国际经济学习题答案国际金融教学教材

国际经济学习题国际金融部分1.“对于一个国家来说，拥有经常项目盈余总比拥有经常项目赤字要好。

”你是否同意这种说法？请解释。

2.下述哪种交易会导致美国国际收支表中经常项目的盈余？a．波音公司用以物易物的方式，以价值1亿美元的飞机换取了墨西哥在墨西哥海岸的价值1亿美元的旅馆服务。

b．美国从沙特阿拉伯借到1亿美元的长期贷款，并用这一贷款在当年购买对方价值1亿美元的石油。

c．美国向土耳其出售了价值1亿美元的喷气式飞机，得到1亿美元的银行存款。

d．美国政府以纽约银行存款的形式给希腊政府1亿美元的赠与，以便对由土耳其战斗机攻击造成的人员伤害予以补偿。

e．德国中央银行用银行存款德国马克从纽约银行购买了1亿美元的银行存款。

3.你得到如下有关某国某年国际交易的信息：a．计算该国商品贸易、商品和服务，以及经常项目三个项目的余额。

b．官方储备资产（净值）的变动值为多少？该国持有的官方储备资产净值是增加了，还是减少了？4.在某年12月31日，某国对外国人拥有的国际资产和负债存量如下：●该国居民持有由外国政府发行的300亿美元的债券。

●该国中央银行持有作为官方储备资产的200亿美元的黄金和150亿美元的外汇资产。

●外国公司已投资于该国的生产设施，其投资现值为400亿美元。

●外国居民持有由该国公司发行的250亿美元的债务。

a．该国的国际投资头寸是多少？该国为对外债权国还是债务国？b．如果该国在下一年中拥有经常项目盈余，这对该国的国际投资头寸会有何种影响？5.哪些类型的交易或活动可以导致即期外汇市场中对外汇的需求？6.哪些类型的交易或活动可以导致即期外汇市场中对外汇的供给？7.一家美国公司购买了一家日本公司的产品，因而必须向其支付100万日元。

美国公司以美元支票账户开始进行这一支付。

请解释这笔支付将如何进行，包括对即期外汇市场和两国银行的使用。

8.一家英国银行在与其客户的交易中得到一大笔美元，如果这家银行不愿继续持有这些美元，它将如何利用银行间外汇交易市场。

国际经济学习题答案（国际金融）共18页word资料国际经济学习题答案国际金融部分1.不同意，至少从一般意义上来讲是如此。

经常项目盈余的含义之一是，国家的商品与服务出口大于进口。

人们可能会认为这是不好的——国家正在为出口而生产商品和提供服务，与此同时，国家却没有得到使其能够进行更多消费和国内投资的进口商品和服务。

从这一角度讲，拥有经常项目赤字却会是一件好事情——更多的进口可以使国家的国内消费和投资量超过其当前生产量。

经常项目盈余的另一个含义是，国家在进行外国金融投资——它正在建立对外国人的债权，这会增加国家的财富。

这听起来很好，但正如前面所指出的，它是以放弃当前国内消费为代价的。

经常项目赤字意味着国家对外国人债权的减少或对外国人债务的增加。

这听起来很不好，但它意味着更高水平的当前国内支出这一福利。

不同的国家在不同的时期，对这些代价和收益会有不同的重视程度。

因此，我们不能简单地认为经常项目盈余是否优于经常项目赤字。

2.交易c会导致经常项目的盈余，因为这是商品出口，该出口得到的支（交易a不会使经常项目账户发生变动，付体现于资本账户的某个项目。

因为它既是出口又是进口。

交易b导致经常项目的赤字，因为它属于进口。

交易d也会导致经常项目的赤字，因为它属于单方转移形式的流出。

交易e不对经常项目账户中的任何项目发生影响。

）3. a.商品贸易余额：330-198=132（美元）商品和服务余额：330-198+196-204=124（美元）经常项目余额：330-198+196-204+3-8=119（美元）官方结算余额：330-198+196-204+3-8+102-202+4=23（美元）b.官方储备资产变化（净值）=-官方结算余额=-23（美元）。

该国在增加其官方储备资产的净持有量。

4. a.国际投资头寸（10亿）：30＋20＋15—40—25=0（美元）。

该国既不是国际债权国，也不是国际债务国。

它持有的国外资产等于它对外国人的负债。

第18章第十八章浮动汇率制下的内外平衡1．浮动汇率下的政策环境和目标与固定汇率下有什么区别答案提示：不同于固定汇率下的情况，浮动汇率可自动调节国际收支，使一国经济到达对外平衡，这样汇率调节就完成了固定汇率下政府必须考虑的内外均衡两个任务中的一个。

现在，只剩对内平衡一个目标需要考虑。

在浮动汇率制度下，政府的政策目标将只有一个，即通过宏观经济政策的实施到达充分就业和物价稳定。

2．比拟固定汇率和浮动汇率下的各种宏观经济政策的效果，并对之加以解释。

答案提示：在资本具有完全流动性的情况下，如果实行固定汇率制度，财政政策有效，而货币政策完全无效；如果实行浮动汇率制度，财政政策完全无效，而货币政策是有效的，即一国货币当局在浮动汇率下可以实行独立的货币政策。

3．试解释浮动汇率下的财政政策的“挤出效用〞。

答案提示：参考本章第二节。

4．假设A国和B国经济联系严密，均实行浮动汇率制度，A国遭遇严重失业问题，遂采取放松银根政策，B国是否会受到影响答案提示：B国会受到影响。

A国实行宽松的货币政策，将导致物价上升和货币贬值，随着A国出口的增加，B国国内市场将相对减小，不利于B国的就业和生产的增加。

5．试分析在资本完全不流动的情况下，财政政策和货币政策的作用。

答案提示：通过画图进展分析，此时BP曲线为垂直的。

6*. 试讨论资本不完全流动下的财政政策和货币政策的作用，与资本完全流动下的作用效果有何差异答案提示：在这种情况下，汇率的变化会引起BP曲线的移动。

7．在资本完全流动情况下，试分析在以下两种情形下，固定汇率与浮动汇率对国内经济的稳定作用。

〔1〕国内货币供给突然自发增加；〔2〕外国资本突然大量流入。

答案提示：〔1〕固定汇率下，国内货币供给突然自发增加，本国货币的利率下降，本国货币利率下降导致资本大量外流、存在国际收支逆差，这样对国内货币产生贬值压力，中央银行必须干预市场，抛出外汇，收回本币，使汇率保持固定，与此同时国内货币供给减少，直到重新到达原来的均衡点为止。

克鲁格曼《国际经济学》（国际金融部分）课后习题答案（英文版）第一章CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTIONChapter OrganizationWhat is International Economics About?The Gains from TradeThe Pattern of TradeProtectionismThe Balance of PaymentsExchange-Rate DeterminationInternational Policy CoordinationThe International Capital MarketInternational Economics: Trade and MoneyCHAPTER OVERVIEWThe intent of this chapter is to provide both an overview of the subject matter of international economics and to provide a guide to the organization of the text. It is relatively easy for an instructor to motivate the study of international trade and finance. The front pages of newspapers, the covers of magazines, and the lead reports of television news broadcasts herald the interdependence of the U.S. economy with the rest of the world. This interdependence may also be recognized by students through their purchases of imports of all sorts of goods, their personal observations of the effects of dislocations due to international competition, and their experience through travel abroad.The study of the theory of international economics generates an understanding of many key events that shape our domesticand international environment. In recent history, these events include the causes and consequences of the large current account deficits of the United States; the dramatic appreciation of the dollar during the first half of the 1980s followed by its rapid depreciation in the second half of the 1980s; the Latin American debt crisis of the 1980s and the Mexico crisis in late 1994; and the increased pressures for industry protection against foreign competition broadly voiced in the late 1980s and more vocally espoused in the first half of the 1990s. Most recently, the financial crisis that began in East Asia in 1997 andspread to many countries around the globe and the Economic and Monetary Union in Europe have highlighted the way in which various national economies are linked and how important it is for us to understand these connections. At the same time, protests at global economic meetings have highlighted opposition to globalization. The text material will enable students to understand the economic context in which such events occur.Chapter 1 of the text presents data demonstrating the growth in trade and increasing importance of international economics. This chapter also highlights and briefly discusses seven themes which arise throughout the book. These themes include: 1) the gains from trade;2) the pattern of trade; 3) protectionism; 4), the balance of payments; 5) exchange rate determination; 6) international policy coordination; and 7) the international capital market. Students will recognize that many of the central policy debates occurring today come under the rubric of one of these themes. Indeed, it is often a fruitful heuristic to use current events to illustrate the force of the key themes and arguments which are presentedthroughout the text.。

《国际经济学》（国际金融）习题答案要点第12章 国民收入核算与国际收支1、如问题所述，GNP 仅仅包括最终产品和服务的价值是为了避免重复计算的问题。

在国民收入账户中，如果进口的中间品价值从GNP 中减去，出口的中间品价值加到GNP 中，重复计算的问题将不会发生。

例如：美国分别销售钢材给日本的丰田公司和美国的通用汽车公司。

其中出售给通用公司的钢材，作为中间品其价值不被计算到美国的GNP 中。

出售给日本丰田公司的钢材，钢材价值通过丰田公司进入日本的GNP ，而最终没有进入美国的国民收入账户。

所以这部分由美国生产要素创造的中间品价值应该从日本的GNP 中减去，并加入美国的GNP 。

2、（1）等式12-2可以写成()()p CA S I T G =-+-。

美国更高的进口壁垒对私人储蓄、投资和政府赤字有比较小或没有影响。

（2）既然强制性的关税和配额对这些变量没有影响，所以贸易壁垒不能减少经常账户赤字。

不同情况对经常账户产生不同的影响。

例如，关税保护能提高被保护行业的投资，从而使经常账户恶化。

（当然，使幼稚产业有一个设备现代化机会的关税保护是合理的。

）同时，当对投资中间品实行关税保护时，由于受保护行业成本的提高可能使该行业投资下降，从而改善经常项目。

一般地，永久性和临时性的关税保护有不同的效果。

这个问题的要点是：政策影响经常账户方式需要进行一般均衡、宏观分析。

3、（1）、购买德国股票反映在美国金融项目的借方。

相应地，当美国人通过他的瑞士银行账户用支票支付时，因为他对瑞士请求权减少，故记入美国金融项目的贷方。

这是美国用一个外国资产交易另外一种外国资产的案例。

（2）、同样，购买德国股票反映在美国金融项目的借方。

当德国销售商将美国支票存入德国银行并且银行将这笔资金贷给德国进口商（此时，记入美国经常项目的贷方）或贷给个人或公司购买美国资产（此时，记入美国金融项目的贷方）。

最后，银行采取的各项行为将导致记入美国国际收支表的贷方。

克鲁格曼《国际经济学》(国际金融)习题答案要点————————————————————————————————作者：————————————————————————————————日期：23 《国际经济学》（国际金融）习题答案要点第12章 国民收入核算与国际收支1、如问题所述，GNP 仅仅包括最终产品和服务的价值是为了避免重复计算的问题。

在国民收入账户中，如果进口的中间品价值从GNP 中减去，出口的中间品价值加到GNP 中，重复计算的问题将不会发生。

例如：美国分别销售钢材给日本的丰田公司和美国的通用汽车公司。

其中出售给通用公司的钢材，作为中间品其价值不被计算到美国的GNP 中。

出售给日本丰田公司的钢材，钢材价值通过丰田公司进入日本的GNP ，而最终没有进入美国的国民收入账户。

所以这部分由美国生产要素创造的中间品价值应该从日本的GNP 中减去，并加入美国的GNP 。

2、（1）等式12-2可以写成()()p CA S I T G =-+-。

美国更高的进口壁垒对私人储蓄、投资和政府赤字有比较小或没有影响。

（2）既然强制性的关税和配额对这些变量没有影响，所以贸易壁垒不能减少经常账户赤字。

不同情况对经常账户产生不同的影响。

例如，关税保护能提高被保护行业的投资，从而使经常账户恶化。

（当然，使幼稚产业有一个设备现代化机会的关税保护是合理的。

）同时，当对投资中间品实行关税保护时，由于受保护行业成本的提高可能使该行业投资下降，从而改善经常项目。

一般地，永久性和临时性的关税保护有不同的效果。

这个问题的要点是：政策影响经常账户方式需要进行一般均衡、宏观分析。

3、（1）、购买德国股票反映在美国金融项目的借方。

相应地，当美国人通过他的瑞士银行账户用支票支付时，因为他对瑞士请求权减少，故记入美国金融项目的贷方。

这是美国用一个外国资产交易另外一种外国资产的案例。

（2）、同样，购买德国股票反映在美国金融项目的借方。

当德国销售商将美国支票存入德国银行并且银行将这笔资金贷给德国进口商（此时，记入美国经常项目的贷方）或贷给个人或公司购买美国资产（此时，记入美国金融项目的贷方）。

克鲁格曼《国际经济学》(国际金融)习题答案要点赤字。

因此，1982-1985年美国资本流入超过了其经常项目的赤字。

第13章 汇率与外汇市场：资产方法 1、汇率为每欧元1.5美元时，一条德国香肠bratwurst 等于三条hot dog 。

其他不变时，当美元升值至1.25$per Euro, 一条德国香肠bratwurst 等价于2.5个hot dog 。

相对于初始阶段，hot dog 变得更贵。

2、63、25%；20%；2%。

4、分别为：15%、10%、-8%。

5、（1）由于利率相等，根据利率平价条件，美元对英镑的预期贬值率为零，即当前汇率与预期汇率相等。

（2）1.579$per pound6、如果美元利率不久将会下调，市场会形成美元贬值的预期，即e E 值变大，从而使欧元存款的美元预期收益率增加，图13-1中的曲线I 移到I '，导致美元对欧元贬值，汇率从0E 升高到1E 。

131-图　7、（1）如图13-2，当欧元利率从0i 提高到1i 时，汇率从0E 调整到1E ，欧元相对于美元升值。

I 'IE 1E $/euroE图13-2（2）如图13-3，当欧元对美元预期升值时，美元存款的欧元预期收益率提高，美元存款的欧元收益曲线从I '上升到I ，欧元对美元的汇率从E '提高到E ，欧元对美元贬值。

133-图8、(a)如果美联储降低利率，在预期不变的情况下，根据利率平价条件，美元将贬值。

如图13-4，利率从i 下降到i ' ，美元对外国货币的汇价从E 提高到E '，美元贬值。

如果软着陆，并且美联储没有降低利率，则美元不会贬值。

即使美联储稍微降低利率，假如从i 降低到*i （如图13-5），这比人们开始相信会发生的还要小。

同时，由于软着陆所产生的乐观因素，使美元预期升值，即e E 值变小，使国外资产的美元预期收益率降低（曲线I 向下移动到I '），曲线移动反映了对美国软着陆引起的乐观预期，同时由乐观因素引起的预期表明：在没有预期变化的情况下，由利I 'E E 'euro/$E IiE 1E euro/$E rate of return(in euro)0i 1i率i 下降到*i 引起美元贬值程度（从E 贬值到*E ）将大于存在预期变化引起的美元贬值程度（从E 到E ''）。

克鲁格曼《国际经济学》(国际金融)习题答案要点————————————————————————————————作者：————————————————————————————————日期：23 《国际经济学》（国际金融）习题答案要点第12章 国民收入核算与国际收支1、如问题所述，GNP 仅仅包括最终产品和服务的价值是为了避免重复计算的问题。

在国民收入账户中，如果进口的中间品价值从GNP 中减去，出口的中间品价值加到GNP 中，重复计算的问题将不会发生。

例如：美国分别销售钢材给日本的丰田公司和美国的通用汽车公司。

其中出售给通用公司的钢材，作为中间品其价值不被计算到美国的GNP 中。

出售给日本丰田公司的钢材，钢材价值通过丰田公司进入日本的GNP ，而最终没有进入美国的国民收入账户。

所以这部分由美国生产要素创造的中间品价值应该从日本的GNP 中减去，并加入美国的GNP 。

2、（1）等式12-2可以写成()()p CA S I T G =-+-。

美国更高的进口壁垒对私人储蓄、投资和政府赤字有比较小或没有影响。

（2）既然强制性的关税和配额对这些变量没有影响，所以贸易壁垒不能减少经常账户赤字。

不同情况对经常账户产生不同的影响。

例如，关税保护能提高被保护行业的投资，从而使经常账户恶化。

（当然，使幼稚产业有一个设备现代化机会的关税保护是合理的。

）同时，当对投资中间品实行关税保护时，由于受保护行业成本的提高可能使该行业投资下降，从而改善经常项目。

一般地，永久性和临时性的关税保护有不同的效果。

这个问题的要点是：政策影响经常账户方式需要进行一般均衡、宏观分析。

3、（1）、购买德国股票反映在美国金融项目的借方。

相应地，当美国人通过他的瑞士银行账户用支票支付时，因为他对瑞士请求权减少，故记入美国金融项目的贷方。

这是美国用一个外国资产交易另外一种外国资产的案例。

（2）、同样，购买德国股票反映在美国金融项目的借方。

当德国销售商将美国支票存入德国银行并且银行将这笔资金贷给德国进口商（此时，记入美国经常项目的贷方）或贷给个人或公司购买美国资产（此时，记入美国金融项目的贷方）。

第1章外汇与汇率知识掌握二、单项选择题1.C2. D3.B4.B5.C三、多项选择题1.ABCD2. ABD3. BCDE4. ADE知识应用一、案例分析题1.2015年“8.11”汇改后人民币贬值速度较快,一时间引起阵阵恐慌,加之内地缺少有效投资工具,导致大量中产阶级欲将资金转移至境外以寻求保护。

由于香港与内地特殊的政治经济关系而使其成为避险资金的首选,这属于正常现象。

但如果对此不加以约束,易造成资金外流的恶果。

2.人民币贬值对经济生活的影响可以从不同方面来解读：从进出口的角度看,人民币贬值有利于扩大出口,增强产品的国际竞争力；从资本流动的角度看,人民币的贬值会给投资者带来不安全感,对人民币的信心缺失,抛售人民币资产或将资产转移至境外,造成资本外流,而资本外流会进一步加大人民币贬值压力,从而形成恶性循环。

资本流动情况将直接影响国际储备情况,我国这两年外汇储备变动状况清楚地说明了这一点。

此外,人民币对外贬值对我国走出去战略也会产生一定影响,对于海外求学的人来说更不是利好。

知识掌握二、单项选择题1．B2．C 3．C 4．A5．B 6．B7．A8．B9．D 10.C 11．B12．A13．B 14. C 15. B 16．B 17．B知识应用一、案例分析题1.1950年以后，随着欧洲经济的苏和日本经济的崛起，美国贸易逆差不断扩大，黄金储备不断减少，导致美国无力维持美元官价兑换黄金，并最终停止以美元兑换黄金。

2．在布雷顿森森体系下实行的是以美元为中心的固定汇率制度。

以美元为中心的国际货币制度崩溃的根本原因，是这个制度本身存在着不可调和的矛盾。

一方面，美元作为国际支付手段与国际储备手段，要求美元币值稳定，才会在国际支付中被其他国家所普遍接受。

而美元币值稳定，不仅要求美国有足够的黄金储备，而且要求美国的国际收支必须保持顺差，从而使黄金不断流入美国而增加其黄金储备。

否则，人们在国际支付中就不愿接受美元。

另一方面，全世界要获得充足的外汇储备，又要求美国的国际收支保持逆差，否则全世界就会面临外汇储备短缺。

international（国际经济学）课后习题及答案----------------------- Page 1-----------------------Review Questions and Condensed Answers forInternational Trade TheoriesChapter 1 World Trade and the National EconomyReview Questions::::1( What features distinguish international from domestic transactions?2( What can you say about the growth of world trade in both nominal and real terms? Was itfaster than the growth of output?3( Evaluate the statement,” the United States is a closed economy, hence foreign trade is ofno consequence to it.”4( Distinguish between export industries, import-competing industries and nontraded goods.Give examples of each.5( Using the figure in table 1-3, what can you say about the trade structure of the USA andJapan.Condensed Answers to Review Questions::::1. The text discusses ways that international transactions differfrom domestic ones.i. International trade requires that transactions be conductedbetween twocurrencies mediated by an exchange rate. Domestic transactions are conductedin a single currency.ii. Commercial policies that operate to restrict international transactions cannot, ingeneral, be imposed on domestic trade. Such policies include tariffs, quotas,voluntary export restraints, export subsidies, and exchange controls.iii. Countries pursue different domestic macroeconomic policieswhich result indivergent rates of economic growth, inflation, and unemployment.iv. More statistical data exist on the nature, volume, and value of internationaltransactions than exist in domestic trade.v. Factors of production are more mobile domestically than internationally.vi. Countries exhibit different demand patterns, sales techniques,and marketingrequirements. Many of these are due to culture and custom. Someresult fromdifferences in government regulations. Included here are health, safety,environmental, and technical rules.2. The real volume of world exports grew at an annual rate of more than 6 percent between1950 and 2000. Global output grew at an annual rate of 4 percent. Export growth inexcess of output growth reflects the increased openness to trade of many countries.3. The United States is a relatively closed economy since the share of trade in GDP issmaller than that of most other industrial nations. In 2000, U.S. exports of goods andservices were 11 percent of GDP. The U.S. economy is less dependent on the foreignsector than other major economies, but to say that foreign trade is of no consequence is anexaggeration. The U.S. economy has become increasingly open and, therefore, moreimpacted by trade developments over time. This trend is likely to continue. Curtailingimports would, for example, have a big effect on consumers' ability to buy some goods----------------------- Page 2-----------------------(e.g. tropical products) and would raise the prices of others. The absence of certain keycommodities and material inputs would greatly disrupt areas of U.S. industry.4. a. Export industries send a substantial share of their output abroad. Ratios ofexports to GDP are much higher than the average ratio for all industries. Netexporting industries are those for which exports exceed imports. U.S. netexporting industries include farm products, chemicals, certain types of machinery,and aerospace products.b. Import-competing industries are domestic industries that sharethe domesticmarket with a substantial import presence. These activities haveratios ofimports to GDP that are much higher than the average ratio for all industries.U.S. import-competing industries include fuels, automobiles,clothing, footwear,and iron and steel.c. Nontraded goods are those which, because of their nature and characteristics, arenot easily exported or imported. Examples are hair-dressing, movie theaters,meals, construction activity, and health-care.5. Table 1.3 contains figures on the trade structure of the U.S. and Japan. The U.S. is a netexporter of food, certain ores, chemicals, and other machinery and transport equipment,and is a net importer of raw materials, mining products, fuels, nonferrous metals, iron andsteel, semimanufactures, office and telecommunications equipment, automotive products,textiles and clothing, and other consumer goods. Japan is a net exporter of iron and steel,chemicals, semimanufactures, office and telecommunications equipment, automotiveproducts, other machinery and transport equipment, and other consumer goods. Importsexceed exports in food, raw materials, and textiles and clothing.----------------------- Page 3-----------------------Chapter 2 Why Nations TradeReview Questions::::1( a. In what sense are the cost data of footnote 4 related to the figures of scheme 1?b. Based on the figures of footnote 4, determine the:Direction of trade once it develops.Limits to mutually beneficial trade.Limits to a sustainable exchange trade.2. Evaluate the following statements:a. In international trade, domestic cost ratios determine the limits of mutually beneficial trade,whereas demand considerations show where, within these limits, the actual exchange ratio will lie.b. Comparative advantage is a theoretical concept. It cannot be used to explain any real-worldphenomena.c. The opening up of trade raises the price of export goods; hence trade is inflationary.d. The concept of absolute advantage offers explainations for East Germany’s high unemploymentrates in the 1990s.3. a. Use the theory of comparative advantage to explain why it pays for:The USA to export grains and import oil.Russia to export oil and import grains.b. Why does the popular press believe that grain exports are inflnationary? What is wrongwith this porposition?Condensed Answers to Review Questions:1. a. Scheme 1 is based on labor productivity comparisons, while Footnote 4presentsper unit cost data. Production cost ratios are inversely related to productivitymeasures.b. i. Textiles will be exported from the U.K. and wheat from the U.S.ii. The U.S. will trade only if one yard of textiles costs less than3 bushels ofwheat. The U.K. will trade only if 1 yard of textiles can be exchangedfor more than 2 bushels of wheat.iii. The value of the ? must be between $1 and $1.502. a. Consider Figure 2.2. The domestic cost ratios define limits of mutually beneficialtrade. Within the region of mutually beneficial trade the actual exchange rate willbe determined by the relative intensity of each country's demand for the othercountry's product. A full analysis requires an understanding of reciprocal demandcurves, but the following general principle might help heuristically. If the Britishare more eager to buy U.S. wheat than the Americans are eager for British textiles,the exchange ratio falls close to the U.K. domestic cost ratio and the U.S. can beviewed as capturing a greater share of the gains from trade.b. Since the real world does not conform to the convenienttwo-country, two-goodassumptions, the simple theoretical model is not immediately applicable.However, we can generalize the model to many goods and many nations. Thefundamental truth remains. Countries export those goods in which their relativeproduction costs are lower and import those goods for which the relative costs arehigher.----------------------- Page 4-----------------------c. While trade tends to raise the prices of exportables in the domestic economy, theeffect of trade is to lower the average price level of all goods. Trade givesconsumers an opportunity to consume at lower world prices. Many goods will becheaper when purchased from foreign supply sources. Trade also conveysprocompetitive effects, stimulates the adoption of new technologies, and allowsfirms to achieve efficient scale production levels. Thus, trade is anti-inflationary.d. The reunification of the Germany economy in 1990 was undertaken on the basisthat a unit of the deutschmark, the West German currency, should be equal in valueto a unit of the ostmark, the East German currency. At this exchange rate, goodsproduced in East Germany were almost universally more expensive to producethan their counterparts in the West. Labor productivity in East Germanmanufacturing was found to be about 35% of the West German level. Underthese conditions the East German manufacturing sector collapsed. Investors werereluctant to purchase East German factories and large scale closures and dismissalsresulted.3. a. The U.S. enjoys a comparative advantage in grains. It also produces oil, but will gain byspecializing in grain production and using proceeds of exported agriculturalproducts to purchase oil from nations that produce oil relatively more efficiently.Russia is relatively more efficient in the production of oil and will gain bypurchasing grain from the U.S. in exchange for oil.b. The popular press asserts that by exporting grain from the U.S. (say to the former U R)we are lowering the domestic supply of grain and raising the domestic U.S. price of grain. Sincegrain is an important ingredient in many food products, grain exports are believed to increase theprice of those products. However, the price of grain is determined in world markets. U.S.exports alone cannot permanently raise the domestic U.S. price. If the domestic U.S. grainpricerose above the world price, the U.S. would be a net importer of grains and the domestic price wouldfall.----------------------- Page 5-----------------------Chapter 3 The Commodity Composition of TradeReview Questions::::1( Does the factor proportions theory provide a good explanation of intraindustry trade? Ifnot, can you outline an alternative explaination for the growing phenomenon?2( Explain the dynamic nature of comparative advantage using Japan’s experience as anexample.3( Once the United States acquires a comparative advantage in jet aircraft production it canbe sure of a dominant position in the global market forever. Do you agree with thisstatement? Explain.Condensed Answers to Review Questions1. The factor proportions theory is better suited to explain interindustry trade, or the exchangebetween countries of totally different commodities, than intraindustry trade, which is thetwo-way trade of similar commodities. The growth of intraindustry trade is greatest inimperfectly competitive industries characterized by economies of scale. Here, scaleeconomies force firms in each industry to specialize in a narrow range of products withineach industry to achieve efficient scale operations. Intraindustry specialization combinedwith diverse consumer tastes gives rise to two-way trade within the same industryclassification.2. Japan's comparative advantage in the immediate post-war period was in labor intensivegoods. The high level of saving and investment transformed Japan into a relatively capitalabundant country. Its advantage in the labor-intensive industries was lost as wages rose.Moreover, Japan increased its technological capability through high spending on R&D.Now Japan's advantage lies in the production of high-tech, capital intensive goods similar tothe U.S. This in large part explains the increasing trade friction between the twocountries.3. Once the U.S. acquires a comparative advantage in jet aircraft, it is likely to enjoy a dominantposition in the global marketplace for years, but not forever. Jet aircraft production is characterizedby huge economies of scale due largely to research and development costs. High capitalrequirements and scale economies pose large entry barriers. It is extremely difficult for a countryto enter into aircraft production once the U.S. has the lead. The new firm would initially have asmall market share and would be unable to compete on a cost basis. The new market entrant wouldrequire considerable government support and encouragement. This was the case with the EuropeanAirbus.----------------------- Page 6-----------------------Chapter 4 Protection of Domestic Industries: The TariffReview Questions::::1( A tariff on textiles is equivalent to a tax on consumers and a subsidy to the textileproducers and workers.2( Explain the concept of effective rate of protection.a. What does the effective rate on final goods depend upon and how?b. In what way does the effective rate analysis help to illuminate these policy issues:Deepening of production in LDCsEscalation of tariff rates by degree of processing in industrial countries3. A tariff lowers the real income of the country, while at the same time it distributes income fromconsumers to the governments and to the import-competing industry.Condensed Answers to Review Questions:1. The effect of a tariff is comparable to the combined effects of a tax on consumers and a subsidy toproducers. Using Figure 4.3, one can show a tariff results in a transfer of resources from theconsumers (who lose P P fd ) to the producers (who gain P P ec). With a non-prohibitive tariff, the2 3 2 3government will also gain revenue efmn. Whether the two schemes are equivalent depends on theexact nature of the tax and subsidy scheme.2. a. The effective rate of protection measures the percentage increase in domesticvalue added per unit of output made possible by tariffs on the output and onmaterial inputs. Determinants of the effective rate include thetariff on the finalproduct, tariffs on the imported material inputs, and the free trade value added perunit of output which is influenced by intermediate input coefficients. Effectiverates are positively related to the tariff on the final product and negatively related toboth tariffs on imported inputs and the free trade value added. A derivation ofthe formula appears in footnote 10, and footnote 12 interprets that formula.b. "Deepening" of production in LDCs involves import substitution industrializationpolicy. A final assembly plant is given a protective tariff and imported inputs areaccorded duty free treatment. As a second stage, the LDC begins to deepenproduction by manufacturing inputs and according them protection. By imposingtariffs on imported inputs, the LDC is reducing effective protection for the finalgood.Because of relatively high rates of protection on finished goods and low protectionon unfinished goods and raw materials, effective tariff rates in developed countriesmay be as much as double their nominal counterparts. Developing countriesmaintain that such tariff structures fatally harm their efforts to increase exports offinished manufactures.3. Again using Figure4.3, the loss in real income is shown by triangles cen and mfd.Redistribution has been given in 8a.----------------------- Page 7-----------------------Chapter 5 Nontariff Barriers (NTBs) to TradeReview Question::::Suppose the USA steel industry is seeking protection from foreign imports. Compare andcontrast the following measures of restricting steel industries: a tariff, a quota, and voluntaryexport restraints.Condensed Answers to Review Question:There are a variety of ways in which a tariff may be considered to be less harmful than an equivalentquota:i. The revenue effect. Tariffs provide revenue. Quotas do not automatically providerevenue. Under a quota, revenue accrues to holders of import licenses.Depending on the quota scheme, licenses may be held by domestic importers, foreign exporters, foreign governments, or domestic officialswho may use them to encourage bribery. Only through auctioning or selling licenses can the government capture quota rents.ii. Performance under demand and supply changes. Any amount of imports can enterunder a tariff, but with a quota import volumes are fixed. When demandgrows, or there is a shortfall in supply, the quota does not permit a quantityadjustment. The domestic price can depart significantly from the worldprice. Under a tariff, the domestic price cannot rise above the worldprice by more than the tariff rate. Thus, a tariff is less harmful than aquota.iii. Impact on Exporters. When a tariff is levied on an imported good it is usually rebatedwhen the good is exported. The same is not true for a quota. Quotas maytherefore be more harmful to export performance.iv. Curbing monopoly power. Quotas curtail monopoly power less than an equivalent tariff.v. Terms of Trade Effects. Quotas provide no incentive for exporting nations to absorb partof the price increase; tariffs do if the exporting nation wishes to retainmarket share.vi. Quality Upgrading. Quotas give an incentive for the exporting country to engage in qualityupgrading. Ad valorem tariffs do not provide an incentive for this behavior but specific duties do.VERs share all of the undesirable effects of quotas. When the exporter does the restricting, there isno opportunity to sell import licenses. Quota rents accrue toforeign exporters orgovernments under a VER. Therefore, VERs are more costly to society than anequivalent quota with licenses sold or a tariff. Quantitative restrictions like VERsare discriminatory. VERs are also hard to monitor. Since shipments from thirdparty countries are unrestricted, transshipment throughnonrestricted countries is amajor problem. One advantage of VERs is they do not invite retaliation sincethey are profitable to foreign exporters and governments.Tariffs, quotas and VERs may be equivalent in terms of effects on the domestic price and thevolumeof imports. This may be shown using diagram 5-1. However, there are important differencesdiscussed in 1a. above.----------------------- Page 8-----------------------Chapter 6 International and Regional Trade Organizations Among Developed CountriesReview Questions::::1. Explain the following terms:Trade creation of a customs union.Trade diversion of a customs union.2.What are the conflicts between the WTO and the environmental movement?Condensed Answers to Review Questions:1. Trade creation refers to the replacement of high cost production in each member by importsfrom another member. This effect is favorable to world welfare. Tradediversion is the diversion of trade from a nonmember to a higher cost member.This is unfavorable because it reduces worldwide resource allocative efficiency(See Figure 4-8).The basic approach to calculating welfare effects associated with customs union formation is toconstruct hypothetical estimates of what member country trade patterns wouldhave been in the absence of integration, comparing these with actual trade flows,and attributing any difference to integration. Effects ofintegration can be isolatedby using trade flow data pertaining to nonmember "normalizer" countries over thesame period to suggest what trade patterns would have been expected for memberswithout integration. Assume, in the absence of integration, both total (internalplus external) and external member imports would have grown at the same rates asthe corresponding imports in the normalizer. The normalizer's external importsrefer to its imports from third countries (i.e. intra-trade is excluded). Thenormalizer's internal imports are imports of normalizer countries from each other(e.g. intra-trade). The preintegration member country total import level ismultiplied by the corresponding normalizer import growth rate to yield an estimateof hypothetical total imports without integration. When compared with actualtotal imports, an estimate of trade creation is obtained. Trade diversion isestimated by multiplying the member country preintegration external import levelby the normalizer's rate of change of external imports to yield hypothetical membercountry external imports. The excess of hypothetical over actual external importsconstitutes trade diversion. The European Union (EU) is a customs unioncomprised of 15 West European countries.2. WTO rules often conflict with both international environmental agreements and nationalenvironmental laws. For example, a 1991 GATT panel upheld a Mexican challenge to aU.S. law banning importation of tuna caught indolphin-killing purse-seine nets.GATT/WTO provisions are concerned with products and not production methods.----------------------- Page 9-----------------------Chapter 7 International Mobility of Productive FactorsReview Question::::What is the meaning of DFI? List some of the factors that induce companies to invest abroad.Condensed Answers to Review Question:Direct Foreign Investment refers to international capital movement that gives a company controlover a foreign subsidiary. It may be the purchase of an existing company, a substantial part of itsshares, or the establishment of a new enterprise. It should be contrasted with portfolio investmentthat gives, by and large, no control over foreign assets.The motives are diverse and any particular investment may involve one or more of the followingi. investment in extractive industries to secure raw material supplies;ii. investment in manufacturing industry to take advantage of cheaper foreign labor;iii. to locate production close to foreign markets and avoid transportation costs;iv. to take advantage of incentives offered by host countries;v. to circumvent tariff barriers;vi. changes in the exchange values of currencies; andvii. marketing considerations.。