Computer-Integrated Manufacturing SystemCIM DefinedComputer-integrated manufacturing (or CIM) is the term used to describe the most modern approach to manufacturing. Although CIM encompasses many of the other advanced manufacturing technologies such as computer numerical control (CNC), computer-aided design／computer-aided manufacturing (CAD／CAM) , robotics , and just－in-time delivery(JIT) , it is more than a new technology or a new concept . Computer-integrated manufacturing is actually an entirely new approach to manufacturing and a new way of doing business.To understand CIM, it is necessary to begin with a comparison of modern and traditional manufacturing. Modern manufacturing encompasses all of the activities and processes necessary to convert raw materials into finished products, deliver them to the market, and support them in the field. These activities include the following.●Identifying a need for a product●Designing a product to meet the needs●Obtaining the raw materials needed to produce the product●Applying appropriate processes to transform the raw materials into finished products●Transporting products to the market●Maintaining the products to ensure a proper performance in the fieldThis broad, modern view of manufacturing can be compared with the more limited traditional view that focuses almost entirely on the conversion processes. The old approach separates such critical preconversion elements as market analysis research, development, and design for manufacturing, as well as such after-conversion elements as product delivery and product maintenance. In other words, in the old approach to manufacturing, only those processes that take place on the shop floor are considered manufacturing. This traditional approach of separating the overall concept into numerous stand-alone specialized elements was not fundamentally changed with the advent of automation. While the separate elements themselves became automated (i.e. , computer-aided drafting and design (CADD) in design and CNC in machining ), they remained separate . Automation alone did not result in the integration of these islands of automation.With CIM not only are the various elements automated, but the islands of automation are all linked together or integrated. Integration means that a system can provide complete and instantaneous sharing of information. In modern manufacturing, integration is accomplished by computers. With this background, CIM can now be defined as the total integration of all manufacturing elements through the use of computers.Fig.9.1 is an illustration of a CIM system, which shows how the various machines and processes used in the conversion process are integrated. However, such an illustration cannot show that research, development, design, marketing, sales, shipping, receiving, management, and production personnel all have instant access to all information generated in this system. This is what makes it a CIM system.Historical Development of CIMThe term “computer-integrated manufacturing” was developed in 1974 by Joseph Harrington as the title of a book he wrote about tying islands of automation together through the use of computers. It has taken many years for CIM to develop as a concept, but integrated manufacturing is not really new. In fact, integration is where manufacturing actually began. Manufacturing hasevolved through four distinct stages:●Manual manufacturing●Mechanization/specialization●Automation●IntegrationManual ManufacturingManual manufacturing using simple hand tools was actually integrated manufacturing. All information needed to design, produce, and deliver a product was readily available because it resided in the mind of the person who performed all of the necessary tasks. The tool of integration in the earliest years of manufacturing was the human mind of the craftsman who designed, produced, and delivered the product. An example of integrated manual manufacturing is the village blacksmith producing a special tool for a local farmer. The blacksmith would have in his mind all of the information needed to design, produce, and deliver the farm er’s tool. In this example, all elements of manufacturing are integrated.Mechanization/SpecializationWith the advent of the industrial revolution, manufacturing processes became both specialized and mechanized. Instead of one person designing, producing, and delivering a product, workers and/or machines performed specialized tasks within each of these broad areas. Communication among these separate entities was achieved using drawings, specifications, job orders, process plans, and a variety of other communication aids. To ensure that the finished product matched the planned product, the concept of quality control was introduced.The positive side of the mechanization/specialization stage was that it permitted mass production, interchangeability of parts, entire levels of accuracy, and uniformity. The disadvantage is that the lack of integration led to a great deal of waste.AutomationAutomation improved the performance and enhanced the capabilities of both people and machines within specialized manufacturing components. For example, CADD enhanced the capability of designers and drafters; CNC enhanced the capabilities of machinists; and computer-assisted process planning (CAPP) enhanced the capabilities of industrial planners. But the improvements brought on by automation were isolated within individual components or islands. Because of this, automation did not always live up to its potential.To understand the limitations of automation with regard to overall productivity improvement, consider the following analogy. Suppose that various subsystems of an automobile (i. e. ,engine, steering, brakes) were automated to make the driver’s job easier, automatic acceleration, deceleration, steering, and braking would certainly be more efficient than the manual versions. However, consider what would happen if these various automated subsystems were not tied together in a way that allowed them to communicate and share accurate, up-to-date information instantly and continually, one system might be attempting to accelerate the automobile while another system was attempting to apply the brakes. The same limitations apply in an automated manufacturing setting. These limitations are what led to the current stage in the development of manufacturing: integration.IntegrationWith the advent of the computer age, manufacturing has developed full circle. It began as a totally integrated concept and, with CIM, has once again become one. However, there are majordifferences in the manufacturing integration of today and that of the manual era of the past. First, the instrument of integration in the manual era was the human mind. The instrument of integration in modern manufacturing is the computer. Second, processes in the modern manufacturing setting are still specialized and automated.Another way to view the historical development of CIM is by examining the ways in which some of the individual components of CIM have developed over the years. Such components as design, planning and production have evolved both in processes and in the tools and equipment used to accomplish the processes.Design has evolved from a manual process using such tools as slide rules, triangles, pencils, scales, and erasers into an automated process known as computer-aided design (CAD). Process planning has evolved from a manual process using planning tables, diagrams, and charts into an automated process known as computer-aided process planning (CAPP). Production has evolved from a manual process involving manually controlled machines into an automated process known as computer-aided manufacturing (CAD).These individual components of manufacturing evolved over the years into separate islands of automation. However, communication among these islands was still handled manually. This limited the level of improvement in productivity that could be accomplished in the overall manufacturing process. When these islands and other automated components of manufacturing are linked together through computer networks, these limitations can be overcome. Computer-integrated manufacturing has enormous potential for improving productivity in manufacturing, but it is not without problems.Problems Associated with CIMAs with any new philosophy that requires major changes to the status quo, CIM is not without problems. The problems associated with CIM fall into three major categories.●Technical problems●Cultural problems●Business-related problemsThese types of problems have hindered the development of CIM over the years and will have to be overcome for CIM to achieve widespread implementation.Technical Problems of CIMAs each island of automation began to evolve, specialized hardware and software for that island were developed by a variety of producers. This led to the same type of problem that has been experienced in the automotive industry. One problem in maintaining and repairing automobiles has always been the incompatibility of spare parts among various makes and models. Incompatibility summarizes in a word the principal technical problem inhibiting the development of CIM. Consider the following example. Supplier A produces hardware and software for automating the design process. Supplier B produces hardware and software for automating such manufacturing processes as machining, assembling, packaging, and materials handling. Supplier C produces hardware and software for automating processes associated with market research. This means a manufacturing firm may have three automated components, but on systems produced by three different suppliers. Consequently, the three systems are not compatible. They are not able to communicate among themselves. Therefore, there can be no integration of the design, production, and market research, processes.An effort known as manufacturing automation protocol (MAP) is beginning to solve theincompatibility of hardware and software produced by different suppliers. As MAP continues to evolve, the incompatibility problem will eventually be solved and full integration will be possible among all elements of a manufacturing plant.Cultural Problems of CIMComputer-integrated manufacturing is not just new manufacturing technology; it is a whole new approach to manufacturing a new way of doing business. As a result, it involves significant changes, for people who were educated and are experienced in the old ways. As a result, many people reject the new approach represented by CIM for a variety of reasons. Some simply fear the change that it will bring in their working lives. Others feel it will altogether eliminate their positions, leaving them functionally obsolete. In any case, the cultural problems associated with CIM will be more difficult to solve than the technical problems.Business-Related Problems of CIMClosely tied to the cultural problems are the business problems associated with CIM. Prominent among these is the accounting problem. Traditional accounting practices do not work with CIM. there is no way to justify CIM based on traditional accounting practices. Traditional accounting practices base cost-effectiveness studies on direct labor savings whenever a new approach or new technology is proposed. However, the savings that result from CIM are more closely tied to indirect and intangible factors, which are more difficult to quantify. Consequently, it can be difficult to convince traditional business people, who are used to relying on traditional accounting practices, to see that CIM is an approach worth the investment.Composition of CIMThe Computer and Automated Systems Association (CASA) of the Society of Manufacturing Engineers (SME) developed the CIM wheel as a way to comprehensively, but concisely illustrate the concept of CIM. The CASA/SME developed the CIM wheel to include five distinct components:●General business management●Product and process definition●Manufacturing planning, and control●Factory automation●Information resource managementGeneral Business ManagementThese are four principal elements of the general business management component of the CASA/SME CIM wheel. These four elements encompass all of those activities associated with doing any kind of business. They link the rest of the components of the CIM wheel to the outside world. Many of the processes within these four elements are automated. In manufacturing firms that have moved forward with automation, these four elements of the general business management component typically become individual islands of automation.Within the finance element, it is not uncommon to have an automated payroll system, an automated accounts receivable system, and an automated accounts payable system. Such automation also exists in the other three components. However, in the typical automated manufacturing firm, these islands of automation within the general business management component are not networked for integration even within the component, much less with the other elements of the CIM wheel. For CIM to exist, every component within the CIM wheel must be networked and every individual element within components must be networked for instantaneousexchanges and updates of date.Product and Process DefinitionThe product and process definition component of the CIM wheel contains three elements:1)design2)analysis and simulation3)documentationThis is the component in which a product is engineered, designed, tested through simulation, documented through drawings, specifications, and other documentation tools such as part lists and bills of material. Islands of automation for this component of the CIM wheel have been emerging since the late 1960s.These islands include CADD systems, modeling and simulation software including solids modeling, surface modeling, and finite-element analysis. Also within this component are such islands of automation as CAPP. Even in highly automated manufacturing plants in which all of the product and process definition systems are automated, it is rare to find effective networking and integration of the processes within this individual component, much less among the various other components of the CIM wheel. It is not uncommon, within this component of the wheel, to find incompatible hardware and software being used even in individual elements of a component such as design.An example of this would be a company that automated its design processes early by purchasing hardware and software from supplier A. Later as technology continued to evolve, supplier B produced a better system and the company purchased it. However, due to financial limitations, the company was not able to purchase as many stations of the new system as it needed. As a result, some engineers and designers continue to work on the old automated system while others work at new stations. Because of differences in the hardware and software produced by the two suppliers, the old and new systems are incompatible. As a result, not only can this company not network its design functions with other components on the CIM wheel, it cannot even network within the product and process definition component. This type of incompatibility is more often the rule rather than the exception. It represents the principal obstacle to the full development of CIM.Manufacturing Planning and ControlThe manufacturing planning and control component includes such elements as facilities planning, scheduling, material planning and control, and shop floor planning and control. Hardware and software are available to automate each of the individual elements within this component. However as with the previous group, there is rarely integration of the elements within this component, much less outside of it. The chief problem here is also incompatibility.Factory AutomationThe factory automation component contains those elements normally associated with producing the product: materials handling, assembly, inspection and testing, and materials processing. Much of the research and development in the area of automated manufacturing has focused on this group. Such automated manufacturing concepts as CNC, distributed numerical control (DNC), industrial robots, and automated materials handling systems such as automated guided vehicles (AGVs) have been available for many yeas. During this time, they have continually improved in performance. However, very little progress has been made in successfully networking the elements within this group with those outside of it. Some progress is being madethrough the concept of CAD/CAM in which the product and process definition islands of automation are networked with the factory automation elements. However, incompatibility remains the key inhibitor to full integration.Information Resource ManagementThe information resource management component of the CIM wheel is located in the center of Fig.9.2. This is an appropriate position for this component because it represents the nucleus of CIM. Information, updated continually and shared instantaneously, is what CIM is all about. To integrate the various elements within the various components of the CIM wheel, all of the information generated by the various components must be effectively managed. One of the major goals of this component is to overcome the barriers that prevent the complete sharing of information between and among components in the CIM wheel.There are two basic elements within this component: the information being managed and the hardware and software used to manage that information. The technology used to manage information within this component can be divided into four categories by function:●Communications technology●Network transaction technology●Data management technology●User technologyEach of these elements represents a different layer of computer technology. Achieving full integration of all elements and all components of the CIM wheel involves successfully horizontal and vertical networking at all four of these levels.Benefits of CIMIn spite of the obstacles, progress is being made toward the eventually full realization of CIM in manufacturing. When this is accomplished, fully integrated manufacturing firms will realize a number of benefits from CIM:●Product quality increases●Lead times are reduced●Direct labor costs are reduced●Product development time is reduced●Inventories are reduced●Overall productivity increases中文翻译：CIM定义计算机集成制造(或CIM)是用来描述最现代化的一种制造方法的词汇。
