subject He, the indirect object me and the direct object (the)book.b) This sentence has a no-place predicate (was) snowing, which governs noargument. Note that the subject It here is an empty word and so does notplay the role of an argument in the sentence.c) This sentence has a one-place predicate (is) working, which governs oneargument (the) computer.d) This sentence has a two-place predicate invented, which governs twoarguments, the subject Someone and the object (the) story.P159 Exercise 2:2. Please comment on the role of tautology in the following:看看人家，冰箱是冰箱，彩电是彩电。

1.Human superiority lies in his unique endowment天赋—the ability to talk, or rather, tocommunicate by means of language.nguage is a vehicle of power, for control, for creation. And for change.3.The study of human language is called linguistics.nguage is the system of human communication which consists of the structuredarrangement of sounds(or their written representation) into larger units, e.g. morphemes, words, sentences, utterances.5.Varieties of language: Any particular language is in essence a set of varieties. There are localvarieties区域变体–dialects and accents(the former differ from each other in pronunciation, vocabulary, and even grammar; the latter only in pronunciation ), social varieties—sociolects 社会方言(=social dialects , used by people of different classes, ages, or sexes ), historical varieties—registers语域(e.g. formal English, scientific English), and even individual varieties—idiolects个人语言. Usually a language has an officially declared or generally considered standard dialect(e.g. Putonghua in China, General American in the US)6.Prescriptivism is the view that one variety of language has an inherently higher value thanothers.7.Descriptivism is the policy of describing languages as they are bound to exist. Usages ofdifferent varieties should be observed and recorded instead of being judged with some imposed norms.8.Plato’s problem: How can every human being develop a rich system of linguistic knowledgeon the basis of limited and fragmentary empirical evidence?9.Plato held that there was a universally correct and acceptable logic of language for man tofollow in expressing his ideas.10.Aristotle argued that knowledge of language was arrived at by convention and agreement ofthe speakers of a given language.11.In ancient China, Xun Zi reasoned that a name was accepted through public agreement, andthe appropriateness of naming a thing lay in convention.12.According to Chomsky, knowledge of language is the result of interaction of UG and laterexperience.13.(Ferdinand de) Saussure advocated the diversion of the focus of linguistic study fromdiachronic to synchronic.14.Chomsky’s epistemology of the knowledge of language foes as follows:1)Every human being has the language competence能力, because he has the inborn UGwhich other species lack.2)UG is the initial state of the human language faculty语言器官/机制which alone cannotenable a human baby to speak. A baby needs to be exposed to the linguistic environment of a certain language and accumulate experience.3)Due to the effect of later experience, the baby’s mind develops from the initial state intothe steady state, which corresponds to the competence of speaking a specific human language.15.Behaviorists’ or empiricists’ opinions are identical 统一的，同一的with Aristotle’s.16.Connectionism/ emergentism argues that the mental neural mechanisms responsible forboth lexical and grammatical processing are not unique to language.17.diachronic: focus on the comparison between languages and the exploration of the historicalchange and variation of some ancient languages./ of, relating to, or dealing with phenomena (as of language or culture) as they occur or change over a period of time18.synchronic: research of the facts of language agreed upon or shared by he members oflanguage community at a given point in time./ concerned with events existing in a limited time period and ignoring historical antecedents19.Galilean thesis ”nature is perfect”20.Fossilization is a process in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part ofthe way a person speaks a second language.21.Three adequacies:observational adequacydescriptive adequacyexplanatory adequacy(provide a descriptively adequate grammar for every natural language, and does so in terms of maximally constrained set of universal principles which represent psychologically plausible natural principles of mental computation.)22.A theory in science must not be pure speculation but testable at observational, descriptive,and explanatory levels.23.Science tells us that nature is a physical continuum连续体, which does not break itself intophysics, chemistry, psychology, linguistics…; these disciplines 学科are not facts but our decisions.24.Plato asserted that there was a”legislator” who gave the correct, natur al name toeverything, and languages belonged to states but not to individuals.25.J.G. Herder pointed out that babies’ cry is a sort of natural sounds , which could neverdevelop into a language.26.A cornerstone of science is Galilean’s intuition that nature is perfect.27.Sir William Johns first proposed that a language in South Asia be a relative of many Europeanlanguages .28.The origin of language as a topic was banned by the Linguistic Society of Paris founded in1866.29.In accordance with the three phases just mentioned, phonetics is divided into threesub-fields. Articulatory phonetics发音语音学studies speech production by the speech organs; acoustic phonetics声学语音学studies physical properties of speech sounds, the way sounds travel from the speaker to the hearer; and auditory phonetics听觉语音学studies the perception of speech sounds in the human auditory and cognitive system.30.A “sound”people say they produce is actually a combination of sounds called a syllable,which is often related to a chest pulse.31.The place of articulation refers to the point in the vocal tract at which the main closure ornarrowing is made so as to modify the flow of air from the chest to the mouth in producing a sound.32.The manner of articulation refers to the type of constriction收缩or movement that occursat any place of articulation.33.The production of different speech sounds through the use of these organs is known asarti culation.34.Vibration 颤动35.Adam’s apple area 喉结36.Consonants are sounds made by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing from whichair cannot escape without producing audible friction摩擦, and vowels are sounds in which there is no obstruction to the flow of air as it passes from the larynx to the lips.37.Bilabial双唇音, formed by bringing the lips together , e. g. [ p ] , [ m] . Here the function oflips is somewhat complicated: they both can be regarded as the active and passivearticulat ors simultaneously.bi o-dental唇齿音, formed by the lower lip against the upper teeth, e . g. [ f] .39.Dental齿音, formed by placing the tip of the tongue against the upper teeth, e . g. [ð].40.Alveolar齿龈音, formed by placing the tip or blade of the tongue against the alveolar ridge,e. g. [ t ] .41.Palatal腭音, formed by the front of the tongue against the hard palate, namely, the roof ofthe mouth, e . g. [ j] .42.Palato- alveolar腭龈音, formed midway between the places of articulation for palatals andalveolars: the blade ( and sometimes the tip) of the tongue articulates with the alveolar ridge, with a simultaneous raising of the front of the tongue towards the hard palate , e. g.[ʃ] .43.Velar软腭音, formed by the back of the tongue against the soft palate, e. g. [ k] .44.Glottal声门音, formed by the vocal cords coming together t o cause a closure or friction, e .g.[ h] .45.Retrofle卷舌音, formed when the apex of the tongue is curled back in the direction of thehard palate, as heard in many Indian English accents.46.Uvular小舌音, formed by the back of the tongue against the uvula, as heard in some accentsof French.47.Pharyngeal咽音, formed in the pharynx, the part of the throat above the larynx. Specifically,the front wall of t he pharynx articulates with the back wall , as hear d in Arabic .ans in the vocal tract, such as the lips, teeth, or hard palate, are called articulators.49.Consonants are also classified according to the manner of articulation, concerning whichphoneticians tend to consider several factors .50.The first factor is the degree of the constriction of airflow. At least six main classes can bedistinguished in English:51.Plosive爆破音, formed by completely closing the air passage and suddenly removing theobstacle , so that the air escapes making an explosive sound, e. g. [ p] ,[ d] . It belongs toa broader category called “stop” which includes closures produced by air streams not fromthe lungs , as encountered in some southern African languages.52.Nasal鼻音, formed with the soft palate lowered, thus allowing air to resonate in the nose,e . g. [ m] .53.Affricate塞擦音, a consonant which starts as a plosive, but instead of ending with plosion,ends with a fricative made in the same place, e. g. [tʃ ] .54.Liquid流音, formed by some obstruction of the air stream in the mouth, which seems notenough to cause any real constrict ion or friction, e. g. [ l] , [ r ]. [ l] is cal led a lateral liquid, because in making it, an obstacle is placed in the middle of the mouth, leaving the air free to escape at one or both sides.55.Fricative擦音, formed by a narrowing of the air passage at some point so that the air inescaping makes audible frication. e. g. [ f] , [ z] . Some fricatives are also cal led sibilants齿擦音, which are made with a groove- like structure in the front part of the tongue, producing a kind of hissing sound, e. g. [ s] , [ʃ] .56.Glide滑音, sometimes called semi -vowel because it is typically produced with the tonguemoving, or “gliding”, to or from the position of a nearby vowel, e.g. [ h] , [ w] .57.The second factor is voicing. Voice is caused by the vibration of the vocal cords.58.The third factor is aspiration. This is the sound of air rushing through the vocal tract, usuallyfound after the release of plosive consonants in some situation.59.Different vowels result from changing the shape of the mouth; all of them are voicedcontinuous sounds.60.[i:] close vowels , [a:] open vowels, [e] semi-closed vowels, [ɔ:] semi-open vowels61.Four rounded vowels: [u:] [u] [ɔ:] [ɔ], they are all back vowels.62.[a:]is the only English back vowel that occurs without lip rounding.63.There is another interesting rule: all the long vowels( e.g. [i:] [u:])are tense vowels紧元音,and all the short vowels ([i] [u]) are lax vowels松元音.64.Every vowel constitutes a single syllable. The vowel can be a monophthong, a diphthong, oreven a triphthong that contains three distinctive qualities, e.g.[ai ə]. However, not every syllable contains a vowel. The second syllable of the word little[litl] has no vowel after the plosive [t] but a liquid [l].65.Phonemes have no meaning of themselves, but they are the smallest linguistic unit, whosechange will lead to the change of meaning. A phoneme is defined as the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words.66.Allophone is the phonetic variant of a phoneme, which can be substituted of anotherwithout bring about a change of meaning.67.Phoneme用//; allophone用[]68.A phonetic property特性，特质that distinguishes phonemes from one another is called adistinctive feature.69.Phonetics is more specifically the study of how speech sounds are produced, what theirphysical properties are, and how they are interpreted.70.Phonology, is a description of the sounds of a particular language and the rules governingthe distribution of those sounds. Furthermore, phonology is also concerned with the universal properties of natural language sound systems and aims at revealing the general principles of the sound patterns of all languages.71.Pitch is the auditory sensation of the height of a sound.72.There are two ways in which languages make use of pitch variations in speech.1)In languages such as English, French, and German, regular sequences of different pitchescharacterize stretches of speech between pauses and are known collectively as intonation. The differences of intonation may correlate with different types of utterances.2)In languages such as Chinese , Vietnamese, Thai, and Zulu, pitch differences help todistinguish one word from another and may be the only differentiating feature between two or more words whose composition is the same in terms of consonants and vowels.Pitch differences used in these ways are called tones and these languages are called tone languages.73.Stress, pitch, tone and intonation are also called suprasegmentals超切分音位because theyrelate to aspects of pronunciation that go beyond the production of individual segments.rynx喉: the beginning of the vocal tract, containing the vocal cords.75.Pharynx咽: the tube-like passage in the throat which connects the larynx to the upper partof the vocal tract.76.Vocal cords声带：two muscular folds in the larynx that vibrate as a source of sound.77.Soft palate 软腭：the backward continuation of the roof of the mouth, which can be loweredto let air pass through the nose.78.Hard palate 硬腭：the roof of the mouth79.Alveolar ridge 齿龈脊：the bony prominence behind the upper front teeth.80.Trachea 气管：the passage between lungs and larynx.81.Segment is the smallest unit that can be identified in continuous speech.82.A syllable cannot contain more than one vowels. Even if a diphthong or thiphthong iscontained, it is still a single vowel, pronounced within one chest pulse.83.Words are not the smallest unit of meaning. They are composed of smaller units of meaning,called morphemes. Morphemes are the minimal language units.Morphology deals with word structure. Many words are themselves morphemes, such as big and book. They cannot be broken into smaller units that in themselves carry meaning. We call them free morphemes—morphemes that can stand alone as a word. Many other words are created by joining together two morphemes, e.g. blackboard, in which the two morphemes black and board can be recognized as meaningful words by themselves. So they are also free morphemes .84.Another type of morpheme is the bound morpheme , which occurs only when attached toanother morpheme, such as -ly in happily and un- in unhappy.The function of an affix can be derivational派生的，衍生的or inflectional屈折的. A derivational morpheme is one that is added to a root to form a new word that differs, usually, in its part-of-speech词性classification. For example, when the suffix -ness is added to the adjective happy, the noun happiness is formed.85.Prefixes as derivational morphemes usually change the basic meaning of a word but do notchange its part- of-speech classification .（即系本来系动词就系动词）86.An inflectional morpheme indicates certain grammatical properties associated with nounsand verbs, such as gender , number , case, and tense. Unlike highly inflected languages such as Latin , English has very few inflectional morphemes. In English, the inflectional morphemes are all suffixes. The suffix -s, which indicates plurality in nouns as well as the third-person singular in verbs, is an inflectional morpheme ; the past tense suffix -ed, which is added to verbs, is another .87.According to Wilhelm von Humboldt , languages of the world can be classifiedmorphologically into three types: isolating, inflecting, and agglutinating.88.An isolating language is also called an analytic language or root language, in which all thewords are invariable. Chinese, Vietnamese and Samoan are typical cases. An inflecting language is also called a synthetic language or fusional language, in which grammatical relationships are expressed by changing the internal structure of the words—typically by the use of inflectional endings which express several grammatical meanings at once. Latin, Greek, and Arabic are clear cases. An agglutinating language is also called agglutinativelanguage, in which a word typically consists of a neat linear sequence of morphemes, all clearly recognizable. Turkish, Finnish, Japanese, and Swahili are usual cases.pounding is a process that forms new words not by means of affixes but from two ormore independent words. Compounds are different from phrases in that they symbolize an integrated整体的concept.90.There are different semantic relationships within the morphemes comprising a compound.91.Idiomatic 惯用的，成语的expressions: metaphoric(e.g. I’m really tied up无法分身.)，allusive(e.g. the ruling party met its Waterloo 毁灭性的打击in the new election.), a majority are institutionalized.92.Morphology is the study of word-making and word-marking. On the one hand, morphologyexamines relationships between words and the ways in which these connections are indicated. On the other, morphology looks at how grammatical relationships between words are marked. Different languages focus on different word relationships, and they make use of different patterns of marking.93.The study of the internal structure of words, and of the rules by which words are formed, iscalled morphology.94.Words are not the most elemental sound-meaning units. The most elemental grammaticalunits in a language are morphemes.95.Bound morphemes like “a-”, “pre-”, “-ly”, “-ness”, which have only grammatical meanings,are limited in number, about 100 in English.pounds are different from phrases in that they symbolize an integrated concept.Phonologically, they have primary stress on the first word only, while individual words in phrases have independent primary stress .97.Modern linguistic research suggests that language is intrinsically 内在的，本质的less literalthan we have always assumed. It is abundant in idiomatic expressions .nguages of the world can be classified morphologically into three types: isolating,inflecting, and agglutinating.99.The tree relationship is non-linear but hierarchical.100.Family tree sequence次序—top-down; syntactic tree sequence—bottom-up.101.The bottom-up process in sentence production is called merging合并.102.A head of a phrase is the key word which determines the properties of the phrase.103.The I( inflectional morpheme) plays an essential role in merging an NP and a VP into a sentence.104.Besides a labeled tree-diagram, this hierarchically arranged structure with in a sentence can also be represented in the form of labeled bracketing.105.There are two groups of syntactical categories: lexical categories and functional categories.All the content words, namely nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, belong to lexical categories ; on the other hand, any word or morpheme which has no descriptive content and which serves an essentially grammatical function belongs to a functional category. A functional category plays a role like glue in combining content words into phrases and phrases into a sentence .106.XP can be defined as the maximal projection headed by X, and X itself, i. e. the head, as the minimal projection.107.I is a category devised by Chomsky whose members include not only inflectionalmorphemes but also finite auxiliaries限定助动词( which are inflected for tense / agreement ) , and the infinitival particle to.108.When a constituent is made the topic of a sentence, it may be moved into a more prominent position at the front of the sentence. This process is called topicalization话题化—A device which marks sth as a topic by simply moving the topic to the front of the sentence, as in This book I can’t recommend.109.Syntax is the subfield of linguistics that studies the internal structure of sentences and the relationship among their component parts.110.In the VP draw a tree, draw is the head of the phrase while a tree is the complement. 111.A phrase is the projection of the head. XP can be defined as the projection headed by X, X’ , as the intermediate projection, and X itself, i . e. the head , as the minimal projection. 112.According to X-bar theory, head X can either be a lexical category, such as nouns and verbs, or a functional category.113.In the skeleton骨架，框架of XP, SPEC stands for specifier and COMP stands for complement. SPEC and X’ are sisters. So are X and COMP.114.IP refers to inflectional phrase. I, a functional category, includes not only inflectional morphemes but also finite auxiliaries, and the infinitival particle to.115.CP refers to complementizer phrase and can be found in analysis of complex sentence as well as wh-questions and topicalization.116.When we put a sentence in out mind by reading or listening, our mind will immediately treat it as a set of meaning units, called propositions.117.An intransitive verb—1 NP—the subject(external argument); a simple transitive verb—2 NPs—subject(external argument) and object(internal argument); a ditransitive verb 双宾语动词---3 NPs—subject(EA), direct object and indirect object(IA); an unusual verb in English, rain, requires no NPs.118.NPs required by a verb are called its arguments论元.119.A verb very often permits some further phrases, which are optional. These optional phrases are adjuncts附加成分，修饰成分, which are expressed most often as prepositional phrases or adverbial phrases in English.120.Theta theory(orθ-theory)题元角色is concerned with assigning指定thematic roles（θ-role）论旨角色to the arguments of verbs.121.Theta-roles:1)Agent: instigator发起者of some action. E.g. John threw the ball.2)Theme: entity实体，实质undergoing the effect of some action. Often a theme isaccusative宾格(and can be called a patient as well), e.g. John hit the cat; however, it is nominative主格with a few verbs like fall, die, etc. e.g. The cat (accusative)died.3)Experiencer: entity experiencing some psychological state. E.g. John was happy.4)Benefactive: entity benefiting from some action. E.g. Mary bought some chocolate forJohn.5)Recipient: entity receiving some entity. E.g. John got Mary a present(patient).6)Instrument: means by which sth comes about. E.g. Joanna dug the garden with a spade.7)Locative: place in which sth is situated. E.g. John put the washing in the bin.8)Goal: entity towards which sth moves. E.g. Mary passed the plate to John.9)Source: entity from which sth moves. E.g. John returned from London.122.Theta theory enables us to reveal some semantic differences that are not reflected in the syntactic structure demonstrated by X-bar tree diagrams.123.As for verbs, the lexicon contains information about their transitivity, their argument structure , and the theta roles that can be assigned to their arguments.124.和动词最密切的是theme，及物动词的theme是object，不及物动词的theme是subject? 125.The output of the grammatical system consists of two levels of description: the phonetic description for the generated sentence to be spoken out ; the semantic description which logically represents the meaning the speaker would like to convey through uttering the sentence.126.Logicians have long been concerned with formulating representations for the semantic structure of sentences, or more correctly propositions. NPs required by a verb are called its arguments. A proposition comprises a predicate V and a set of arguments. In addition to its arguments , a verb very often permits some optional phrases which are called adjuncts. 127.The internal argument of a verb has to be realized inside the maximal projection of that verb.The external argument of a verb is not contained in the maximal projection of that verb .For example, in John [ (VP) buys books ] , John is the external argument and books is the internal argument of the verb buy.128.E ach verb may have none or one internal argument( s) . Each verb may have none, one or more internal argument(s).129.Each argument is assigned one and only one theta/ thematic role. Each theta/thematic role is assigned to one and only one argument.nguage is symbolic, but not all symbols belong to language. In addition to symbols, there are icons and indexes which also convey meaning. Picasso is an icon of modernism; smoke is an index of fire. Such relationships are beyond the reach of semantics. They are the research objects of a more general field called semiotics, which investigates the types of relationships that may exist between a sign and the object it represents . Semantics can be regarded as a part of this extensive effort, with its particular emphasis on linguistic meaning.Therefore, John I. Saeed, a contemporary authority in this field, proposes a more proper definition: semantics is the study of meaning communicated through language.nguage is the vehicle, and meaning is the cargo.132.Every argument has a theta role assigned from the predicate according to the theory.133.Semantic features are defined as a class of theoretical constructs developed in analogy to the distinctive features of phonology—they are considered to be the smallest semantic units for the description of linguistic expressions and their semantic relations.134.She was the only man in her cabinet.Man---hard, iron handy. The word man is used as a metaphor. When a word is used as a metaphor, it will not keep all the features of its conceptual meaning, but will highlight a certain associative property of its connotative meaning, according to Leech.135.Saussurean arbitrariness, which claims that the relationship between a linguistic sign( signifier) and its content ( signified) is arbitrary.136.According to Ogden and Richards, the “symbol” refers to the linguistic elements(word, sent ence, etc.), the”referent” refer s to the object in the world of experience, and the “thought”“reference” refers to concept or notion.Ogden& Richards’ Semantic Triangle137.Most signs have at least one normal, “common sense” meaning, called the sign’ denotaion, is shared among many people and is the most widely used meaning of the sign. But signs may also have many different ”subjective”meanings that arise from each individual’ personal experiences. These are called the connotations of the sign.138.Meaning falls into at l east two categories--denotative and connotative. A concept in an individual’s mind is mostly the connotative meaning, formed through one’s perception of some features of the object a sign refers to. The denotative meaning is not necessarily generated in such a process, but has long been an agreement among all the people in a community.139.Pierce’s“Semiotic Triangle”Charles S. Pierce is generally acknowledged as an important pioneer in the study of signs.Perception--the ongoing group of bodily processes by which human beings receive data about their environmentsExperience--the memory of previous perceptions and concepts, which is constantly being altered or “updated” by new experienceConvention--the constantly changing social “rules of meaning” that unify groups of people within their communication environments.140.Some semantic properties of the words we use to think and talk about the world are automatically captured by the resources of our human minds.141.All these dimensions of internalized semantic knowledge, namely a)synonymy同义,b)contradiction反义, c)entailment蕴含, d) presupposition前提, e) ambiguity,f)inclusive-exclusive distinction, g) metaphorical interpretation, h) infelicity不恰当, can beattributed to properties of I-meaning proposed by Chomsky ( 2000 ).142.The semantic properties of words are used to think and talk about the world in terms of the perspectives made available by the resources of the mind.143.I-meaning is the human genetic faculty in calculating the logic in meaning ( e. g.presupposition, entailment.. . ) .144.The real meaning in communication is contextual meaning. Without context, a sentence conveys only literal information.145.Words or expressions that have identical meanings are called synonyms.146.Words or phrases that have opposite meanings are called antonyms.147.When a word has two or more meanings that are at least vaguely related to each other, it is called a polysemy多义词. For example, “leaf” can refer to “a part of a tree” and also “a sheet of paper”.148.When words have a single phonetic form but two or more entirely different meanings, they are called homophones同音字，同音异形异义词. For example，“bank”can mean “a commercial lending institution” and ”a small cliff at the edge of a rive”.149.When words have two kinds of meanings: denotative and connotative. Denotative meaning is precise, literal, and object. You can find a word’s denotative from a dictionary.150.Connotative meaning is more variable, figurative比喻的, and subjective. It is whatever the word suggests or implies. Connotative meaning includes all the feelings, associations, and emotions that a word touches off in different people .151.The relation of entailment that holds between ”chase” and “follow” is based on properties of I-meaning.。

语言学教程(修订版) 练习参考答案修订版第一章语言学导论 1第二章语音 3第三章词汇 8第四章句法 11第五章语义 15第六章语言与思维 18第七章语言、文化与社会 20第八章语用 21第九章语言与文学 24第十章语言与计算机 25第十一章语言学与外语教学 28第十二章现代语言学的学派与理论 30第一章语言学导论1. Define the following terms:1) design features: are features that define our human languages, such as arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, cultural transmission, etc.2) function: the role language plays in communication (e.g. to express ideas, attitudes) or in particular social situations (e.g. religious, legal).Language functions include informative function (also ideational function), interpersonal function, performative function, emotive function, phatic communion, recreational function and metalingual function.3) etic: a term in contrast with emic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics. Being etic means making far too many, as well as behaviorsly inconsequential, differentiations, just as was often the case with phonetic vs. phonemic analysis in linguistics proper.4) emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics. An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech community rather than via appeal to the investigator’s ingenuity or intuition alone.5) synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixedinstant(usually, but not necessarily, the present), as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.6) diachronic: study of a language is carried through the course of its history.7) prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be, i.e. laying down rules for language use.8) descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.9) arbitrariness: one design feature of human language, whichrefers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.(1) Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning(2) At the syntactic level(3) Arbitrariness and convention (convention: the link between a linguistic sign and its meaning)10) duality: one design feature of human language, which refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.11) displacement: one design feature of human language, which means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.12) phatic communion: one function of human language, which refersto the social interaction of language.13) metalanguage: a language used for talking about language.14) macrolinguistics: The interacting study between language and language-related disciplines such as psychology, sociology, ethnography, science of law and artificial intelligence etc. Branches of macrolinguistics include psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, etc.15) competence: a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.16) performance: the actual use of language in concretesituations.(Chomsky, 1965:3)17) langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.18) parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances).2. Consult at least four introductory linguistics textbooks (not dictionaries), and copy the definitions of language that each gives.After carefully comparing the definitions, write a paper discussingwhich points recur and explaining the significance of the similarities and differences among the definitions.All the definitions should not exclude the description of design features that have been mentioned in this course book. Also it will be better if other design features, say, interchangeability or cultural transmission is included. But it seems impossible to give an unimpeachable definition on language, because the facets people want to emphasize are seldom unanimous. To compare several definitions can make you realize where the argument is.3. Can you think of some words in English which are onomatopoeic?creak: the sound made by a badly oiled door when it opens.cuckoo: the call of cuckoo.bang: a sudden loud noise.roar: a deep loud continuing sound.buzz: a noise of buzzing.hiss: a hissing sound.neigh: the long and loud cry that a horse makes.mew: the noise that a gull makes.bleat: the sound made by a sheep, goat or calf.4. Do you think that onomatopoeia indicates a non-arbitrary relationship between form and meaning?Not really. Onomatopoeia is at most suggestive of the natural sounds they try to capture. They are arbitrary as signifiers.Before we feel a word is onomatopoeic we should first know which sound the word imitates. For example, in order to imitate the noise of flying mosquitoes, there are many choices like "murmurous" and "murderous". They both bear more or less resemblance to the genuine natural sound, but "murmurous" is fortunately chosen to mean the noise while "murderous" is chosen to mean something quite different. They are arbitrary as signifiers.5. A story by Robert Louis Stevenson contains the sentence “As the night fell, the wind rose.” Could this be expressed as “As the wind rose, the night fell?” If not, why? Does this indicate a degree of non-arbitrariness about word order? (Bolinger, 1981: 15)Yes. Changing the order of the two clauses may change the meaningof the sentence, because clauses occurring in linear sequence without time indicators such as “before” or “after” will be taken as matching the actual sequence of happening.6. Does the traffic light system have duality? Why?No. No discrete units on the first level that can be combinedfreely in the second level to form meaning. There is only simple one-to-one relationship between signs and meaning, namely, red—stop, green—go and yellow—get ready to go or stop.7. Communication can take many forms, such as sign, speech, body language and facial expression. Do body language and facial expression share or lack the distinctive properties of human language?On a whole, body language and facial expression lack most of the distinctive properties of human language such as duality, displacement, creativity and so on. Body language exhibits arbitrariness a little bit. For instance, nod means "OK/YES" for us but in Arabian world it is equal to saying "NO". Some facial expressions have non-arbitrariness because they are instinctive such as the cry and laugh of a newborn infant.8. Do you agree with the view that no language is especially simple?Yes. All human languages are complicated systems of communication.It is decided by their shared design features.9. Can you mention some typical expressions of phatic communion in Chinese?Some of the typical phatic expressions in Chinese are: 吃了吗？家里都好吧？这是去哪里啊？最近都挺好的？10. Comment on the following prescriptive rules. Do you think they are acceptable?(A) It is I. (B) It is me.You should say A instead of B because “be” should be followed by the nominative case, not the accusative according to the rules in Latin.(A) Who did you speak to? (B) Whom did you speak to?You should say B instead of A.(A) I haven't done anything. (B) I haven't done nothing.B is wrong because two negatives make a positive.(1) the Latin rule is not universal. In English, me is informal andI is felt to be very formal.(2) Whom is used in formal speech and in writing; who is more acceptable in informal speech.(3) Language does not have to follow logic reasoning. Here two negative only make a more emphatic negative. This sentence is not acceptable in Standard English not because it is illogical, but because language changes and rejects this usage now.11. Why is competence and performance an important distinction in linguistics? Do you think the line can be neatly drawn between them? How do you like the concept “communicative competence”?This is proposed by Chomsky in his formalist linguistic theories.It is sometimes hard to draw a strict line. Some researchers in applied linguistics think communicative competence may be a more revealing concept in language teaching than the purely theoretical pair—competence and performance.12. Which branch of linguistics do you think will develop rapidlyin China and why? (up to you)13. There are many reasons for the discrepancy between competence and performance in normal language users. Can you think of some of them?Ethnic background, socioeconomic status, region of the country, and physical state changes within the individual, such as intoxication, fatigue, distraction, illness.14. What do these two quotes reveal about the different emphasis or perspectives of language studies?(1) A human language is a system of remarkable complexity. To come to know a human language would be an extraordinary intellectual achievement for a creature not specifically designed to accomplish this task. A normal child acquires this knowledge on relatively slight exposure and without specific training. He can then quite effortlessly make use of an intricate structure of specific rules and guiding principles to convey his thoughts and feelings to others, ... Thus language is a mirror of mind in a deep and significant sense. It is a product of human intelligence, created anew in each individual by operations that lie far beyond the reach of will or consciousness.(Noam Chomsky: Reflections on Language. 1975: 4)(2) It is fairly obvious that language is used to serve a varietyof different needs, but until we examine its grammar there is no clear reason for classifying its uses in any particular way. However, when we examine the meaning potential of language itself, we find that the vast numbers of options embodied in it combine into a very few relatively independent “networks”; and these networks of options correspond to certain basic functions of language. This enables us to give an accountof the different functions of language that is relevant to the general understanding of linguistic structure rather than to any particular psychological or sociological investigation.(M. A. K. Halliday, 1970: 142)The first quote shows children’s inborn ability of acquir ing the knowledge of intricate structure of specific rules. It implies that the language user's underlying knowledge about the system of rules is the valuable object of study for linguists. The second attaches great importance to the functions of language. It regards the use of language as the choice of needed function. The meaning of language can be completely included by a few “networks” which is directly related to basic functions of language. It indicates the necessity to study the functions of language.附：1. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the creativity of language. Can you write a recursive sentence following the example in section 1.3.3.Today I encountered an old friend who was my classmate when I was in elementary school where there was an apple orchard in which we slid to select ripe apples that…2. What do you think of Bertrand Russell’s observation of the dog language: “No matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor bu t honest”? Are you familiar with any type of ways animals communicate among themselves and with human beings?When gazelles sense potential danger, for example, they flee and thereby signal to other gazelles in the vicinity that danger is lurking.A dog signals its wish to be let inside the house by barking and signals the possibility that it might bite momentarily by displaying its fangs.3. There are many expressions in language which are metalingual or self-reflexives, namely, talking about talk and think about thinking,for instance, to be honest, to make a long story short, come to think of it, on second thought, can you collect a few more to make a list of these expressions? When do we use them most often?To tell the truth, frankly speaking, as a matter of fact, to be precise, in other words, that is to saySuch expressions are used most frequently when we want to expatiate the meaning of former clauses in anther way in argumentation.第二章语音1. Define the following terms:1) articulatory phonetics: the study of the production of speech sounds.2) coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved.If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamb, it is know as anticipatory coarticulation.If the sound displays the influence of the preceding sound, it is perseverative coarticulation, as is the case of map.3) Voicing: the vibration of the vocal folds.When the vocal folds are close together, the airstream causes them to vibrate against each other and the resultant sound is said to be “voiced”. When the vocal folds are apart and the air can pass through easily, the sound produced is said to be “voiceless”. When they are totally closed, no air can pass between them. The result of this gesture is the glottal stop [?]4) Broad and narrow transcription: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription; the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription.5) consonant: consonants are sound segments produced byconstricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.6) phoneme: a unit of explicit sound contrast. If two sounds in a language make a contrast between two different words, they are said to be different phonemes.7) vowel: vowels are sound segments produced without obstruction of the vocal tract, so no turbulence or a total stopping of the air can be perceived.8) allophone: variants of the same phoneme. If two or more phonetically different sounds do not make a contrast in meaning, they are said to be allophones of the same phoneme. To be allophones, they must be in complementary distribution and bear phonetic similarity.9) manner of articulation: in the production of consonants, manner of articulation refers to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.10) place of articulation: the point where an obstruction to the flow of air is made in producing a consonant.11) distinctive features: a term of phonology, i.e. a property which distinguishes one phoneme from another. (suggested by Roman Jacobson in the 1940s)12) complementary distribution: the relation between two speech sounds that never occur in the same environment. Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution.13) IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet, which is devised by the International Phonetic Association in 1888 then it has been revised from time to time to include new discoveries and changes in phonetic theory and practice. The latest version has been revised in 1993 and updated in 2005.14) suprasegmental: suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmental features are syllable, stress, tone, and intonation.2. Answer the following questions.1) What organs are involved in speech production?Quite a few human organs are involved in the production of speech: the lungs, the trachea (or windpipe), the throat, the nose, and the mouth.The pharynx, mouth, and nose form the three cavities of the vocal tract. Speech sounds are produced with an airstream as their sources of energy. In most circumstances, the airstream comes from the lungs. It is forced out of the lungs and then passes through the bronchioles and bronchi, a series of branching tubes, into the trachea. Then the air is modified at various points in various ways in the larynx, and in theoral and nasal cavities: the mouth and the nose are often referred to, respectively, as the oral cavity and the nasal cavity.Inside the oral cavity, we need to distinguish the tongue and various parts of the palate, while inside the throat, we have to distinguish the upper part, called pharynx, from the lower part, known as larynx. The larynx opens into a muscular tube, the pharynx, part of which can be seen in a mirror. The upper part of the pharynx connects to the oral and nasal cavities.The contents of the mouth are very important for speech production. Starting from the front, the upper part of the mouth includes the upper lip, the upper teeth, the alveolar ridge, the hard palate, the soft palate (or the velum), and the uvula. The soft palate can be lowered toallow air to pass through the nasal cavity. When the oral cavity is at the same time blocked, a nasal sound is produced.The bottom part of the mouth contains the lower lip, the lower teeth, the tongue, and the mandible.At the top of the trachea is the larynx, the front of which is protruding in males and known as the “Adam’s Apple”. The larynx contains the vocal folds, also known as “vocal cords” or “vocal bands”, a nd the ventricular folds. The vocal folds are a pair of structure that lies horizontally below the latter and their front ends are joined together at the back of the Adam’s Apple. Their rear ends, however, remain separated and can move into various positions: inwards, outwards, forwards, backwards, upwards and downwards.2) How is the description of consonants different from that of vowels?In the production of consonants at least two articulators are involved. For example, the initial sound in bad involves both lips andits final segment involves the blade (or the tip) of the tongue and the alveolar ridge. The categories of consonant, therefore, are established on the basis of several factors. The most important of these factors are: (a) the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract, and (b) where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction of air. The former is known as the Manner of Articulationand the latter as the Place of Articulation.The Manner of Articulation refers to ways in which articulation can be accomplished: (a) the articulators may close off the oral tract foran instant or a relatively long period; (b) they may narrow the space considerably; or (c) they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.The Place of Articulation refers to the point where a consonant is made. Practically consonants may be produced at any place between thelips and the vocal folds. Eleven places of articulation aredistinguished on the IPA chart.As the vowels cannot be described in the same way as the consonants, a system of cardinal vowels has been suggested to get out of this problem. The cardinal vowels, as exhibited by the vowel diagram in the IPA chart, are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.The cardinal vowels are abstract concepts. If we imagine that for the production of [@] the tongue is in a neutral position (neither high nor low, neither front nor back), the cardinal vowels are as remote as possible from this neutral position. They represent extreme points of a theoretical vowel space: extending the articulators beyond this space would involve friction or contact. The cardinal vowel diagram (or quadrilateral) in the IPA is therefore a set of hypothetical positionsfor vowels used as reference points.The front, center, and back of the tongue are distinguished, as are four levels of tongue height: the highest position the tongue canachieve without producing audible friction (high or close); the lowestposition the tongue can achieve (low or open); and two intermediate levels, dividing the intervening space into auditorily equivalent areas (mid-high or close -mid, and mid-low or open-mid).3) To what extent is phonology related to phonetics and how do they differ?Both phonetics and phonology study human speech sounds but they differ in the levels of analysis. Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. Imagine that the speech sound is articulated by a Speaker A. It is then transmitted to and perceived by a Listener B. Consequently, a speech sound goes through a three-step process: speech production, sound transmission, and speech perception.Naturally, the study of sounds is divided into three main areas, each dealing with one part of the process: Articulatory Phonetics is the study of the production of speech sounds, Acoustic Phonetics is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, and Perceptual or Auditory Phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.In phonology we normally begin by analyzing an individual language, say English, in order to determine its phonological structure, i.e. which sound units are used and how they are put together. Then we compare the properties of sound systems in different languages in order to make hypotheses about the rules that underlie the use of sounds inthem, and ultimately we aim to discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages.4) What is assimilation?The change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound, which is more specifically called “contact” or “contiguous” assimilation.3. Give the description of the following sound segments in English.1) [e]2) [?]3) [?]4) [d]5) [p]6) [k]7) [l]8) [?]9) [u?]10) [?]1) voiced dental fricative2) voiceless postalveolar fricative3) velar nasal4) voiced alveolar stop/plosive5) voiceless bilabial stop/plosive6) voiceless velar stop/plosive7) (alveolar) lateral8) high front unrounded lax vowel9) high back rounded tense vowel10) low back rounded lax vowel注：lax:短音，tense: 长音4. In some dialects of English the following words have different vowels, as shown by the phonetic transcription. Based on these data, answer the questions that follow.A B Cbite [b??t] bide [ba?d] tie [ta?]rice [r??s] rise [ra?z] by [ba?]type [t??p] bribe [bra?b] sigh [sa?]wife [w??f] wives [wa?vz] die [da?]tyke [t??k] time [ta?m] why [wa?]nine [na?n]tile [ta?l]tire [ta?r]writhe [ra?e]1) How may the classes of sounds that end the words in columns A and B be characterized?All the sounds that end the words in column A are voiceless ([ - voiced ]) and all the sounds that end the words in column B arevoiced([ + voiced ]).2) How do the words in column C differ from those in columns A and B?The words in column C are all open syllables, i.e. they end in vowels.3) Are [??] and [a?] in complementary distribution? Give your reasons.The two sounds are in complementary distribution because [??]appear before voiceless consonants and [a?] occurs before voiced consonants and in open syllables.4) What are the phonetic transcriptions of (a) life and (b) lives?Life [l??f] lives[la?vz]5) What would the phonetic transcriptions of the following words be?(a) trial (b) bike (c) lice (d) fly (e) mine(a) [tra?l] (b) [b??k] (c) [l??s] (d) [fla?] (e) [ma?n]6) State the rule that will relate the phonemic representations to the phonetic transcriptions of the words given above./a?/ →[??] / _____[–voice][a?] in other places5. What is the rule that underlies the past tense forms of the regular verbs in English? Collect some data and state the rule.d→ id/t /[ - voiced ]d elsewherecons: continual. 附：Low(1) /p/→[p]/[s]__________/p/在[s]后发音为[p][p] elsewhere/p/在其它地方发音为[p](2) /l/→[l]/__________V/l/在元音前发音为[l] (alveolar)[?]/V__________/l/在元音后发音为[?] (lateral)(3) f, v; , ; s, z;Fricatives and affricatives in English may be assimilated in voicing.(4) /v/→[f]voiced fricative →voiceless/__________voiceless在清音间前摩擦音变为清音(5) Nasalization rule[ - nasal] →[ + nasal]/__________ [ + nasal](6) Dentalization rule[ - dental] →[ + dental]/__________ [ + dental](7) Velarization rule[ - velar] →[ + velar]/__________[ + velar](8) → [n]/[]__________Va在元音前发音为[n] (an)(9) a. The /s/ appears after voiceless sounds.b. The /z/ appears after voiced sounds. (All vowels are voiced.)c. The /z/ appears after sibilants.(10) z → s /[ - voice, C]__________ (Devoicing浊音变清音)(11) → /sibilant__________ z (Epenthesis插音)(12) a. // + // b.// + // c.// + //N/A N/A Epenthesiss N/A N/A Devoicingbdz kesz Output(13)a. [ - voiced, - cont] → [ - spread]/s______b. [ + spread]spread: aspirated.(14) Syllabic structure of clasp(15) Sonority scale:Most sonorous醒目的 5 Vowels4 Approximants3 Nasals2 FricativesLost sonorous 1 Stops(16) clasp(18) *lkaps。

现代英语词汇学习题答案Modern English Vocabulary Learning Test AnswersLearning English vocabulary is an essential part of mastering the language. Whether you are a native speaker or a non-native speaker, having a strong grasp of English vocabulary can greatly improve your communication skills and overall language proficiency. In this article, we will explore the answers to a modern English vocabulary learning test to help you enhance your understanding of the language.1. What is the meaning of the word "ubiquitous"?Answer: Present, appearing, or found everywhere.The word "ubiquitous" describes something that is present, appearing, or found everywhere. It is often used to emphasize the widespread nature of something. For example, in today's digital age, technology has become ubiquitous, with smartphones and computers being found in nearly every aspect of our daily lives.2. Provide a synonym for the word "ephemeral".Answer: TransientThe word "ephemeral" refers to something that is short-lived or fleeting. A synonym for this word is "transient", which also conveys the idea of something that is temporary or lasting for only a brief period of time. For instance, the beauty of a sunset is ephemeral, as it is fleeting and lasts only for a short time before the sun dips below the horizon.3. What is the definition of the word "serendipity"?Answer: The occurrence of events by chance in a happy or beneficial way. "Serendipity" refers to the occurrence of events by chance in a happy or beneficial way. It is often used to describe a fortunate and unexpected discovery or occurrence. For example, meeting a long-lost friend by chance while traveling to a foreign country can be seen as a serendipitous event.4. Give an example of the word "ennui" in a sentence.Answer: After weeks of monotonous work, she was overcome with ennui and longed for a change of scenery."Ennui" is a feeling of listlessness and dissatisfaction arising from a lack of excitement or interest. In the example sentence, it describes the sense of weariness and boredom that the character experiences after being stuck in a repetitive and unstimulating routine.5. Define the word "zeitgeist".Answer: The defining spirit or mood of a particular period of history as shown by the ideas and beliefs of the time.The term "zeitgeist" refers to the defining spirit or mood of a particular period of history, as reflected by the ideas and beliefs prevalent during that time. It encapsulates the cultural, intellectual, and emotional climate of a specific era. For instance, the 1960s are often associated with the zeitgeist of social and political change, as seen in the civil rights movement and the counterculture revolution. By understanding and incorporating these vocabulary words into your everydaylanguage, you can expand your English vocabulary and improve your ability to express yourself more effectively. Whether you are studying English as a second language or simply aiming to enhance your language skills, mastering these words will undoubtedly enrich your communication abilities and broaden your understanding of the English language.。

一、名词解释1．音位:具体语言或方言里具有区别词得语音形式作用得最小语音单位。

2．音位变体:(处于互补关系中得各个音素无区别形式与辨义作用,可以被瞧成一个音位。

)这种处于互补关系中得各个音素就被瞧成同一个音位在不同位置上得代表,就是同一个音位得不同变异形式,叫音位变体。

3．语法规则得递归性:语法得组合结构一层套一层,所以同样得结构规则尽可以重复使用而不致造成结构上得混乱。

同样得结构规则可以层层嵌套,借用数学得术语来说,这就就是结构规则有递归性。

4．词义:由人们对现实现象得反映以及由此带来得人们对现实现象得主观评价,叫作词得词汇意义,简称词义。

5．语法范畴:就就是语法意义得类,同一性质得语法意义进一步概括成类,因而称为“语法范畴”。

6．亲属语言:从同一种语言分化出来得几种独立得语言,彼此有同源关系,我们称它们为亲属语言。

7．双语现象:指被融合民族得成员一般会讲两种语言:本族语与在融合中占优势得那种语言。

8．词义转移:如果原来得词义表示某类现实现象,后来改变为表示另一类现实现象,这种演变就就是词义得转移。

6．互补关系:音素之间得互补关系就是指几个不同得音素各有自己得出现环境,它们从不在相同得语音环境中出现与互相替换。

7．语流音变:在连续得语流中(音位与音位组合得时候),某个音由于受邻近音得影响,或者由于说话时快慢、高低、强弱得不同,可能发生不同得变化。

这种变化叫做语流音变。

8．语法意义:指词进入语法组合之后由语法结构所赋予得词义之外得意义。

(指词在组合与聚合中所产生得关系意义。

)9．语言融合:指一种语言排挤与替代其她语言而成为不同民族得共同交际工具。

10．组合关系:语言符号与符号之间按照一定规律相互结合得关系就就是语言得组合关系。

这就是语言符号得一种配排连贯得横向关系。

11．内部曲折:也叫语音交替,指通过词内部词根中得语音得变化构成语法形式,表示某种语法意义,这种手段就就是内部曲折。

12．社会方言:各语言社团在全民语言得基础上产生各有自己特点得语言分支或语言变体,这就就是社会方言。

语言学讲义及课后习题答案（最新）9、Language and thoughtEarly views on language and thoughtPlato suggested that thought was the soul’s discourse with itself, which in other words means that thought and language were identical. It is mentalist, echoed by Walson (American psychologist and founder of Behaviorism) and Bloomfield who said that thinking is a system of movements that had been reduced from actual speech to the point where they were no longer visible.Aristotle challenged his thought arguing that mankind could not have the same languages and that language were only songs of psychological experiences.10、什么是Sapir-Whorf 假设？The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is a theory put forward by the American anthropological linguists Sapir and Whorf (and also a belief held by some scholars). It states that the way people view the world is determined wholly or partly by the structure of their native language. (2) The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis consists of two parts, i.e. linguistic determinism and relativism. Whorf proposed first that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on language. Or put it more bluntly, language determines thought, i.e. the notion of linguistic determinism. Because languages differ in many ways, Whorf also believed that speakers of different languages perceive and experience the world differently, i.e. relative to their linguistic background, hence the notion of linguistic relativism.11、Arguments against the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis (very popular today) 为什么说语言不能决定思维？Words and meaning It is widely accepted that the vocabulary of a language consists of nothing more than meaningless labels, which are manipulated by language users to elicit emotional reactions or behavioral responses, to impart 给予information or to direct the listener’s attention. The meaning of word h ighly depends on and changes by context.12、Grammatical structure Many grammatical features are purely superficial aspects of linguistic structure. Translation There are some conceptual differences between cultures due to language, but this is not to say that the differences are so great that mutual comprehension is impossible. One language may take many words to say what another language says in a single word, but in the end the circumlocution 婉转曲折的陈述can make the point. 13、Second language acquisition If languages have different conceptual systems, then a speaker of one language will be unable to learn the other language because he lacks the right conceptual system. However, since people can learn radically different languages, those languages couldn' t have different conceptual systems.Bilingualism is another good case in point. There are numerous cases of successful bilingual speakers across the globe. Although these people are proficient in two languages that are not genetically related, they do not have "double minds" equipped with two different systems of thought. Like monolinguals, bilingual or multilingual speakers have a consistent conceptual-perceptual system of the physical world.14、Language and world views Remains of how language and thought are related to each other.The language system does not necessarily provide specifics of one' s world views. On the one hand, people speaking the same language may have different world views, including political, social, religious, scientific and philosophical views. On the other hand, people speaking different languages may share similar political, social, religious, scientific or philosophical views. Moreover, one language can describe many different world views, as is evident in the case of successful translation.15、Understanding the relation of language and thoughtMajor functions of language Interpersonal communication and intrapersonal communication (facilitate thinking, speech behavior and action for the individual).16、The development and blending of language and thought Over a period of time, the language system is formed alongside the development of thought. Although they are two different systems developing along two differentroutes, part of the language system is part of the thought system. The thought and language system are joined through meaning and ideas. Thus, language and thought may be viewed as two independent circles overlapping in some parts, where language and thought are consistent with each other and one never occurs without the other. When they are identical and closely parallel to each other, we may regard thought as “subvocal speech” (无声语言), and speech as “overt thought” (有声思维). In such a case, they take place simultaneously.17、Thinking without language (possible)Language as a conventional coding system to express thought It is conventional rather than genetic. A particular coding system comprises a particular set of arbitrary verbal symbols, which do not arise from, nor do they give birth to, a particular conceptual system.18、The ways in which language affects thoughtLanguage influences, rather than determine, the way we perceive the world and recall things, and affect the ease with which we perform mental tasks.19、语言对思维的影响可能是什么？Language does not so much determine the way we think as it influences the way we perceive the world and recall things, and affects the ease with which we perform mental tasks. That is, language may be used to provide new ideas, bring about a change in beliefs and values, solve problems, and keep track of things in memory.It is evident that to the degree of success that language functions as an indispensable medium of information storage and retrieval, it can lead language users to be predisposed to act and perceive in certain ways rather than in others. In conclusion, language by no means determines the ways we perceive the objective world, but by its convenience, availability, and habitual use, does influence the perceptions, memory tasks, and other verbal and nonverbal behavior of human beings.第十章语言获得1、Language acquisition is concerned with language development in humans. In general, language acquisition refers to children’s development of their first language, that is, the native language of the community in which a child has been brought up.(FLA):The development of a first or native language (L1) is called first language acquisition, and then second language acquisition (SLA). L1 and L2 development do not seem to involve identical processes.2、研究语言获得的意义The study of language acquisition enables linguists, psychologists and applied linguists to better understand the nature of human language and developmental processes of language acquisition.3、First language acquisition第一语言获得No one is more successful than others in acquiring a first language. Children follow a similar acquisition schedule of predictable stages along the route of language development across cultures, though there is an idiosyntactic variation in the amount of time that takes individuals to master different aspects of the grammar.4、The biological basis of language acquisition语言获得的生理基础This biological, or nativist 天赋, view of language acquisition means that humans are equipped with the neural prerequisites for language and language use. Our language faculty permits us to acquire any human language to which we are exposed to, including deaf children acquiring a sign language. Different languages have a similar level of complexity and details, and reflect general abstract properties of the common linguistic system called the 5、Universal Grammar 普遍语法.Language acquisition as the acquisition of grammatical rules 为什么说母语习得是语法规则的习得？In principle, no human brain can store all the words and expressions of a language. What happens is that when processing the language they hear, children construct the grammar and make sense of the expressions according to the grammar. When producing utterances, they follow the internalized grammatical rules. Without the knowledge of the productive rules, it would be impossible for language users to produce and understand an unlimited numberof sentences which they have never heard before.6、The role of input and interaction在母语习得中，语言输入起什么样的作用？Input refers to the language which a learner hears or receives and from which he or she can learn.For language to be eventually acquired, children must be provided with an appropriate linguistic environment in which they have access to language data and opportunities to interact with the input.Children must be provided with an appropriate linguistic environment. The modified speech typically addressed to young children is called caretaker speech,保姆语also known as babytalk, mothers-es, or parentese. Exposure to this type of language makes it easier for children to match linguistic forms with their meanings and for that reason, their acquisition of the vocabulary and structure of the language is made easier.7、The role of formal instruction 刻意的教学对母语习得有什么作用？For the vast majority of children, language development occurs spontaneously and requires little conscious instruction on the part of adults. In natural settings, parents rarely correct young children s utterances that violate the rules of the grammar, still less do they go about teaching explicitly the correct forms of the language, although some parents believe that they constantly instruct their children to speak grammatical sentences. Even if they do, there is no convincing evidence that children need such instruction. In fact, parents often fail in their attempt to teach children grammatical rules.Of course, this is not to say that instruction is altogether useless in child language development from the stage of a babbler to that of a fluent speaker. A certain amount of conscious instruction on the part of parents and peers may have some effect on the language of a child. But the available evidence to date indicates that an explicit teaching of correct forms to young children plays a minor role at best.8、The role of correction and reinforcement在儿童母语习得过程中，纠错起什么样的作用？Proponents of Behaviorist learning theory suggested that a child’s verbal behavior was conditioned through association between a stimulus and the following response. Children are believed to gradually assume correct forms of the language of their community when their “bad” speech gets corrected a nd when their good speech gets positively reinforced. Researchers have found that correction and reinforcement are not key factors in child language development. Reinforcement has been found to occur usually in children’s pronunciation or reporting of truthfulness of utterances, rather than in the grammaticality of sentences.9、The role of imitation模仿在母语习得中的作用是什么？At one time, it was widely believed that children learned language by simply imitating the speech of those around them. We now know that this cannot be true, since many utterance types produced by children do not closely resemble structures found in adult speech. . If children learn their native tongue by imitating their parents, how can we account for the utterances that are typical of children' s language, such as the plural form "my foots," the past tense forms of " I eated," and the negative construction of “No the sun shining”? It is impossible that children imitate these structures from adults because they are never heard in adult conversations. In addition, Children with speech impairment for neurological or physiological reasons learn the language spoken to them and understand what is said. A more reasonable explanation is that children are attempting to construct and generalize their own grammatical rules.Some young language learners do seem to make selective use of imitation, but they do not blindly mimic adult speech in a parrot fashion, but rather exploit it in very restricted ways to improve their linguistic skills. The point is that imitation plays at best a very minor role in the child' s mastery of language.10、Stages of first language acquisition 第一语言习得经过哪些主要阶段？(1) The prelinguistic stage前语言阶段: at this babbling stage, the sounds and syllables that children utter are as yet meaningless. (2) The one-word stage: at this stage, children learn that sounds related to meanings. They use one-word utterances, or holophrastic sentences to express a concept or predication that would be associated withan entire sentence in adult speech. () The two-word stage: at this stage, children are heard uttering two-word expressions in a variety of combinations. (4) The multiword stage多词句阶段: at this stage, the salient feature of the utterances is the variation in strings of lexical morphemes. It is normally assumed that, by the age of five, with an operating vocabulary of more than 2,000 words, children have completed the greater part of the language acquisition process.There is substantial variation among children in terms of the age at which particular features of linguistic development occur. Some stages last short, some longer, some overlap for a short period, and the transition between stages may be sudden.11、The development of the grammatical system语法体系的发展1 The development of phonology语言The emergence of articulatory skills begins around the age when children start to produce babbling sounds. Children first acquire the sounds that are found in all language of the world, no matter what language they are exposed to, and in later stages acquire t he “more difficult” sounds.2 The development of syntax句法Children’s early language is not only semantically based, but also makes reference to syntactic categories, such as NP and VP, and grammatical relations, such as subject and object.3 The development of morphology词形Children’s early words are simply a bunch of bare stems without affixes. By the time they are going beyond the telegraphic stage, children begin to incorporate some of the inflectional morphemes which indicate the grammatical function of the nouns and verbs used. The first to appear is usually the “-ing” form. Then comes the marking of regular plurals with the “-s” form. This acquisition is often accompanied by a process of overgeneralization.4 The development of vocabulary and semantics词汇和语义Overgeneralization also occurs in this development. Children virtually acquired the basic fabric of their native language at the age of five or six.12、Second language acquisition第二语言的获得SLA is primarily the study of how learners acquire or learn an additional language (target language) after they have acquired their first language (L1). Some problems in L2 development do not exist in children’s L1. Very few adults seem to reach native-like proficiency in L2.1 Acquisition vs. Learning习得与学习A primary difficulty for most L2 learners can be captured in terms of a distinction between acquisition and learning, which was proposed by the American Stephen Krashen.。

胡壮麟《语言学教程》（第三版）---------课后习题单词定义归纳Chapter I Invitation to Linguistics1. Define the following terms:定义特征design feature:the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from languages of animals.功能function:the role language plays in communication (e.g. to express ideas, attitudes) or in particular social situations (e.g. religious, legal).共时的synchronic:said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical ‗point‘ in time.历时的diachronic:said of the study of development of language and languages over time.规定式prescriptive:to make authoritarian statement about the correctness of a particular use of language.描写式descriptive:to make an objective and systematic account of the patterns and use of a language or variety.任意式arbitrariness:the absence of any physical correspondence between linguistic signals and the entities to which they refer.二层式duality:the structural organization of language into two abstract levels: meaningful units (e.g. words) and meaningless segments (e.g. sounds, letters).移位式displacement:the ability of language to refer to contexts removed from the speaker‘s immediate situation.寒暄phatic communion:said of talk used to establish atmosphere or maintain social contact.元语言metalanguage:a language used for talking about language.宏观语言学macrolinguistics:a broad conception of linguistic enquiry, including psychological, cultural, etc.语言能力competence:unconscious knowledge of the system of grammatical rules in a language.语言运用performance:the language actually used by people in speaking or writing.语言langue:the language system shared by a ―speech community‖.言语parole:the concrete utterances of a speaker.Chapter 2 Speech sounds1. Define the following terms:语音学phonetics:the study of how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. It can be divided into three main areas of study—articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics and perceptual/auditory phonetics.发音语音学articulatory phonetics:the study of the production of speech sounds, or the study of how speech sounds are produced/made.音系学phonology:the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.发音器官speech organs:those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech, also known as ‗vocal organs‘.带声器官voicing:the vibration of the vocal folds. When the vocal folds are close together, the airstream causes them to vibrate against each other and the resultant sound is said to be ‗voiced‘. When the vocal folds are apart and the air can pass through easily, the sound produced is said to be ‗voiceless‘.国际音标International Phonetic Alphabet:a set of standard phonetic symbols in the form of a chart (the IPA chart), designed by the International Phonetic Association since 1888. It has been revised from time to time to include new discoveries and changes in phonetic theory and practice. The latest version has been revised in 1993 and updated in 1996.辅音consonant:a major category of sound segments, produced by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction.元音vowel:a major category of sound segments, produced without obstruction of the vocal tract so that air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or the nose.发音方式manner of articulation:ways in which articulation of consonants can be accomplished—(a) the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period; (b) they may narrow the space considerably; or (c) they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.发音部位place of articulation:the point where an obstruction to the flow of air is made in producing a consonant.基本元音Cardinal Vowels:a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.半元音semi-vowel:segments that are neither consonants nor vowels, e.g. [j] and [w].滑元音vowel glide:vowels that involve a change of quality, including diphthongs, when a single movement of the tongue is made, and triphthongs, where a double movement is perceived.协同发音coarticulation:simultaneous or overlapping articulations, as when the nasal quality of a nasal sound affects the preceding or following sound so that the latter becomes nasalized. If the affected sound becomes more like the following sound, it is known as ‗anticipatory coarticulation‘; if the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is ‗perseverative coarticution‘.音位phoneme:a unit of explicit sound contrast. If two sounds in a language make a contrast ,between two different words, they are said to be different phonemes.音位变体allophone:variants of the same phoneme. If two or more phonetically different sounds do not make a contrast in meaning, theyare said to be allophones of the same phoneme. To be allophones, they must be in complementary distribution and bear phonetic similarity.同化现象assimilation:a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound, a term often used synonymously with ‗coarticulation‘. If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, it is called ‗regressive assimilation‘; the converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as ‗progressive assimilation‘.剩余位置条件Elsewhere Condition:The more specific rule applied first. It is applied when two or more rules are involved in deriving the surface form from the underlying form.区别特征distinctive features:a means of working out a set of phonological contrasts or oppositions to capture particular aspects of language sounds, first suggested by Roman Jacobson in the 1940s and then developed by numerous other people.音节syllable:an important unit in the study of suprasegmentals. A syllable must have a nucleus or peak, which is often the task of a vowel or possibly that of a syllabic consonant, and often involves an optional set of consonants before and/or after the nucleus.最大节首原则Maximal Onset Principle:a principle for dividing the syllables when there is a cluster of consonants between two vowels, which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda.重音stress:the degree of force used in producing a syllable. When a syllable is produced with more force and is therefore more ‗prominent‘, it is a ‗stressed‘ syllable in contrast to a less prominent, ‗unstressed‘ syllable.语调intonation:the occurrence of recurring fall-rise patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on groups of words of varying length.声调tone:a set of fall-rise patterns affecting the meanings of individual words.Chapter 3 Lexicon1. Define the following terms语素morpheme:the smallest unit of language in terms of the relationship between expression and content, a unit that can not be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexically or grammatically. Take for example, the word tourists contains three morphemes. There is one minimal unit of meaning, tour, another minimal unit of meaning –ist (meaning ―per son who does something), and a minimal unit of grammatical function –s (indicating plural). Meanwhile, from the above example, we can further classify morphemes into different types on different dimensions: (a) free morphemes, which can stand by themselves as single words, e.g. tour in tourist, and bound morphemes, which cannot normally stand alone, but which are typically attached to another form, e.g. –ist, -s. (b) lexical morphemes and functional morphemes. Both of these two types of morphemes fall into the ―free‖ category. The first category is that set of ordinary nouns, adjectives and verbs that carry the ―content‖ of message we convey, e.g. house, long and follow. The second category consists largely of the functional words in the language such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns, e.g. but, above, the and it. (c) derivational morphemes and inflectional morphemes. These two types of morphemes fall into the ―bound‖ category. The derivational morphemes are used to make new words in the language and are often employed to produce words of adifferent grammatical category from the stem. For example, the addition of the derivational morpheme –ness changes the adjective good to the noun goodness. In contrast, inflectional morphemes never change the grammatical category of a word, but indicate aspects of the grammatical function of a word. For example, both old and older are adjectives. The –er inflection simply creates a different version of the adjective, indicating a comparative degree. As a useful way to remember the different categories of morphemes, the following chart can be used: It should be pointed out, morphemes may also be divided into roots and affixes, the root being that part of a word structure which is left when all the affixes have been removed. Root morphemes may be bound or free, and are potentially unlimited in number in a language; Affixes are bound morphemes and limited in number. For instance, in try, tries, trying, tried, the root is try, and –s, -ing, -ed are affixes.复合词compound:refers to the words that consist of more than on lexical morpheme or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form, such as classroom, mailbox, fingerprint, sunburn. In terms of the word class of compounds, there are Noun compounds (e.g. daybreak), V erb compounds (e.g. brainwash), Adjective compounds (e.g. dutyfree) and Preposition compounds (e.g. throughout). Meanwhile compounds can be further divided into endocentric compound and exocentric compound in terms of its structural organization. The head of a nominal or adjectival endocentric compound is d is derived from a V erb, and it is usually the case that the first member is a participant of the process verb. Consider the following two examples: self-control and virus-sensitive. The exocentric nominal compounds are formed by V+N, V+A, and V+P, whereas the exocentric adjectives come from V+N and V+A. Here are some examples: Nouns scarecrow playboy cutthroat Adjectives take home Lackluster breakneck屈折变化inflection:is the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and cases to which they are attached.词缀affix:the collective term for the type of formative that can be used when added to another morpheme. Affixes in a language are limited in number, and are generally classified into three subtypes, namely, prefix, suffix, and infix, depending on their position around the root or stem of a word. Prefixes are these affixes that have be added to the beginning of a word (e.g. un- in unhappy); suffixes are those added to the end of a word (e.g. –ish in foolish); infixes, as a third type of affix, is not normally found in English but fairly common in some other languages. As the term suggests, it is an affix that is incorporated inside another word. It is possible to see the general principle at work in certain expressions, occasionally used in fortuitous or aggravating circumstances by emotionally aroused English speakers: Absogoddamlutely! And Unfuckingbelievable! In fact, all affixes are bound morphemes.派生词derivation:is the most common word-formation process to be found in the production of new English words. It is accomplished by means of a large number of affixes of English language, and shows the relationship between roots and affixes. For example: mis +represent àmisrepresent, joy+ ful à joyful, sad + ness à sadness. In contrast to inflection, derivation can make the word class of the original word either changed or unchanged, e.g. dis + card à discard (changed) and dis + obey à disobey (unchanged). It is worth mentioning that word forms that come from derivation are relatively large and potentially open. Take the prefix pre- for example. One can easily list hundreds of words from any dictionary, such as preamble, pre-arrange, precaution, precede, precedent, precept, precinct, precognition, precondition, precursor, among many others词根root:refers to the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without loss of identity. That is to say, it is that part of the word that is left when all the affixes are removed. In the word internationalism, after the removal of inter-, -al and -ism, the left part is the root nation. Apparently, all words contain a root morpheme. And roots can be fu rtherclassified into free root morpheme and bound root morpheme. First, free root morphemes are those that can stand by themselves and are the base forms of words, such as black in black, blackbird, blackboard, blacksmith. A language may contain many morphemes of this type. Second, there are relatively a few bound root morphemes in English, such as -ceive in receive, perceive, and conceive; -mit in remit, permit, commit, and submit; -tain in retain, contain, and maintain; -cur in incur, recur, and occur, etc. Third, a few English roots may have both free and bound variants. For instance, sleep (/sli?p/) and child (/t?aild/) are free root morphemes, whereas slep- in the past tense form of sleep, i.e. slept and child- in the plural form of child, namely children, cannot exist by themselves, and are hence bound.语素变体allomorph:A morpheme, like a phoneme, is a linguistic abstraction, which must be realized as certain phonetic forms or variants in different phonetic environments. Each of the phonetic forms or variants is a morph. A single morpheme may be phonetically realized as two or more morphs. The different morphs that represent or which are derived from one morpheme is called the allomorphs of that morpheme. In practice, some morphemes have a single form in all contexts, such as ―dog‖ ―bark‖ etc. In other instances there may be considerable variation, that is to say, a morpheme may have alternate shapes or phonetic forms. For example, the plural sememe in English can be represented by the voiceless /s/, the voiced /z/, the vowel-consonant structure /?z/, the diphthong /a?/ found in the irregular form of /ma?s/, the nasal sound /n/ in /??ksn/, the long vowel /i/ in /ti?θ/ and the zero form /i?/ of /?i?p/ and others. Each would be said to be an allomorph of the plural morpheme.词干stem:is any morpheme or combinations of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. For example, friend- in friends, and friendship- in friendships are both stems. The former shows that a stem may be the same as a root, whereas the latter shows that a stem may contain a root and one, or more than one, derivational affix.黏着语素bound morpheme:refers to those which can not occur alone and must appear with at least one other morpheme. For example, the word distempered has three morphemes, namely, dis-, temper, and -ed, of which temper is a free morpheme, dis- and -ed are two bound morphemes. There are two types of morphemes which fall into the ―bound‖ category: derivational morphemes and inflectional morphemes. The derivational morphemes are used to make new words in the language and are often employed to produce words of a different grammatical category from the stem. For example, the addition of the derivational morpheme –ness changes the adjective good to the noun goodness. In contrast, inflectional morphemes never change the grammatical category of a word, but indicate aspects of the grammatical function of a word. For example, both old and older are adjectives. The –er inflection simply creates a different version of the adjective, indicating a comparative degree.自由语素free morpheme:refers to those which may occur alone or which may constitute words by themselves. In English cats, cat is free since cat is a word in its own right. Free morphemes therefore necessarily consti tute mono-morphemic words. So all mono-morphemic words are free morphemes. Poly-morphemic words/compound words may consist wholly of free morphemes, and English aircraft, godfather and housewife. As for its subtypes, free morphemes can be further divided into lexical morphemes and functional morphemes. The former is that set of ordinary nouns, adjectives and verbs that carry the ―content‖ of message we convey, e.g. house, long and follow. The latter consists largely of the functional words in the language such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns, e.g. but, above, the and it.词位lexeme:in order to reduce the ambiguity of the term word, lexeme is postulated as the abstract unit underlying the smallest unit in the lexical system of a language which appears in different grammatical contexts. For example, ―write‖ is thelexeme of the following set of words: write, writes, wrote, writing, written.词汇lexicon:refers to the whole vocabulary of a language as against grammar of a language.语法词grammatical word:refers to those which mainly work for constructing group, phrase, clause, clause complex, or even text, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns. Grammatical words serve to link together different content parts. So they are also known as Function Words.词汇词lexical word:refers to those which have mainly work for referring to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. Lexical words carry the main content of a language. So lexical words are also known as Content Words.封闭类closed-class:A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited, such as pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, and others. One cannot easily add or deduce a new member.开放类open-class:is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. When new ideas, inventions, or discoveries emerge, new members are continually and constantly being added to the lexicon. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items.混成法blending:is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining together the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by only joining the initial parts of the two words. For example, telephone + exchange à telex; transfer + resister à transistor.借词loanword:The borrowing of a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight change, in some cases, to the phonological system of the new language that they enter. For ins tance, English borrowed au pair, encore, coup d'etat and others from French, al fresco (in the open air) from Italian, tea from Chinese, sputnik from Russian and moccasin (a type of shoe) from an American Indian language.混合借词Loan blend:is a process in which part of the form is native and the rest has been borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed. For example, the first parts of the words coconut and China-town came from Spanish and Chinese respectively, but the second parts are of the English origin.转移借词Loan shift: is a process in which the meaning is borrowed, but the form is native. For example, the Italian ponte means ―bridge‖ in the literal sense, when it refers to a type of card game, the meaning was borrowed from English.缩略词acronym:is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword. For example, WTO stands for World Trade Organization. This process is also widely used in shortening extremely long words of word groups in science, technology and other special fields, e.g. Aids—acquired immune deficiency syndrome, COBOL—common business oriented language.脱落loss:the loss of sound refers to the disappearance of the very sound as a phoneme in the phonological system. Take the sound /x/ in O.E. (old English) again for example. Apart from having changed into /f/ or /k/ in some words as mentioned above, this velar fricative was simply lost between the times of Chaucer and Shakespeare. Sounds lost may also occur in utterances at the expense of some unstressed vowels. For example, temperature /'temp?r?t??/ à/'tempr?t??/.逆构词法Back formation:refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language. For example, the word television appeared before televise. The first part of the word television was pulled out and analyzed as a root, even though no such root occurs elsewhere in the English language.同化assimilation:refers to the change of a sound by the influence of an adjacent sound, which is more specifically called ―contact‖ or ―contiguous‖ assimilation. The assimilation processes at work could be explained by the ―theory of least effort‖; that is, in speaking we tend to use as little effort as possible so that we do not want to vary too often the places of articulation in uttering a sequence of sounds. Assimilation takes place in quick speech very often. For instance, in expressions such as immobile, irrevocable, impolite, illegal, the negative prefixes im-, il-, or ir- should be in- etymologically. Sometimes assimilation may occur between two sounds that are not too far separated. For instance, discussing shortly (/s/ becomes /?/) and confound it (/?/ becomes /a?/). This is called ―non-contiguous‖ or ―distant‖ assi milation. 异化dissimilation:refers to the influence of one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike, or different. For example, grammar (O.E.) àglamor (M.E.) peregrinus (Latin) àpilgrim marbre (French) àmarble ，In all these examples, one of the phonemes, /r/, dissimilates to /l/ in the course of time, which has changed the morpheme in question.俗词源folk etymology:refers to the change of the form of a word or phrase, resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the origin or meaning of the term, or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous. For example, the word sparrowgrass in English was derived from asparagus and the Spanish cucaracha was changed into English cockroach.Chapter 4 Syntax1. Define the following terms:句法syntax:the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.共现co-occurrence:It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence. For instance, what can precede a noun (dog) is usually the determiners and adjectives, and what can follow it when it takes the position of subject will be predicators such as bark, bite, run, etc. In short, co-occurrence is the syntactic environment in which a construction, with its relevant elements, can appear grammatically and conventionally. Thus relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations, partly to paradigmatic relations.结构体construction:it refers to any syntactic construct which is assigned one or more conventional functions in a language, tog ether with whatever is linguistically conventionalized about its contribution to the meaning or use construct contains. It can be further divided into the external and internal properties. Take sentence The boy kicked the ball as an example, we will determ ine the external syntax as an independent clause, while NP (―the boy‖), VP (―kicked‖) and NP (―the ball‖) will be assigned respectively to the different elements in this clause.向心结构endocentric:Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents,i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable Centre or Head. In the phrase two pretty girls, girls is the Centre or Head of this phrase or word group.成分constituent:Constituent is a term used in structural sentence analysis for every linguistic unit, which is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Several constituents together form a construction: for example, in the sentence The boy ate the apple, S (A), the boy (B), ate the apple(C), each part is a constituent. Constituents can be joined together with other constituents to form larger units. If two constituents, in the case of the example above, B (the boy) and C (ate the apple), are joined to form a hierarchically higher constit uent A(―S‖, here a sentence), then B and C are said to be immediate constituents of A.离心结构exocentric:Exocentric construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable "Centre" or "Head" inside the group. Exocentric construction usually includes basic sentence, prepositional phrase, predicate (verb + object) construction, and connective (be + complement) construction. In the sentence The boy smiled, neither constituent can substitute for the sentence structure as a whole.从属关系subordination:Subordination refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other. Thus the subordinate constituents are words which modify the Head. Consequently, they can be called modifiers. In the phrase swimming in the lake, swimming is the head and in the lake are the words modifying the head.范畴category:The term category in some approaches refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense, e.g., noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc. More specifically, it refers to the defining properties of these general units: the categories of the noun, for example, include number, gender, case and countability; and of the verb, for example, tense, aspect, voice, and so on.并列关系coordination:A common syntactic pattern in English and other languages is formed by grouping togethe r two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but or or. This phenomenon is known as coordination. In the construction the lady or the tiger, both NPs the lady and the tiger have equivalent syntactic status, each of the separate constituents can stand for the original construction functionally.一致关系agreement:Agreement (or concord) may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship with one another shall also be characterized by the same paradigmatically marked category (or categories). For instance, the syntactic relationship between this pen and it in the following dialogue:--Whose is this pen?--Oh, it‘s the one I lost.嵌入embedding:Embedding refers to the means by which one clause is included in another clause in syntactic subordination. E.g., I saw the man who had visited you last year.递归性recursiveness:it mainly means that a phrasal constituent can be embedded within (i.e., be dominated by) another constituent having the same category, but it can be used to any means to extend any constituent. Together with openness, recursiveness is the core of creativity of language. For example, ―I met a man who had a son whose w ife soldcookies that she had baked in her kitchen that was fully equipped with electrical appliances that were new‖.衔接cohesion:Cohesion refers to relations of meaning that exist within the text, and that define it as a text. The cohesive devices usually include: conjunction, ellipsis, lexical collocation, lexical repetition, reference, substitution, and so on. In the following example, the cohesive device is ―Reference‖, that is, ―it‖ refers back to the door: He couldn't open the door. It was locked tight.语法主语和逻辑主语grammatical subject & logical subject:Grammatical and logical subjects are two terms accounting for the case of subject in passive voice. Take the sentences a dog bit John and John was bitten by a dog as examples. Since the core object nou n (John in this case) sits in the slot before the verb in the passive, it is called grammatical subject, for the original object noun phrase occupies the grammatical space before a verb, the space that a subject normally occupies; the core subject (a dog), now the object of a preposition (by a dog), is called a logical subject, since semantically the core subject still does what a subject normally does: it performs an action.Chapter 5 Meaning1. Define the following terms:概念意义conceptual meaning:This is the first type of meaning recognized by Leech, which he defined as the logical, cognitive, or denotative content. In other words, it overlaps to a large extent with the notion of reference. But Leech also uses ―sense‖ as a briefer term for his conceptual m eaning. As a result, Leech‘s conceptual meaning has two sides: sense and reference.外延denotation:In the philosophers‘ usage, denotation involves the relationship between a linguistic unit and the non-linguistic entities to which it refers. Thus it is equivalent to referential meaning. For example, the denotation of human is any person such as John and Mary.内涵connotation:In the philosophers‘ usage, connotation, opposite to denotation, means the properties of the entity a word denotes. For example, the c onnotation of human is ―biped‖, ―featherless‖, ―rational‖, etc.指称reference:Reference is concerned with the relation between a word and the thing it refers to, or more generally between a linguistic unit and a non-linguistic entity it refers to.涵义sense:In contrast to reference, sense may be defined as the semantic relations between one word and another, or more generally between one linguistic unit and another. It is concerned with the intralinguistic relations.同义关系synonymy:Synonymy is the technical name for one of the sense relations between linguistic units, namely the sameness relation.互补反义关系complementary antonymy:Complementary antonymy is the sense relation between two antonyms which are complementary to each other. That is, they divide up the whole of a semantic field completely. Not only the assertion of one means the denial of the other, the denial of one also means the assertion of the other. Not only He is alive means ―He is not dead‖, He is not alive also means ―He is dead‖.等级反义关系gradable antonymy:Gradable antonomy is the sense relation between two antonyms which differ in terms of degree. There is an intermediate ground between the two. The denial of one is not necessarily the assertion of the other. Something。

第一章练习0402班集体答题I．译文（已批改）：语言贯穿我们的全部的生活, 予我们的思维以言辞, 予我们理念以话音, 予我们的感受以表述。

它是一种人类所拥有的丰富而多样的能力–想用就用，无须思索，天下儿童，自能习得。

语言学家知其固然复杂，却可描述。

语言学是研究语言的本质、结构和变化的科学, 分为语音学,音位学,形态学,句法学,语义学和语用学.II．1)Plato 2)Aristotle 3)Xunzi 4) Chomsky 5) SaussureIII．A Summary of Language and Human Beings(未经批改) Language had the systematic internal structure of a sentence and the relationship between sounds meaning and the complex actual h ierarchy. In order to understand a single sentence, a newborn huma n baby needs to break the string of sounds which he hears into sy ntactic constituents and associate a sound combination with a definit e meaning.There are three stages during which he perceives the existence of l anguage around him spontaneously.a.producing single—word sentence (12—18 months)b.forming elementary phrases and two—word sentencesc.making adult—like sentences (by the age of two and a half)In a word, as to human being, the knowledge of language just gro w naturally from the mind during a certain period in childhood and not need to be deliberately taught.IV．(未经批改)1．Human language.Human beings have an inborn knowledge of language which must be universally correct and acceptable. The location of such innate k nowledge is in our genes. There is a biological, physical entity insi de our brain which decides what we speak. This entity is UG –un iversal grammar. According to UG theory, every speaker is endowe d with a set of principles. Animals don’t have an area in their brai n that controls language. Nor do they have genes that carry the kn owledge of language.2 It is hard to say. Nothing is impossible. The first prerequisite tha t they should have is a biological organ, like genes or certain areas of the brain that can develop into language skills or control the la nguage we use. The second is that they should have UG, which he lps them both to produce and understand meaningful utterance and so forth.3 Communication is one of the most basic functions of human lang uage. However, communication is not the only use. We use langua ge sometimes to express ourselves and sometimes to record something. In this kind of situation, language is not necessarily for commu nication. We not necessarily present our diary or writings that recor d our personal emotions. Other than that, we think with language. That is not communication either.4 Linguistics can play a very important role in the information age. For example, in the development of artificial intelligence, linguistic s is the basis. The achievements in Generative Grammar gained by Noam Chomsky have been used in computer programming, US Na vy intelligence technologies and so forth. Computer translation, parti cularly, is based on linguistic knowledge. Therefore, in the informat ion age, linguistics can play a role that is as important as what ph ysics and chemistry played in the industrial revolution.5 Canada Austria IndiaV．1) A one-year-old child, to a certain extent, can understand man y words people talk around him. But he still can not manage to express himself with vocal language. By this time, except for arti culating some simple words, such as "dad", "mom". He would re sort to crying if he wants something badly.The child, reaching the age of 14 months, is trying to "talk", "babble" to be more exact. He would keep producing meaningle ss sounds; especially he likes to reduplicate single-syllable sounds,e.g. Ah-ah, Oh-oh.At the 16th month, despite the parents tried all the possible means to teach the child correct pronunciation, the child would r efer to his own system when he is trying to say something. For example, the parents keep teaching the child to say ―pi qiu‖ but the child can only catch the last syllable ―qiu‖, then, more intere sting he prefers to say ―qiu-qiu‖ instead of ―qiu‖.After about 2 months, he could successfully articulate ― pa‖and ―ma‖ if he is required to do it., which give the parents lo ts of happiness. But another problem pops up. The child extend s the meaning of ―pa‖ or ―ma‖ to everything. E.g. when the ch ild wants to get a toy car, he would poi nt to the car, saying‖ p a, pa, pa…‖. this stage is trying to develop his own lexicon. He often overextends a word’s meaning.Another thing that worth mentioning is that, the child has l earned some body gestures to express his own idea. For exampl e, when he is happy, he will clap his hands, swaying the arms to demonstrate a flying bird, stretching out one finger to denote ―I am one year old‖.2) Does language need a norm? (未经批改)With the help of a common language, people can try to get ri d of the demanding God by building the tower of Babel. Nowadays, English, as a most popular and international language seemingly has a trend of becoming another language norm of mankind. But to my point of view, people would rather preserve their own unique through the unique language.The derivation of language forms a colorful and shining langua ge net which is a rich culture resource for all human beings. With hundreds of thousands of y ears’ development, each individual lang uage is deeply rooted in a specific culture; some languages have be en extinct without being recorded, which cause a great loss in our culture. Instead of choosing a language norm, people try to keep th e present situation of language derivation.Also different groups of people are blocked off due to the geog raphical reasons, those people develop a new kind of language that can fully satisfies they need. According to Darwin’s theory of evo lution, the derivation of language is the result of the social develop ment.To sum up, with the development, there are different languages which are strongly imprinted with different culture characteristics. T o find a language norm is a unrealistic and impractical way.翻译(已批阅)：费迪南·德·索绪尔是20世纪之交伟大的瑞士语言学家。