C3-Thermodynamics of unary____ materials-2

第 54 卷第 10 期2023 年 10 月中南大学学报(自然科学版)Journal of Central South University (Science and Technology)V ol.54 No.10Oct. 2023两级蓄冷跨临界压缩CO 2混合工质储能系统特性分析赵攀，吴汶泽，许文盼，刘艾杰，王江峰(西安交通大学 能源与动力工程学院，陕西 西安，710049)摘要：为了解决高压CO 2在高环境温度下难以冷凝的问题，提出两级蓄冷跨临界压缩CO 2混合工质储能系统。

采用CO 2与低沸点有机工质混合的方法提高工质的冷凝温度，同时，利用两级甲醇蓄冷实现系统内部冷能循环利用。

从环境性、临界温度、温度滑移、可混合性等方面确定合适的CO 2混合工质及其组分质量分数范围。

建立储能系统的热力学分析模型，探究节流压力、高压储液罐压力、有机工质质量分数等关键参数对系统性能的影响规律，并研究系统内部能量流动规律，得到主要部件的㶲损失。

研究结果表明：随着有机工质质量分数的增加，蓄冷介质温度增加，系统安全性提高；与纯CO 2工质相比，系统的充放电效率和能量密度略有降低；CO 2/R32混合工质的充放电效率最高为62.29%，CO 2/pentane 混合工质的能量密度最高为21.37 kW ∙h/m 3。

关键词：压缩CO 2储能；CO 2混合工质；热力学分析；敏感性分析；有机工质中图分类号：TK02 文献标志码：A 开放科学(资源服务)标识码(OSID)文章编号：1672-7207（2023）10-4150-13Performance analysis of a transcritical compressed CO 2-based mixture energy storage system with two-stage cold energy storageZHAO Pan, WU Wenze, XU Wenpan, LIU Aijie, WANG Jiangfeng(School of Energy and Power Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, China)Abstract: In order to solve the problem of difficult condensation of high-pressure CO 2 in higher ambient temperature, a transcritical compressed CO 2-based mixture energy storage system with two-stage cold energy storage was proposed. The CO 2-based mixture via blending CO 2 and organic working medium with low boiling point was selected to improve the condensation temperature. Meanwhile, a two-stage cold energy storage system via methanol was employed to store and recycle the cold energy. Firstly, the feasible CO 2-based mixtures and the related mass fraction ranges of organic working mediums were determined by considering the environment, critical temperature, temperature glide and miscibility. Then, the system thermodynamic models were established, and the effect of severalkey parameters on system performance was explored, such as throttling pressure, high-pressure storage tank pressure收稿日期： 2022 −10 −10； 修回日期： 2023 −02 −27基金项目(Foundation item)：国家自然科学基金资助项目(51876152) (Project(51876152) supported by the National Natural ScienceFoundation of China)通信作者：赵攀，博士，教授，从事压缩气体储能技术基础与应用研究；E-mail ：*****************DOI: 10.11817/j.issn.1672-7207.2023.10.032引用格式： 赵攀, 吴汶泽, 许文盼, 等. 两级蓄冷跨临界压缩CO 2混合工质储能系统特性分析[J]. 中南大学学报(自然科学版), 2023, 54(10): 4150−4162.Citation: ZHAO Pan, WU Wenze, XU Wenpan, et al. Performance analysis of a transcritical compressed CO 2-based mixture energy storage system with two-stage cold energy storage[J]. Journal of Central South University(Science and Technology), 2023, 54(10): 4150−4162.第 10 期赵攀，等：两级蓄冷跨临界压缩CO 2混合工质储能系统特性分析and mass fraction of organic working medium. At the same time, the system internal energy flow was analyzed, and the exergy destruction distribution of main components was obtained. The results show that the cold energy storage medium temperature increases and the system safety is enhanced with the increase of mass fraction of the organic working mediums. Compared with pure CO 2, the round-trip efficiency and energy density of CO 2-based mixture decrease slightly. The round-trip efficiency of CO 2/R32 mixture has the maximum value of 62.29%. The energy density with CO 2/pentane mixture reaches the maximum value of 21.37 kW ∙h/m 3.Key words: compressed CO 2 energy storage; CO 2-based mixture; thermodynamic analysis; sensitivity analysis; organic working medium能源是人类社会的物质基础，是经济发展的重要保障。

第49卷第8期2021年4月广州化工Guangzhou Chemical IndustryVol.49No.8Apr.2021涉及非体积功的热力学基本方程杨嫣，陈山川，谢娟，张改(西安工业大学材料与化工学院，陕西西安710021)摘要：热力学基本方程是物理化学课程中一个重要的知识点。

现行物理化学教材中重点阐述了仅含有体积功的热力学基本方程，而对涉及非体积功的热力学基本方程介绍很少。

对材料类专业的学生来说，学习和研究材料热力学，经常会涉及到非体积功。

因此，学习涉及非体积功的热力学基本方程非常必要。

本文重点讨论了涉及非体积功的表面系统、弹性杆、电、磁介质中的热力学基本方程的推导和应用，并总结了处理这类问题的方法。

关键词：物理化学；热力学；基本方程；非体积功中图分类号：G642文献标志码：A文章编号：1001-9677(2021)08-0139-04 Fundamental Equations in Thermodynamics Involving Non-expansion Work*YANG Yan,CHEN Shan-chuan,XIE Juan,ZHANG Gai(School of Material Science and Chemical Engineering,Xi9an Technological University,Shaanxi Xi'an710021,China) Abstract:Fundamental equation in thermodynamics is one of the key points of Physical Chemistry course・In current Physical Chemistry textbooks,the fundamental equations containing only expansionwork are mainly described, while the ones involving non-expansionwork are rarely introduced.For the students majoring in materials,non-expansionwork is often involved in the processes of studyand research.Therefore,it is necessary to study the fundamental equations in involving non-expansion work.The derivations and applications of the fundamental equations in surface systems,elastic rods,electric and magnetic media were discussed.Moreover,the way to deal with this kind of problem was summarized.Key words：Physical Chemistry;thermodynamics;the fundamental equation；non-expansion work热力学基本方程在处理平衡态热力学问题时非常有用，是物理化学课程内容的重点之一。

Heat Capacity and Thermodynamic Functions of Crystalline Poly(p-phenylenebenzobisoxazole),the Synthetic Polymer with the Highest Young’s Modulus*KAZUYA SAITO,1YASUHIRO TAKAHASHI,2MICHIO SORAI11Research Center for Molecular Thermodynamics,Graduate School of Science,Osaka University,Toyonaka,Osaka560-0043,Japan2Department of Macromolecular Science,Graduate School of Science,Osaka University,Toyonaka,Osaka560-0043,JapanReceived20September1999;revised15March2000;accepted21March2000ABSTRACT:The heat capacity of crystalline poly(p-phenylenebenzobisoxazole)wasmeasured below room temperature by adiabatic calorimetry.The standard thermody-namic functions(enthalpy,entropy,and Gibbs energy)were established and tabulated.The temperature dependence of the heat capacity was compared with those of polyeth-ylene and poly(p-phenylene),with attention paid to the low dimensionality of thesystems.©2000John Wiley&Sons,Inc.J Polym Sci B:Polym Phys38:1584–1588,2000Keywords:poly(p-phenylenebenzobisoxazole)(PBO);heat capacity;thermodynamicfunctionINTRODUCTIONPoly(p-phenylenebenzobisoxazole)(PBO)is known as the synthetic polymer with the highest Young’s modulus along the chain axis.1This prop-erty is readily understood from its chemical struc-ture,which is shown in Figure1.Establishing reliable thermodynamic properties for this prom-ising polymer seems important for further devel-opment in processing and for new functional poly-mers.One of the authors recently performed a struc-tural analysis on PBO with neutron diffraction.2 A constrained least-squaresfit of the observed structure factors suggested that the dihedral an-gle between the adjacent phenylene and benzo-bisoxazole moieties was essentially constant at 25°above100K but steeply decreased to13°at17 K on further cooling.In poly(p-phenylene)(PPP) oligomers(biphenyl to p-sexiphenyl),the crystal undergoes a crystal–crystal phase transition in which the relevant degree of freedom is the mo-lecular twist;that is,the dihedral angles between the adjacent benzene rings are of primary impor-tance.3–5The steep change in the dihedral angles in PBO can be regarded as a symptom of a similar phase transition,although there is no report of twist transition even for PPP.To clarify whether twist transition is possible or not,the heat capac-ity was precisely measured on the sample from the identical bobbin used for the structural study.2EXPERIMENTALThe PBO sample was taken from a bobbin (Toyobo Co.Ltd.)identical to that used for the structural study,2which showed the crystallinity of the sample was almost perfect.The PBOfiber*Contribution No.9from the Research Center for Molec-ular Thermodynamics.Correspondence to:K.Saito(***************.osaka-u.ac.jp)Journal of Polymer Science:Part B:Polymer Physics,Vol.38,1584–1588(2000)©2000John Wiley&Sons,Inc.1584was plaited to a string and loaded into a gold-plated copper calorimeter vessel.The mass of the sample loaded was 2.4910g after buoyancy cor-rection,with the experimental density assumed to be 1.50g cm Ϫ3.2The vessel was sealed after being filled with helium gas (105Pa at room tem-perature)to assist thermal uniformity within the vessel.The vessel was mounted in a laboratory-made adiabatic calorimeter,the details of which,including its construction,operation,accuracy,and precision,are found elsewhere.6The heat capacity obtained with the calorimeter is reliable within 0.5%in terms of the absolute value of,for example,the integrated standard entropy.6Plat-inum and germanium resistance thermometers were used above and below 13.8K.The employed temperature scale is based on the ITS-90.RESULTSThe measurements were carried out between 6and 303K.Of the total heat capacity (sample,vessel,and helium gas),the sample contributed 40%at 10K,36%at 20K,25%at 50K,22%at 100K,and 35%at 300K.The temperature reading of the thermometer was stationary,implying ther-mal equilibrium within the vessel,after 1min below 10K,2min at 10K,3min at 30K,5min at 60K,and 6min above 80K.This is quite normal for the vessel and calorimeter used for the measurements.The data 7are plotted in Figure 2,where the data per mole of monomer are given,with an infinite degree of polymerization assumed (i.e.,a molar mass of 234.21g mol Ϫ1).After the primary data were smoothed by being fitted to third-order spline functions,the heat capacity was integrated with respect to temperature and its natural loga-rithm to yield the standard enthalpy [H °(T )ϪH °(0)]and entropy [S °(T )ϪS °(0)],respectively.The standard Gibbs energy was also evaluated by the standard relation,G ϭH ϪTS .The resulting standard thermodynamic functions are given at rounded temperatures in Table I and will beneeded for chemical thermodynamic treatment in any chemical processing of PBO.It may be of interest to compare the magnitude of the specific heat capacity (heat capacity per unit mass),the heat capacity density (heat capac-ity per unit volume),or both.The former is 0.964J K Ϫ1g Ϫ1for PBO at room temperature and 1.55and 1.2J K Ϫ1g Ϫ1for polyethylene (PE)8and PPP,5,9,10respectively.In contrast to this large divergence,the density is essentially the same for all three (1.5–1.6J K Ϫ1cm Ϫ3).DISCUSSIONPossibility of the Twist Transition in PBOA close inspection of the heat capacity curve be-low 100K can detect no anomalous temperature dependence corresponding to a possible twist phase transition.Because the change in the dihe-dral angle between the adjacent phenylene and benzobisoxazole moieties 2does not involveaFigure 1.Chemical structure ofPBO.Figure 2.Measured molar heat capacities of PBO (E ).The lattice heat capacity (C lattice ,ϩ),consisting of contributions of the translational and librational de-grees of freedom of the phenyl and benzobisoxazole moieties,was estimated by the subtraction of the con-tributions of the intramonomer vibrations (C intra ,●).HEAT CAPACITY OF CRYSTALLINE PBO 1585change in symmetry,the angle may change with-out a phase transition gradually over a wide tem-perature range.If this is the case,and we assume that the temperature interval is50K and the required enthalpy is a few hundred joules per mole,the resulting hump in the heat capacity will have a height as small as3J KϪ1molϪ1.Although this quantity is surely beyond the range of the experimental imprecision,it is not straightfor-ward to separate the heat capacity anomaly with-out ambiguity.However,if a phase transition oc-curs and the anomalous heat capacity actually exists only within a narrow range,for instance, 10%of the transition temperature,this experi-ment implies that the transition,if there is any, would accompany an excess enthalpy(enthalpy of transition)that is less than10J molϪ1.Indeed,such a small anomaly was successfully detected for the twist transition of crystalline biphenyl.11 Temperature Dependence of the Heat Capacity The study of structurally low-dimensional crystal has been of interest from early on in the history of the theory of heat capacity.12By modifying the Debye model,Tarasov derived formulae describ-ing the temperature dependence of the heat ca-pacity of solids with strong one-and two-dimen-sional characters.Linear polymers have been re-garded as a model system of one-dimensional crystal,with the polymer backbone identified as the one-dimensional axis.Figure3demonstrates the temperature depen-dence of the heat capacities of PBO,PE,13Table I.Standard Thermodynamic Functions of PBOT(K)C°p(J KϪ1molϪ1)[H°(T)ϪH°(0)]/T(J KϪ1molϪ1)S°(T)ϪS°(0)(J KϪ1molϪ1)Ϫ[G°(T)ϪH°(0)]/T(J KϪ1molϪ1)10 2.690.89 1.130.24 2010.17 3.49 5.06 1.56 3020.017.3411.02 3.68 4030.0611.7718.16 6.39 5038.9616.3425.849.51 6047.1920.8033.6812.88 7054.8125.1241.5416.41 8062.0729.2949.3320.04 9069.0833.3257.0523.73 10076.0037.2564.6927.44 11083.0841.0972.2631.17 12090.1344.8879.7934.91 13097.1248.6387.2838.65 140104.2352.3594.7442.39 150111.4956.05102.1846.13 160118.8759.74109.6149.86 170126.3263.44117.0453.60 180133.7767.14124.4757.33 190141.2570.85131.9061.06 200148.8274.55139.3464.79 210156.4978.27146.7968.51 220164.2682.00154.2572.24 230172.1085.75161.7275.97 240180.0089.51169.2179.70 250187.9393.29176.7283.43 260195.8797.08184.2587.16 270203.79100.89191.7990.90 280211.67104.71199.3494.63 290219.43108.53206.9098.38 300226.84112.35214.47102.12 298.15225.51111.64213.07101.43 The unit mol in this table refers to the monomer.1586SAITO,TAKAHASHI,AND SORAIPPP,5,9,10and a nonpolymeric compound,4,4Ј-di-fluorobiphenyl (DFBP).14Here,the heat capacity of PPP is taken as the difference between those of the oligomers (p -terphenyl,p -quaterphenyl,and p -quinquephenyl).Interestingly,the temperature dependencies of the polymers resemble one an-other apart from the absolute magnitude.In the high-temperature region (above 50K),the depen-dence is nearly linear.In the low-temperature region,the heat capacity of PE shows a tendency to Debye’s cubic law.This trend is not seen for PBO and PPP because of the lack of the data at low enough temperatures.Finally,the depen-dence is nearly quadratic between 5and 50K for all three polymers.Because the dependence is surely different from that of the crystal consisting of small molecules such as DFBP,as seen in Fig-ure 3,this dependence may be regarded as a symptom of the characteristics of these polymers.According to Tarasov’s model,12the heat capac-ity of a crystal with a strong one dimensionality obeys Debye’s cubic dependence on temperature at the low-temperature limit.In moderate tem-peratures,the one-dimensional crystal has a lin-ear heat capacity against temperature.At highertemperatures,the heat capacity saturates to the classical value.The heat capacities of PBO,PE,and PPP have a seemingly linear dependence on temperature above 50K,as shown in Figure 3.Nevertheless,this is not an indication of the success of Tarasov’s model.Tarasov as well as Debye took only the translational degrees of freedom into their mod-els.The classical limit of the translational contri-bution to heat capacity is only 3R [Ϸ25J K Ϫ1(mol particle)Ϫ1].However,the largest contribution above 130K for PBO comes from the so-called intramonomer vibrations,as shown in Figure 2.It is now clear that the seemingly linear dependence above 50K results from the contribution of the intramolecular vibrations.The linear dependence at high temperatures implies that the vibrational frequencies are uniformly distributed in a rather wide frequency region.This can be verified from Figure 4,in which the vibrational frequencies of normal modes of benzene and benzobisoxazole are shown,except for those assignable to the localized vibrations of the C O H bond attached in the chain direction.The frequencies were calculated with MOPAC97via the PM3Hamiltonian.15By subtracting the contribution of all the in-tramonomer vibrational degrees of freedom pre-viously calculated,we obtained the lattice heat capacity,including the librational heat capacity,as shown in Figure 2.The lattice heat capacity of PBO shows a tendency to saturate to 100J K Ϫ1mol Ϫ1(12R in reality).This is double the classical value of the translational heat capacity because this lattice heat capacity includes the contribu-tion of 3degrees of freedom of the libration of the particle,which was not considered by DebyeandFigure 4.Distribution of the frequencies of the in-tramonomer vibrations.Light and dark bands show the frequencies of intramonomer vibrations assignable to phenylene and benzobisoxazole moieties,respectively.Figure 3.Temperature dependence of the heat ca-pacity of PBO (E ),PE (ᮀ),13PPP (—),5,9,10and DFBP (ϩ).14HEAT CAPACITY OF CRYSTALLINE PBO 1587Tarasov.The librational vibration around the chain axis lies at a few tens wave per centimeter for PPP.16The moment of inertia and the force constant for this vibration are expected to differ only slightly between PPP and PBO.This libra-tion,therefore,surely contributes significantly to the temperature dependence of the heat capacity of PBO and PPP in the region showing the qua-dratic dependence(between5and50K).An ap-parent quadratic dependence results from a com-bination of the contributions of the translational and librational degrees of freedom and seems characteristic of polymers with a linear backbone. SUMMARYThe heat capacity of PBO was precisely measured by adiabatic calorimetry.The standard thermody-namic functions were established and tabulated. No anomaly was detected that was assignable to the twist transition suggested by a recent struc-tural study.Because the reported change in the structural study does not accompany the symme-try breaking,this result is compatible with the change in the structure.The temperature depen-dence of the heat capacity has been compared among PBO,PE,and PPP.Apart from their mag-nitude,a striking similarity was recognized.Al-though the Debye cubic law applies at the lowest temperature limit(to absolute zero),above about 50K a seemingly linear dependence comes from a roughly uniform distribution of intramonomer vi-brations.In the intermediate region,a quadratic dependence of the heat capacity on temperature appears.This dependence,resulting from the con-tributions of both the translational and libra-tional degrees of freedom,is only approximate but seems characteristic to this type of polymer.REFERENCES AND NOTES1.Krause,S.J.;Haddock,T.B.;Vezie,D.L.;Lenhert,P.G.;Hwang,W.F.;Price,G.E.;Helminiak,T.E.;O’Brien,J.F.;Adams,W.W.Polymer1988,29, 1354.2.Takahashi,Y.Macromolecules1999,32,4010.3.Cailleau,H.;Baudour,J.L.;Meinnel,J.;Dworkin,A.;Moussa,F.;Zeyen,C.M.E.Faraday DiscussChem Soc1980,9,7.4.Baker,K.N.;Frantini,A.V.;Resch,T.;Knackel,H.C.;Adams,W.W.;Socci,E.P.;Farmer,B.L.Polymer1993,34,1571.5.Saito,K.;Yamamura,Y.;Sorai,M.To be submittedfor publication,1999.6.Yamamura,Y.;Saito,K.;Saitoh,H.;Matsuyama,H.;Kikuchi,K.;Ikemoto,I.J Phys Chem Solids1995,56,107.7.The primary heat capacity data will be supplied onrequest to the Research Center for Molecular Ther-modynamics,Graduate School of Science,Osaka University.8.Gaur,U.;Wunderlich,B.J Phys Chem Ref Data1981,10,119.9.Saito,K.;Atake,T.;Chihara,H.Bull Chem Soc Jpn1988,61,2327.10.Saito,K.;Atake,T.;Chihara,H.J Chem Thermo-dyn1985,17,539.11.Saito,K.;Atake,T.;Chihara,H.Chem Lett1983,493.12.Perepechko,I.Low-Temperature Properties ofPolymers;Pergamon:Oxford,England,1980;pp 1–44.13.Chang,S.S.;Bestul,A.B.J Res Natl Bur Stand1973,77A,395.14.Saito,K.;Atake,T.;Chihara,H.J Chem Thermo-dyn1986,18,407.15.Stewart,J.MOPAC97;Fujitsu Corporation,Tokyo,1997.16.Zannoni,G.;Zerbi,G.J Chem Phys1985,82,31.1588SAITO,TAKAHASHI,AND SORAI。

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Thermotoga martima嗜热木聚糖酶化学修饰与其结构特性关系苏樨州，蔡萍，严明*（南京工业大学制药与生命科学学院,材料化学工程国家重点实验室,江苏南京 210009）摘要：应用化学修饰的实验方法，结合蛋白质结构信息的计算来研究酶蛋白中氨基酸残基化学修饰与结构信息之间的关系。

以Thermotoga maritima嗜热木聚糖酶为对象，采用PDB数据库中的1VBR为模板计算其序列中色氨酸、谷氨酸、天冬氨酸的溶剂可及性、氢键、盐桥数等结构特性，并与该酶化学修饰的实验结果相对比。

结果表明酶活性中心3个色氨酸中，可及性大的Trp802与Trp602两个残基对酶的活性影响较大；序列中谷氨酸与天冬氨酸的氢键、盐桥数较多，修饰其对酶的热稳定性有很大影响。

此结果有助于深入了解蛋白质中与化学修饰有关的结构特性，并为基于蛋白质结构的酶蛋白改性奠定了基础。

关键词：嗜热木聚糖酶；化学修饰；结构特性Relationship between structural characteristics and chemical modification to Thermo-stable Xylanase from Thermotoga maritimaSU Xizhou, CAI Ping, YAN Ming(State Key Laboratory of Materials-Oriented Chemical Engineering, College of Life Science and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing University of Technology, Nanjing 210009, Jiangsu, China)Abstract: Chemical modification and protein structure calculation methods were used to investigate the relationship between the chemical modification of amino-acid residues and their structure informations in protein. Choose thermo-stable xylanase from Thermotoga maritima as research object and 1VBR from PDB as template, computing the structural characteristics of 1VBR such as accessibility, hydrogen bonding network, and salt bridges. Then compare these structural characteristics with experimental data of chemical modification to xylanase. Results show that two tryptophans,Trp802 and Trp602, which near the active site of xylanase are essential for enzyme activity, as they have higher accessibility; glutamates and aspartates have more hydrogen bonding network and salt bridges in the structure, so they are important to the thermal stability of xylanase. These results were helpful for farther study on the structural characteristics of protein which have relationship with their chemical modification, also provide references for protein reshaping based on protein structure.Keywords：thermo-stable xylanase; chemical modification; structural characteristics引言木聚糖酶（EC 3.2.1.8;1,4-b-D-endoxylanase）是木聚糖降解酶系中最关键的酶，在食品、饲料、纺织、造纸工业等方面都有重要的应用价值。

某理工大学生物工程学院《细胞生物学》课程试卷（含答案）__________学年第___学期考试类型：（闭卷）考试考试时间：90 分钟年级专业_____________学号_____________ 姓名_____________1、判断题（20分，每题5分）1. 受精后胚胎细胞分裂速度很快，DNA、RNA和蛋白质都以较快的速度合成。

（）答案：错误解析：很快受精后胚胎转录速度很快，DNA和蛋白质以较快的音速合成，RNA在卵细胞中预先存在，是许多非活性状态的mRNA。

2. 细胞的全能性是植物细胞特有的一种特性。

（）答案：错误解析：动物细胞也有全能性。

3. 体外培养时，癌细胞通过分裂增殖并铺满培养器皿的表面形成单层后即停止分裂。

（）答案：错误解析：正常细胞通过分裂增殖并铺满培养器皿的停止形成平顶后即表面分裂，而癌细胞由于对密度生长抑制失去敏感性，即失去了接触抑制，因而生长不会在构筑单层时停止生长。

4. 癌细胞的培养，也是单层生长，但没有接触抑制现象。

（）答案：错误解析：当癌细胞失去接触抑制时，会出现成堆生长的现像。

2、名词解释题（20分，每题5分）1. peroxisome[安徽师范大学2017研；南开大学2011研]答案：peroxisome的中文名称是过氧化物酶体。

过氧化物酶体即微体，是指由单层膜围绕内含一种或几种氧化酶类的细胞器。

过氧化物酶体是一种异质性的细胞器，不同生物的细胞当中，甚至行使生物的不同个体中所含酶的种类及其单细胞的功能性都有所不同。

过氧化物酶体内常含有氧化酶和过氧化氢酶，使细胞免受H2O2的毒害。

解析：空2. Wntβcatenin信号通路[浙江大学2019研]答案：Wntβcatenin信号通路是一种由细胞表面受体所介导的调控细胞基因表达的信号通路。

Wnt是前体一组富含半胱氨酸的分泌性糖蛋白，可作为局域性信号原子；βcatenin是哺乳类中与果蝇Arm蛋白同源的转录调控蛋白，它在胞质累积中同的稳定及其在核内的累积是Wnt信号通路的关键。

Thermodynamics (from the Greek θερμη, therme, meaning "heat" and δυναμις, dynamis, meaning "power") is a branch of physics that studies the effects of changes in temperature, pressure, and volume on physical systems at the macroscopic scale by analyzing the collective motion of their particles using statistics.[1]In this context, heat means "energy in transit" and dynamics relates to "movement;" thus, thermodynamics is the study of the movement of energy and how energy instills movement. Historically, thermodynamics developed out of need to increase the efficiency of early steam engines.[2]Typical thermodynamic system—heat moves from hot (boiler) to cold (condenser), (both not shown) and work is extracted, in this case by a series of pistons.The starting point for most thermodynamic considerations are the laws of thermodynamics, which postulate that energy can be exchanged between physical systems as heat or work.[3]The first law of thermodynamics states a universal principle that processes or changes in the real world involve energy, and within a closed system the total amount of that energy does not change, only its form (such as from heat of combustion to mechanical work in an engine) may change. The second law gives a direction to that change by specifying that in any change in any closed system in the real world the degree of order of the system's matter and energy becomes less, or conversely stated, the amount of disorder (entropy) of the system increases.[4]In thermodynamics, interactions between large ensembles of objects are studied and categorized. Central to this are the concepts of system and surroundings. A system comprises particles whose average motions define the system's properties, which are related to one another through equations of state defining the relations between state variables such as temperature, pressure, volume, and entropy. State variables can becombined to express internal energy and thermodynamic potentials, which are useful for determining conditions for equilibrium and spontaneous processes.[5]With these tools, thermodynamics describes how systems respond to changes in their surroundings. This can be applied to a wide variety of topics in science and engineering, such as engines, phase transitions, chemical reactions, transport phenomena, and even black holes. The results of thermodynamics are essential for other fields of physics and for chemistry, chemical engineering, aerospace engineering, mechanical engineering, cell biology, biomedical engineering, and materials science to name a few.[6]Thermodynamics, with its insights into the relations between heat, energy, and work as exemplified in mechanical systems, provides a foundation for trying to understand the behavior and properties of biological, social, and economic systems, which generally maintain an ordered pattern only by consuming a sustained flow of energy.Thermodynamics is the branch of physical science concerned with heat and its relation to other forms of energy and work. It defines macroscopic variables (such as temperature, entropy, and pressure) that describe average properties of material bodies and radiation, and explains how they are related and by what laws they change with time. Thermodynamics does not describe the microscopic constituents of matter, and its laws can be derived from statistical mechanics.Thermodynamics can be applied to a wide variety of topics in science and engineering, such as engines, phase transitions, chemical reactions, transport phenomena, and even black holes. The results of thermodynamics are essential for other fields of physics and for chemistry, chemical engineering, aerospace engineering, mechanical engineering, cell biology, biomedical engineering, materials science, and are useful for other fields such as economics.[1][2]Thermodynamics is one of the best logically structured branches of physics and has become one of the classical branches of theoretical physics.[citation needed]Much of the empirical content of thermodynamics is contained in its four laws. The first law specifies that energy can be exchanged between physical systems as heat and thermodynamic work.[3]The second law concerns a quantity called entropy, that expresses limitations, arising from what is known as irreversibility, on the amount of thermodynamic work that can be delivered to an external system by a thermodynamic process.[4]Historically, thermodynamics developed out of a desire to increase the efficiency of early steam engines, particularly through the work of French physicist Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot (1824) who believed that the efficiency of heat engines was the key that could help France win the Napoleonic Wars.[5] Scottish physicist Lord Kelvin was the first to formulate a concise definition of thermodynamics in 1854:[6]Thermo-dynamics is the subject of the relation of heat to forces acting between contiguous parts of bodies, and the relation of heat to electrical agency.Initially, the thermodynamics of heat engines concerned mainly the thermal properties of their 'working materials', such as steam. This concern was then linked to the study of energy transfers in chemical processes, for example to the investigation, published in 1840, of the heats of chemical reactions[7] by Germain Hess, which was not originally explicitly concerned with the relation between energy exchanges by heat and work. Chemical thermodynamics studies the role of entropy in chemical reactions.[8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16] Also, statistical thermodynamics, or statistical mechanics, gave explanations of macroscopic thermodynamics by statistical predictions of the collective motion of particles based on the mechanics of their microscopic behavior.The plain term 'thermodynamics' refers to macroscopic description of bodies and processes.[17]"Any reference to atomic constitution is foreign to ... thermodynamics".[18] The qualified term 'statistical thermodynamics' refers to descriptions of bodies and processes in terms of the atomic constitution of matter.Thermodynamics is built on the study of energy transfers that can be strictly resolved into two distinct components, heat and work, specified by macroscopic variables.[19][20]Thermodynamic equilibrium is one of the most important concepts for thermodynamics. As the systems and processes of interest are taken further from thermodynamic equilibrium, their thermodynamical study becomes a little more involved but also of much more practical value. In many important cases, such as heat engines or refrigerators, the systems consist of many subsystems at different temperatures and pressures. Thermodynamics is a practical science and also deals with these inhomogeneous dynamic systems provided the thermodynamical parameters are well-defined. The present article takes a gradual approach to the subject, starting with a focus on cyclic processes and thermodynamic equilibrium, and then gradually beginning to further considernon-equilibrium systems.For thermodynamics and statistical thermodynamics to apply to a process in a body, it is necessary that the atomic mechanisms of the process fall into just two classes: those so rapid that, in the time frame of the process of interest, the atomic states effectively visit all of their accessible range, and those so slow that their effects can be neglected in the time frame of the process of interest.[21] The rapid atomic mechanisms mediate the macroscopic changes that are of interest for thermodynamics and statistical thermodynamics, because they quickly bring the system near enough to thermodynamic equilibrium. "When intermediate rates are present, thermodynamics and statistical mechanics cannot be applied."[21] The intermediate rate atomic processes do not bring the system near enough to thermodynamic equilibrium in the time frame of the macroscopic process of interest. This separation of time scales of atomic processes is a theme that recurs throughout the subject.Basic for thermodynamics are the concepts of system and surroundings.[12][22]There are two fundamental kinds of entity in thermodynamics, states of a system, and processes of a system. This allows two fundamental approaches to thermodynamic reasoning, that in terms of states of a system, and that in terms of cyclic processes of a system.For thermodynamics and statistical thermodynamics to apply to a process in a body, it is necessary that the atomic mechanisms of the process fall into just two classes: those so rapid that, in the time frame of the process of interest, the atomic states effectively visit all of their accessible range, and those so slow that their effects can be neglected in the time frame of the process of interest.[21] The rapid atomic mechanisms mediate the macroscopic changes that are of interest for thermodynamics and statistical thermodynamics, because they quickly bring the system near enough to thermodynamic equilibrium. "When intermediate rates are present, thermodynamics and statistical mechanics cannot be applied."[21] The intermediate rate atomic processes do not bring the system near enough to thermodynamic equilibrium in the time frame of the macroscopic process of interest. This separation of time scales of atomic processes is a theme that recurs throughout the subject.Basic for thermodynamics are the concepts of system and surroundings.[12][22]There are two fundamental kinds of entity in thermodynamics, states of a system, and processes of a system. This allows two fundamental approaches to thermodynamic reasoning, that in terms of states of a system, and that in terms of cyclic processes of a system.A thermodynamic system can be defined in terms of its states. In this way, a thermodynamic system is a macroscopic physical object, explicitly specified in terms of macroscopic physical and chemical variables which describe its macroscopic properties. The macroscopic state variables of thermodynamics have been recognized in the course of empirical work in physics and chemistry.[13]A thermodynamic system can also be defined in terms of the processes which it can undergo. Of particular interest are cyclic processes. This was the way of the founders of thermodynamics in the first three quarters of the nineteenth century.The surroundings of a thermodynamic system are other thermodynamic systems that can interact with it. An example of a thermodynamic surrounding is a heat bath, which is considered to be held at a prescribed temperature, regardless of the interactions it might have with the system.The macroscopic variables of a thermodynamic system in thermodynamic equilibrium, in which temperature is well defined, can be related to one another through equations of state or characteristic equations.[23][24][25][26] They express the constitutive peculiarities of the material of the system.Classical thermodynamics is characterized by its study of materials that have equations of state that express relations between mechanical variables and temperature that are reached much more rapidly than any changes in the surroundings. A classical material can usually be described by a function that makes pressure dependent on volume and temperature, the resulting pressure being established much more rapidly than any imposed change of volume or temperature.[27]This is another expression of the concept of separation of time scales of atomic processes mentioned above.Thermodynamic facts can often be explained by viewing macroscopic objects as assemblies of very many microscopic or atomic objects that obey Hamiltonian dynamics.[12][28][29] The microscopic or atomic objects exist in species, the objects of each species being all alike. Because of this likeness, statistical methods can be used to account for the macroscopic properties of the thermodynamic system in terms of the properties of the microscopic species. Such explanation is called statistical thermodynamics; also often it is also referred to by the term 'statistical mechanics', though this term can have a wider meaning, referring to 'microscopic objects', such as economic quantities, that do not obey Hamiltonian dynamics.[28]The study of thermodynamical systems has developed into several related branches, each using a different fundamental model as a theoretical or experimental basis, or applying the principles to varying types of systems.[edit] Classical thermodynamicsClassical thermodynamics is the description of the states (especially equilibrium states) and processes of thermodynamical systems, using macroscopic, empirical properties directly measurable in the laboratory. It is used to model exchanges of energy, work, heat, and matter, based on the laws of thermodynamics. The qualifier classical reflects the fact that it represents the descriptive level in terms of macroscopic empirical parameters that can be measured in the laboratory, that was the first level of understanding in the 19th century. A microscopic interpretation of these concepts was provided by the development of statistical thermodynamics.[edit] Statistical thermodynamicsStatistical thermodynamics, also called statistical mechanics, emerged with the development of atomic and molecular theories in the second half of the 19th century and early 20th century, supplementing thermodynamics with an interpretation of the microscopic interactions between individual particles or quantum-mechanical states. This field relates the microscopic properties of individual atoms and molecules to the macroscopic, bulk properties of materials that can be observed on the human scale, thereby explaining thermodynamics as a natural result of statistics, classical mechanics, and quantum theory at the microscopic level.[edit] Chemical thermodynamicsChemical thermodynamics is the study of the interrelation of energy with chemical reactions and chemical transport and with physical changes of state within the confines of the laws of thermodynamics.[edit] Thermodynamic equilibriumEquilibrium thermodynamics studies transformations of matter and energy in systems at or near thermodynamic equilibrium. In thermodynamicequilibrium, a system's properties are, by definition, unchanging in time. In thermodynamic equilibrium no macroscopic change is occurring or can be triggered; within the system, every microscopic process is balanced by its opposite; this is called the principle of detailed balance. A central aim in equilibrium thermodynamics is: given a system in awell-defined initial state, subject to specified constraints, to calculate what the equilibrium state of the system will be.[40]Within a simple isolated thermodynamic system in thermodynamic equilibrium, in the absence of externally imposed force fields, all properties of the material of the system are spatially homogeneous.[41]Much of the basic theory of thermodynamics is concerned with homogeneous systems in thermodynamic equilibrium.[8][42]Most systems found in nature or considered in engineering are not in thermodynamic equilibrium, exactly considered. They are changing or can be triggered to change over time, and are continuously and discontinuously subject to flux of matter and energy to and from other systems.[43] For example, according to Callen, "in absolute thermodynamic equilibrium all radioactive materials would have decayed completely and nuclear reactions would have transmuted all nuclei to the most stable isotopes. Such processes, which would take cosmic times to complete, generally can be ignored.".[43] Such processes being ignored, many systems in nature are close enough to thermodynamic equilibrium that for many purposes their behaviour can be well approximated by equilibrium calculations.[edit] Quasi-static transfers between simple systems are nearly in thermodynamic equilibrium and are reversibleIt very much eases and simplifies theoretical thermodynamical studies to imagine transfers of energy and matter between two simple systems that proceed so slowly that at all times each simple system considered separately is near enough to thermodynamic equilibrium. Such processes are sometimes called quasi-static and are near enough to being reversible.[44][45][edit] Natural processes are partly explained by tendency towards thermodynamic equilibrium and are irreversibleSimple isolated thermodynamic systems, as time passes, tend naturally towards thermodynamic equilibrium. In the absence of externally imposed force fields, they become homogeneous in all their local properties.Many thermodynamic processes can be can be modeled by compound or composite systems, consisting of several or many contiguous component simple systems, initially not in thermodynamic equilibrium, but allowed to transfer mass and energy between them. Natural thermodynamic processes can be explained in terms of a tendency towards thermodynamic equilibrium within simple systems and in transfers between contiguous simple systems. Such natural processes are irreversible.[46][edit] Non-equilibrium thermodynamicsNon-equilibrium thermodynamics[47]is a branch of thermodynamics that deals with systems that are not in thermodynamic equilibrium; it is also called thermodynamics of irreversible processes. Non-equilibrium thermodynamics is concerned with transport processes and with the rates of chemical reactions.[48] Non-equilibrium systems can be in stationary states that are not homogeneous even when there is no externally imposed field of force; in this case, the description of the internal state of the system requires a field theory.[49][50][51] One of the methods of dealing with non-equilibrium systems is to introduce so-called 'internal variables'. These are quantities that express the local state of the system, besides the usual local thermodynamic variables; in a sense such variables might be seen as expressing the 'memory' of the materials. Hysteresis may sometimes be described in this way. In contrast to the usual thermodynamic variables, 'internal variables' cannot be controlled by external manipulations.[52]This approach is usually unnecessary for gases and liquids, but may be useful for solids.[53] Many natural systems still today remain beyond the scope of currently known macroscopic thermodynamic methods.[edit] System modelsA diagram of a generic thermodynamic systemAn important concept in thermodynamics is the thermodynamic system, a precisely defined region of the universe under study. Everything in the universe except the system is known as the surroundings. A system is separated from the remainder of the universe by a boundary which may benotional or not, but which by convention delimits a finite volume. Exchanges of work, heat, or matter between the system and the surroundings take place across this boundary.The boundary is simply a surface around the volume of interest. Anything that passes across the boundary that effects a change in the internal energy needs to be accounted for in the energy balance equation. The volume can be the region surrounding a single atom resonating energy, as Max Planck defined in 1900; it can be a body of steam or air in a steam engine, such as Sadi Carnot defined in 1824; it can be the body of a tropical cyclone, such as Kerry Emanuel theorized in 1986 in the field of atmospheric thermodynamics; it could also be just one nuclide (i.e. a system of quarks) as hypothesized in quantum thermodynamics.Boundaries are of four types: fixed, moveable, real, and imaginary. For example, in an engine, a fixed boundary means the piston is locked at its position; as such, a constant volume process occurs. In that same engine, a moveable boundary allows the piston to move in and out. For closed systems, boundaries are real while for open system boundaries are often imaginary.Generally, thermodynamics distinguishes three classes of systems, defined in terms of what is allowed to cross their boundaries.Interactions of thermodynamic systemsType of system Mass flow Work HeatOpenClosedIsolatedIn theoretical studies, it is often convenient to consider the simplest kind of thermodynamic system. This is defined variously by different authors.[77][78][56][79][80][81] For the present article, the following definition will be convenient, as abstracted from the definitions of various authors.A region of material with all intensive properties continuous in space and time is called a phase. A simple system is for the present article defined as one that consists of a single phase of material with no interior partitions.Engineering and natural processes are often described as compounds of many different component simple systems, sometimes with unchanging or changing partitions between them.[edit] States and processesThere are two fundamental kinds of entity in thermodynamics, states of a system, and processes of a system. This allows two fundamental approaches to thermodynamic reasoning, that in terms of states of a system, and that in terms of cyclic processes of a system.The approach through states of a system requires a full account of the state of the system as well as a notion of process from one state to another of a system, but may require only a partial account of the state of the surroundings of the system or of other systems.The notion of a cyclic process does not require a full account of the state of the system, but does require a full account of how the process occasions transfers of matter and energy between the system and its surroundings, which must include at least two heat reservoirs at different temperatures, one hotter than the other. In this approach, the notion of a properly numerical scale of temperature is a presupposition of thermodynamics, not a notion constructed by or derived from it.The method of description in terms of states has limitations. For example, processes in a region of turbulent flow, or in a burning gas mixture, or in a Knudsen gas may be beyond "the province of thermodynamics".[82][83][84] This problem can sometimes be circumvented through the method of description in terms of cyclic processes. This is part of the reason why the founders of thermodynamics often preferred the cyclic process description.[edit] Thermodynamic state variablesWhen a system is at thermodynamic equilibrium under a given set of conditions of its surroundings, it is said to be in a definite thermodynamic state, which is fully described by its state variables.If a system is simple as defined above, and is in thermodynamic equilibrium, and is not subject to an externally imposed force field, such as gravity, electricity, or magnetism, then it is homogeneous, that is say, spatially uniform in all respects.[85]In a sense, a homogeneous system can be regarded as spatiallyzero-dimensional, because it has no spatial variation.If a system in thermodynamic equilibrium is homogeneous, then its state can be described by a few physical variables, which are mostly classifiable as intensive variables and extensive variables.[51][86][87][12][28]Examples of extensive thermodynamic variables are total mass and total volume. Examples of intensive thermodynamic variables are temperature, pressure, and chemical concentration; intensive thermodynamic variables are defined at each spatial point and each instant of time in a system. Physical macroscopic variables can be mechanical or thermal.[28] Temperature is a thermal variable; according to Guggenheim, "the most important conception in thermodynamics is temperature."[12]Intensive variables are defined by the property that if any number of systems, each in its own separate homogeneous thermodynamic equilibrium state, all with the same respective values of all of their intensive variables, regardless of the values of their extensive variables, are laid contiguously with no partition between them, so as to form a new system, then the values of the intensive variables of the new system are the same as those of the separate constituent systems. Such a composite system is in a homogeneous thermodynamic equilibrium. Examples of intensive variables are temperature, chemical concentration, pressure, density of mass, density of internal energy, and, when it can be properly defined, density of entropy.[88]Extensive variables are defined by the property that if any number of systems, regardless of their possible separate thermodynamic equilibrium or non-equilibrium states or intensive variables, are laid side by side with no partition between them so as to form a new system, then the values of the extensive variables of the new system are the sums of the values of the respective extensive variables of the individual separate constituent systems. Obviously, there is no reason to expect such a composite system to be in in a homogeneous thermodynamic equilibrium. Examples of extensive variables are mass, volume, and internal energy. They depend on the total quantity of mass in the system.[89]Though, when it can be properly defined, density of entropy is an intensive variable, for inhomogeneous systems, entropy itself does not fit into this classification of state variables.[90][91] The reason is that entropy is a property of a system as a whole, and not necessarily related simply to its constituents separately. It is true that for any number of systems each in its own separate homogeneous thermodynamic equilibrium, all with the same values of intensive variables, removal of the partitions between the separate systems results in a composite homogeneous system in thermodynamic equilibrium, with all the values of its intensive variables the same as those of the constituent systems, and it is reservedly orconditionally true that the entropy of such a restrictively defined composite system is the sum of the entropies of the constituent systems. But if the constituent systems do not satisfy these restrictive conditions, the entropy of a composite system cannot be expected to be the sum of the entropies of the constituent systems, because the entropy is a property of the composite system as a whole. Therefore, though under these restrictive reservations, entropy satisfies some requirements for extensivity defined just above, entropy in general does not fit the above definition of an extensive variable.Being neither an intensive variable nor an extensive variable according to the above definition, entropy is thus a stand-out variable, because it is a state variable of a system as a whole.[90]A non-equilibrium system can have a very inhomogeneous dynamical structure. This is one reason for distinguishing the study of equilibrium thermodynamics from the study of non-equilibrium thermodynamics.The physical reason for the existence of extensive variables is the time-invariance of volume in a given inertial reference frame, and the strictly local conservation of mass, momentum, angular momentum, and energy. As noted by Gibbs, entropy is unlike energy and mass, because it is not locally conserved.[90] The stand-out quantity entropy is never conserved in real physical processes; all real physical processes are irreversible.[92] The motion of planets seems reversible on a short time scale (millions of years), but their motion, according to Newton's laws, is mathematically an example of deterministic chaos. Eventually a planet will suffer an unpredictable collision with an object from its surroundings, outer space in this case, and consequently its future course will be radically unpredictable. Theoretically this can be expressed by saying that every natural process dissipates some information from the predictable part of its activity into the unpredictable part. The predictable part is expressed in the generalized mechanical variables, and the unpredictable part in heat.There are other state variables which can be regarded as conditionally 'extensive' subject to reservation as above, but not extensive as defined above. Examples are the Gibbs free energy, the Helmholtz free energy, and the enthalpy. Consequently, just because for some systems under particular conditions of their surroundings such state variables are conditionally conjugate to intensive variables, such conjugacy does not make such state variables extensive as defined above. This is another reason for distinguishing the study of equilibrium thermodynamics from the study of non-equilibrium thermodynamics. In another way of thinking, this explains why heat is to be regarded as a quantity that refers to a process and not to a state of a system.。

高中生物学史一个小菜鸡整理的3-141 必修一1.1细胞学说的建立与发展1.1543 年，比利时的维萨里发表《人体构造》，揭示了人体在器官水平的结构。

2.罗伯特虎克: 英国人, 细胞的发现者和命名者。

1665 年, 他用显微镜观察植物的木栓组织, 发现由许多规则的小室组成, 并把“小室”称为cell——细胞。

3.列文虎克: 荷兰人, 他用自制的显微镜进行观察, 对红细胞和动物精子进行了精确的描述。

4.19 世纪30 年代, 德国植物学家施莱登和动物学家施旺提出了细胞学说, 指出细胞是一切动植物结构的基本单位。

恩格斯曾把细胞学说誉为19 世纪自然科学三大发现之一。

5.魏尔肖: 德国人, 他在前人研究成果的基础上, 总结出“细胞通过分裂产生新细胞”。

1.2生物膜流动镶嵌模型的探索历程1.1895 年, 欧文顿发现脂质更容易通过细胞膜。

提出假说: 膜是由脂质组成的。

2.20 世纪初, 科学家的化学分析结果, 指出膜主要由脂质和蛋白质组成。

3.1925 年, 两位荷兰科学家用丙酮从细胞膜中提取脂质, 铺成单层分子, 发现面积是细胞膜的2 倍。

提出假说: 细胞膜中的磷脂是双层的4.1959 年, 罗伯特森在电镜下看到细胞膜由“暗一亮一暗”的三层结构构成。

提出假说:生物膜是由“蛋白质一脂质一蛋白质”的三层结构构成的静态统一结构。

5.1970 年, 科学家用荧光标记人和鼠的细胞膜并让两种细胞融合, 放置一段时间后发现两种荧光抗体均匀分布。

提出假说: 细胞膜具有流动性。

6.1972 年, 桑格和尼克森提出生物膜流动镶嵌模型, 强调膜的流动性和膜蛋白分布的不对称性, 并为大多数人所接受。

1.3酶的发现史1.斯帕兰札尼: 意大利人, 生理学家. 1783 年他通过实验证实胃液具有化学性消化作用2.巴斯德: 法国人, 微生物学家, 化学家, 提出酿酒中的发酵是由于酵母菌的存在, 没有话细胞的参与, 糖类是不可能变成酒精3.李比希: 德国人, 化学家。

小学上册英语第5单元综合卷(有答案)英语试题一、综合题(本题有100小题，每小题1分，共100分.每小题不选、错误，均不给分)1.What do we call the process of a caterpillar turning into a butterfly?A. MetamorphosisB. EvolutionC. TransformationD. Development 答案: A. Metamorphosis2.Helium was first discovered in the ______ spectrum.3.The capital of Indonesia is _______.4. A ____ has large, flapping ears and can hear very well.5.What do we call the stars and planets in the sky?A. UniverseB. Solar SystemC. GalaxyD. Atmosphere答案: A6.The _______ (The fall of the Berlin Wall) marked the end of Communist control in Eastern Europe.7.My friend is very ________.8.When it snows, I enjoy making __________ with my friends. (雪人)9.What is the main purpose of a refrigerator?A. To heat foodB. To cool foodC. To cook foodD. To freeze food答案: B10. A _____ (植物研究合作) can lead to groundbreaking discoveries.11.The __________ is a natural wonder located in the United States. (黄石公园)12.Turtles can live for a ______ (很长的时间).13.My brother is __________ (富有想象力).14. A ____(mixed-use development) combines residential and commercial spaces.15.What is the name of the famous ancient ruins in Mexico?A. TeotihuacanB. Machu PicchuC. Angkor WatD. Petra答案: A16.We visit the ______ (自然史博物馆) to learn about fossils.17.The discovery of ________ changed the course of history.18. A dolphin leaps gracefully out of the _______ and splashes down again.19.I enjoy playing ________ with my family.20.I like to ___ (play/watch) games.21.What do we call a young female goat?A. KidB. CalfC. LambD. Foal答案:A.Kid22.My friend is __________ (聪明绝顶).23.The _______ can change its shape with the seasons.24.The _____ (养分) in the soil is vital for plant health.25.What is the term for a young goat?A. CalfB. KidC. LambD. Foal答案: B26.An electric motor converts electrical energy into _______ energy.27.Animals that have scales are typically __________.28.The capital of Bonaire is __________.29.My favorite animal is a ______ (dolphin).30. A __________ is a reaction that involves a change in temperature.31.The first successful cloning of a mammal was of _____.32.I like to go ________ (爬山) with my friends.33.The ______ (小鸟) builds a nest for its eggs.34.My _____ (仓鼠) runs on its wheel.35.The ______ helps us learn about communication.36.The painting is very ___ (colorful).37.I often visit my ____.38.I can see a ______ in the sky. (bird)39. A strong acid has a pH less than ______.40.The atomic number of an element tells you the number of _____ (protons) it has.41.What do we call the part of the brain that controls balance?A. CerebellumB. CerebrumC. BrainstemD. Cortex答案:A42.The __________ is a famous natural landmark in the United States. (黄石公园)43.The capital of Ecuador is __________.44.The iguana is often seen basking in the ______ (阳光).45.The __________ (农业) is important for our economy.46.The ______ (小龙) is a mythical creature often found in ______ (故事).47.What is the term for a baby capybara?A. PupB. KitC. CalfD. Hatchling答案:c48.The fish swims in the ___. (water)49.The chemical formula for calcium chloride is ______.50.The ancient Romans practiced ________ (宗教多元).51.I want to _____ (go/stay) at home.52.The speed of light is very ______.53.What do we call a baby dog?A. KittenB. PuppyC. CalfD. Chick答案:B54.The chemical formula for yttrium oxide is _____.55.The Earth's surface is shaped by both climatic and ______ factors.56.Understanding plant _____ (结构) helps in gardening.57.The _____ (spoon) is shiny.58.The _____ (温带雨林) hosts a variety of plant species.59.The balloon is ______ (floating) in the air.60.The river is ______ (calm) and clear.61. A solution with a pH of contains more ______ than a solution with a pH of .62. A ____ is a large animal that can be trained to work.ets are made of ice, dust, and ______.64.__________ are used in the beauty industry for skincare.65.The _____ is a phenomenon where the moon blocks the sun.66.My cat enjoys the warmth of the _______ (阳光).67.The __________ is important for keeping bones strong.68.The __________ is the area of land between two rivers.69.The __________ (历史的深度剖析) reveals nuances.70.Certain plants can ______ (提供) habitat for endangered species.71. A _______ can measure the amount of energy consumed by a device.72.The ________ was a significant treaty that fostered diplomatic relations.73.The chemical symbol for silver is ________.74.I like to draw pictures of my ________ (玩具名) and imagine their adventures.75.I share my toys with my ______. (我和我的______分享玩具。

用固态碳源生长石墨烯摘要：单层石墨烯作为一种可转移材料在2004年第一次被获得并且引起了物理学家、化学家、材料学家强烈地关注。

很多研究都致力于找到获得大面积单层或双层石墨烯的方法。

最近这种方法已经被找到，是通过在铜或镍基底上化学气象沉积（CVD）甲烷或乙炔。

但是CVD方法仅限于未加工的气体原料，而很难应用于更加广泛的潜在的原料。

在这里我们论证一种方法：利用固态碳源—比如聚合物薄膜或小分子，最低只要800℃就能够在金属触媒基底上生长出大面积、高质量、可控制厚度的石墨烯。

原始石墨烯和掺杂石墨烯都是用这种一步工序在同样的设备上生产的。

正文：石墨烯有着非凡的电学和机械性能在很多应用方面都表现出很好的前景。

现在有很多获得石墨烯的方法。

最原始的机械剥离法可以从高取向性的热分解石墨上获得少量高质量的石墨烯。

液体剥落并还原氧化了的石墨烯已经被用于化学转化获取大量石墨烯。

热处理SiC，用无定形碳和CVD方法已被应用在晶片上生长大尺寸石墨烯。

通过引进Ni和Cu作为CVD生长的基底，石墨烯的尺寸、厚度、质量正在接近工业化使用标准。

然而石墨烯本质上是零带隙材料表现出很弱的二极性；基于石墨烯的二极管表现出和低的“开／关”电流比，因此它们被用于电子器件设计时很像金属。

为了改变石墨烯的费米能级以及利用它的电学和光学属性，给石墨烯掺杂得到ｎ型，ｐ型或混合型掺杂石墨烯一直是我们奋斗的目标。

当前，用固态碳源在金属触媒基底上生长单层原始石墨烯已被论证（图１ａ）第一种被使用的固态碳源是旋涂的聚合物（聚甲基丙烯酸甲酯）（PMMA）薄膜（~100nm）,金属触媒基底是铜薄片。

在最低为800℃最高为1000℃（测试上限）的温度，伴随着还原性气流（H2/Ar）的低压条件下生长10分钟，单层一致的石墨烯就在基底上生成了。

因此石墨烯材料被成功的转移的不同的基底上有更多的特性（见Supplementary Materials and Supplem entary Methods）这种源于PMMA的单层石墨烯的拉曼光谱如图1b所示，这个光谱表征了样品1 cm2范围内大于10个位置的情况。

第 12 卷第 12 期2023 年 12 月Vol.12 No.12Dec. 2023储能科学与技术Energy Storage Science and Technology耦合光热发电储热-有机朗肯循环的先进绝热压缩空气储能系统热力学分析尹航1，王强1，朱佳华2，廖志荣2，张子楠1，徐二树2，徐超2（1中国广核新能源控股有限公司，北京100160；2华北电力大学能源动力与机械工程学院，北京102206）摘要：先进绝热压缩空气储能是一种储能规模大、对环境无污染的储能方式。

为了提高储能系统效率，本工作提出了一种耦合光热发电储热-有机朗肯循环的先进绝热压缩空气储能系统(AA-CAES+CSP+ORC)。

该系统中光热发电储热用来解决先进绝热压缩空气储能系统压缩热有限的问题，而有机朗肯循环发电系统中的中低温余热发电来进一步提升储能效率。

本工作首先在Aspen Plus软件上搭建了该耦合系统的热力学仿真模型，随后本工作研究并对比两种聚光太阳能储热介质对系统性能的影响，研究结果表明，导热油和太阳盐相比，使用太阳盐为聚光太阳能储热介质的系统性能更好，储能效率达到了115.9%，往返效率达到了68.2%，㶲效率达到了76.8%，储电折合转化系数达到了92.8%，储能密度达到了5.53 kWh/m3。

此外，本研究还发现低环境温度、高空气汽轮机入口温度及高空气汽轮机入口压力有利于系统储能性能的提高。

关键词：先进绝热压缩空气储能；聚光太阳能辅热；有机朗肯循环；热力学模型；㶲分析doi： 10.19799/ki.2095-4239.2023.0548中图分类号：TK 02 文献标志码：A 文章编号：2095-4239（2023）12-3749-12 Thermodynamic analysis of an advanced adiabatic compressed-air energy storage system coupled with molten salt heat and storage-organic Rankine cycleYIN Hang1, WANG Qiang1, ZHU Jiahua2, LIAO Zhirong2, ZHANG Zinan1, XU Ershu2, XU Chao2(1CGN New Energy Holding Co., Ltd., Beijing 100160, China; 2School of Energy Power and Mechanical Engineering,North China Electric Power University, Beijing 102206, China)Abstract:Advanced adiabatic compressed-air energy storage is a method for storing energy at a large scale and with no environmental pollution. To improve its efficiency, an advanced adiabatic compressed-air energy storage system (AA-CAES+CSP+ORC) coupled with the thermal storage-organic Rankine cycle for photothermal power generation is proposed in this report. In this system, the storage of heat from photothermal power generation is used to solve the problem of limited compression heat in the AA-CAES+CSP+ORC, while the medium- and low-temperature waste heat generation in the organic Rankine cycle power收稿日期：2023-08-18；修改稿日期：2023-09-18。

Critical Reviews in Solid State and Materials Sciences,30:235–253,2005 Copyright c Taylor and Francis Inc.ISSN:1040-8436printDOI:10.1080/10408430500406265New Perspectives on the Structure of Graphitic CarbonsPeter J.F.Harris∗Centre for Advanced Microscopy,University of Reading,Whiteknights,Reading,RG66AF,UKGraphitic forms of carbon are important in a wide variety of applications,ranging from pollutioncontrol to composite materials,yet the structure of these carbons at the molecular level ispoorly understood.The discovery of fullerenes and fullerene-related structures such as carbonnanotubes has given a new perspective on the structure of solid carbon.This review aims toshow how the new knowledge gained as a result of research on fullerene-related carbons canbe applied to well-known forms of carbon such as microporous carbon,glassy carbon,carbonfibers,and carbon black.Keywords fullerenes,carbon nanotubes,carbon nanoparticles,non-graphitizing carbons,microporous carbon,glassy carbon,carbon black,carbonfibers.Table of Contents INTRODUCTION (235)FULLERENES,CARBON NANOTUBES,AND CARBON NANOPARTICLES (236)MICROPOROUS(NON-GRAPHITIZING)CARBONS (239)Background (239)Early Models (241)Evidence for Fullerene-Like Structures in Microporous Carbons (242)New Models for the Structure of Microporous Carbons (242)Carbonization and the Structural Evolution of Microporous Carbon (243)GLASSY CARBON (244)CARBON FIBERS (245)CARBON BLACK (248)Background (248)Structure of Carbon Black Particles (249)Effect of High-Temperature Heat Treatment on Carbon Black Structure (250)CONCLUSIONS (250)ACKNOWLEDGMENTS (251)REFERENCES (251)INTRODUCTIONUntil quite recently we knew for certain of just two allotropes of carbon:diamond and graphite.The vast range of carbon ma-∗E-mail:p.j.f.harris@ terials,both natural and synthetic,which have more disordered structures have traditionally been considered as variants of one or other of these two allotropes.Because the great majority of these materials contain sp2carbon rather than sp3carbon,their struc-tures have been thought of as being made up from tiny fragments235236P.J.F.HARRISFI G.1.(a)Model of PAN-derived carbon fibres from the work of Crawford and Johnson,1(b)model of a non-graphitizing carbon by Ban and colleagues.2of crystalline graphite.Examples of models for the structures of carbons in which the basic elements are graphitic are reproduced in Figure 1.The structure shown in Figure 1(a)is a model for the structure of carbon fibers suggested by Crawford and Johnson in 1971,1whereas 1(b)shows a model for non-graphitizing car-bon given by Ban and colleagues in 1975.2Both structures are constructed from bent or curved sheets of graphite,containing exclusively hexagonal rings.Although these models probably provide a good first approximation of the structures of these car-bons,in many cases they fail to explain fully the properties of the materials.Consider the example of non-graphitizing carbons.As the name suggests,these cannot be transformed into crystalline graphite even at temperatures of 3000◦C and above.I nstead,high temperature heat treatments transform them into structures with a high degree of porosity but no long-range crystalline order.I n the model proposed by Ban et al.(Figure 1(b)),the structure is made up of ribbon-like sheets enclosing randomly shaped voids.It is most unlikely that such a structure could retain its poros-ity when subjected to high temperature heat treatment—surface energy would force the voids to collapse.The shortcomings of this and other “conventional”models are discussed more fully later in the article.The discovery of the fullerenes 3−5and subsequently of re-lated structures such as carbon nanotubes,6−8nanohorns,9,10and nanoparticles,11has given us a new paradigm for solid car-bon structures.We now know that carbons containing pentago-nal rings,as well as other non-six-membered rings,among the hexagonal sp 2carbon network,can be highly stable.This new perspective has prompted a number of groups to take a fresh look at well-known forms of carbon,to see whether any evidence can be found for the presence of fullerene-like structures.12−14The aim of this article is to review this new work on the structure of graphitic carbons,to assess whether models that incorporate fullerene-like elements could provide a better basis for under-standing these materials than the conventional models,and to point out areas where further work is needed.The carbon ma-terials considered include non-graphitizing carbon,glassy car-bon,carbon fibers,and carbon black.The article begins with an outline of the main structural features of fullerenes,carbon nanotubes,and carbon nanoparticles,together with a brief dis-cussion of their stability.FULLERENES,CARBON NANOTUBES,AND CARBON NANOPARTICLESThe structure of C 60,the archetypal fullerene,is shown in Figure 2(a).The structure consists of twelve pentagonal rings and twenty hexagons in an icosahedral arrangement.I t will be noted that all the pentagons are isolated from each other.This is important,because adjacent pentagonal rings form an unstable bonding arrangement.All other closed-cage isomers of C 60,and all smaller fullerenes,are less stable than buck-minsterfullerene because they have adjacent pentagons.For higher fullerenes,the number of structures with isolated pen-tagonal rings increases rapidly with size.For example,C 100has 450isolated-pentagon isomers.16Most of these higher fullerenes have low symmetry;only a very small number of them have the icosahedral symmetry of C 60.An example of a giant fullerene that can have icosahedral symmetry is C 540,as shown in Figure 2(b).There have been many studies of the stability of fullerenes as a function of size (e.g.,Refs.17,18).These show that,in general,stability increases with size.Experimentally,there is evidence that C 60is unstable with respect to large,multiwalled fullerenes.This was demonstrated by Mochida and colleagues,who heated C 60and C 70in a sublimation-limiting furnace.19They showed that the cage structure broke down at 900◦C–1000◦C,although at 2400◦C fullerene-like “hollow spheres”with diameters in the range 10–20nm were formed.We now consider fullerene-related carbon nanotubes,which were discovered by Iijima in 1991.6These consist of cylinders of graphite,closed at each end with caps that contain precisely six pentagonal rings.We can illustrate their structure by considering the two “archetypal”carbon nanotubes that can be formed by cutting a C 60molecule in half and placing a graphene cylinder between the two halves.Dividing C 60parallel to one of the three-fold axes results in the zig-zag nanotube shown in Figure 3(a),whereas bisecting C 60along one of the fivefold axes produces the armchair nanotube shown in Figure 3(b).The terms “zig-zag”and “armchair”refer to the arrangement of hexagons around the circumference.There is a third class of structure in which the hexagons are arranged helically around the tube axis.Ex-perimentally,the tubes are generally much less perfect than the idealized versions shown in Figure 3,and may be eitherNEW PERSPECTIVES ON GRAPHITIC CARBONS STRUCTURE237FI G.2.The structure of (a)C 60,(b)icosahedral C 540.15multilayered or single-layered.Figure 4shows a high resolu-tion TEM image of multilayered nanotubes.The multilayered tubes range in length from a few tens of nm to several microns,and in outer diameter from about 2.5nm to 30nm.The end-caps of the tubes are sometimes symmetrical in shape,but more often asymmetric.Conical structures of the kind shown in Fig-ure 5(a)are commonly observed.This type of structure is be-lieved to result from the presence of a single pentagon at the position indicated by the arrow,with five further pentagons at the apex of the cone.Also quite common are complex cap struc-tures displaying a “bill-like”morphology such as thatshownFI G.3.Drawings of the two nanotubes that can be capped by one half of a C 60molecule.(a)Zig-zag (9,0)structure,(b)armchair (5,5)structure.20in Figure 5(b).21This structure results from the presence of a single pentagon at point “X”and a heptagon at point “Y .”The heptagon results in a saddle-point,or region of negative curvature.The nanotubes first reported by Iijima were prepared by va-porizing graphite in a carbon arc under an atmosphere of helium.Nanotubes produced in this way are invariably accompanied by other material,notably carbon nanoparticles.These can be thought of as giant,multilayered fullerenes,and range in size from ∼5nm to ∼15nm.A high-resolution image of a nanopar-ticle attached to a nanotube is shown in Figure 6(a).22In this238P.J.F.HARRISFI G.4.TEM image of multiwalled nanotubes.case,the particle consists of three concentric fullerene shells.A more typical nanoparticle,with many more layers,is shown in Figure 6(b).These larger particles are probably relatively im-perfect instructure.FI G.5.I mages of typical multiwalled nanotube caps.(a)cap with asymmetric cone structure,(b)cap with bill-like structure.21Single-walled nanotubes were first prepared in 1993using a variant of the arc-evaporation technique.23,24These are quite different from multilayered nanotubes in that they generally have very small diameters (typically ∼1nm),and tend to be curledNEW PERSPECTIVES ON GRAPHITIC CARBONS STRUCTURE239FI G.6.I mages of carbon nanoparticles.(a)small nanoparticle with three concentric layers on nanotube surface,22(b)larger multilayered nanoparticle.and looped rather than straight.They will not be considered further here because they have no parallel among well-known forms of carbon discussed in this article.The stability of multilayered carbon nanotubes and nanopar-ticles has not been studied in detail experimentally.However,we know that they are formed at the center of graphite electrodes during arcing,where temperatures probably approach 3000◦C.I t is reasonable to assume,therefore,that nanotubes and nanopar-ticles could withstand being re-heated to such temperatures (in an inert atmosphere)without significant change.MICROPOROUS (NON-GRAPHITIZING)CARBONS BackgroundIt was demonstrated many years ago by Franklin 25,26that carbons produced by the solid-phase pyrolysis of organic ma-terials fall into two distinct classes.The so-called graphitizing carbons tend to be soft and non-porous,with relatively high den-sities,and can be readily transformed into crystalline graphite by heating at temperatures in the range 2200◦C–3000◦C.I n con-trast,“non-graphitizing”carbons are hard,low-densitymateri-FI G.7.(a)High resolution TEM image of carbon prepared by pyrolysis of sucrose in nitrogen at 1000◦C,(b)carbon prepared bypyrolysis of anthracene at 1000◦C.I nsets show selected area diffraction patterns.30als that cannot be transformed into crystalline graphite even at temperatures of 3000◦C and above.The low density of non-graphitizing carbons is a consequence of a microporous struc-ture,which gives these materials an exceptionally high internal surface area.This high surface area can be enhanced further by activation,that is,mild oxidation with a gas or chemical pro-cessing,and the resulting “activated carbons”are of enormous commercial importance,primarily as adsorbents.27−29The distinction between graphitizing and non-graphitizing carbons can be illustrated most clearly using transmission elec-tron microscopy (TEM).Figure 7(a)shows a TEM image of a typical non-graphitizing carbon prepared by the pyrolysis of sucrose in an inert atmosphere at 1000◦C.30The inset shows a diffraction pattern recorded from an area approximately 0.25µm in diameter.The image shows the structure to be disordered and isotropic,consisting of tightly curled single carbon layers,with no obvious graphitization.The diffraction pattern shows symmetrical rings,confirming the isotropic structure.The ap-pearance of graphitizing carbons,on the other hand,approxi-mates much more closely to that of graphite.This can be seen in the TEM micrograph of a carbon prepared from anthracene,240P.J.F.HARRI Swhich is shown in Figure 7(b).Here,the structure contains small,approximately flat carbon layers,packed tightly together with a high degree of alignment.The fragments can be considered as rather imperfect graphene sheets.The diffraction pattern for the graphitizing carbon consists of arcs rather than symmetrical rings,confirming that the layers are preferentially aligned along a particular direction.The bright,narrow arcs in this pattern correspond to the interlayer {0002}spacings,whereas the other reflections appear as broader,less intense arcs.Transmission electron micrographs showing the effect of high-temperature heat treatments on the structure of non-graphitizing and graphitizing carbons are shown in Figure 8(note that the magnification here is much lower than for Figure 7).I n the case of the non-graphitizing carbon,heating at 2300◦C in an inert atmosphere produces the disordered,porous material shown in Figure 8(a).This structure is made up of curved and faceted graphitic layer planes,typically 1–2nm thick and 5–15nm in length,enclosing randomly shaped pores.A few somewhat larger graphite crystallites are present,but there is no macroscopic graphitization.n contrast,heat treatment of the anthracene-derived carbon produces large crystals of highly or-dered graphite,as shown in Figure 8(b).Other physical measurements also demonstrate sharp dif-ferences between graphitizing and non-graphitizing carbons.Table 1shows the effect of preparation temperature on the sur-face areas and densities of a typical graphitizing carbon prepared from polyvinyl chloride,and a non-graphitizing carbon prepared from cellulose.31It can be seen that the graphitizing carbon pre-pared at 700◦C has a very low surface area,which changes lit-tle for carbons prepared at higher temperatures,up to 3000◦C.The density of the carbons increases steadily as thepreparationFI G.8.Micrographs of (a)sucrose carbon and (b)anthracene carbon following heat treatment at 2300◦C.TABLE 1Effect of temperature on surface areas and densities of carbonsprepared from polyvinyl chloride and cellulose 31(a)Surface areas Specific surface area (m 2/g)for carbons prepared at:Starting material 700◦C 1500◦C 2000◦C 2700◦C 3000◦C PVC 0.580.210.210.710.56Cellulose 4081.601.172.232.25(b)Densities Helium density (g/cm 3)for carbons prepared at:Starting material 700◦C 1500◦C 2000◦C 2700◦C 3000◦C PVC 1.85 2.09 2.14 2.21 2.26Cellulose1.901.471.431.561.70temperature is increased,reaching a value of 2.26g/cm 3,which is the density of pure graphite,at 3000◦C.The effect of prepara-tion temperature on the non-graphitizing carbon is very different.A high surface area is observed for the carbon prepared at 700◦C (408m 2/g),which falls rapidly as the preparation temperature is increased.Despite this reduction in surface area,however,the density of the non-graphitizing carbon actually falls when the temperature of preparation is increased.This indicates that a high proportion of “closed porosity”is present in the heat-treated carbon.NEW PERSPECTIVES ON GRAPHITIC CARBONS STRUCTURE241FI G.9.Franklin’s representations of(a)non-graphitizing and(b)graphitizing carbons.25Early ModelsThefirst attempt to develop structural models of graphitizingand non-graphitizing carbons was made by Franklin in her1951paper.25In these models,the basic units are small graphitic crys-tallites containing a few layer planes,which are joined togetherby crosslinks.The precise nature of the crosslinks is not speci-fied.An illustration of Franklin’s models is shown in Figure9.Using these models,she put forward an explanation of whynon-graphitizing carbons cannot be converted by heat treatmentinto graphite,and this will now be summarized.During car-bonization the incipient stacking of the graphene sheets in thenon-graphitizing carbon is largely prevented.At this stage thepresence of crosslinks,internal hydrogen,and the viscosity ofthe material is crucial.The resulting structure of the carbon(at ∼1000◦C)consists of randomly ordered crystallites,held to-gether by residual crosslinks and van der Waals forces,as inFigure9(a).During high-temperature treatment,even thoughthese crosslinks may be broken,the activation energy for themotion of entire crystallites,required for achieving the struc-ture of graphite,is too high and graphite is not formed.Onthe other hand,the structural units in a graphitizing carbon areapproximately parallel to each other,as in Figure9(b),and thetransformation of such a structure into crystalline graphite wouldbe expected to be relatively facile.Although Franklin’s ideason graphitizing and non-graphitizing carbons may be broadlycorrect,they are in some regards incomplete.For example,thenature of the crosslinks between the graphitic fragments is notspecified,so the reasons for the sharply differing properties ofgraphitizing and non-graphitizing carbons is not explained.The advent of high-resolution transmission electron mi-croscopy in the early1970s enabled the structure of non-graphitizing carbons to be imaged directly.n a typical study,Ban,Crawford,and Marsh2examined carbons prepared frompolyvinylidene chloride(PVDC)following heat treatments attemperatures in the range530◦C–2700◦C.I mages of these car-bons apparently showed the presence of curved and twistedgraphite sheets,typically two or three layer planes thick,enclos-ing voids.These images led Ban et al.to suggest that heat-treatednon-graphitizing carbons have a ribbon-like structure,as shownin Figure1(b).This structure corresponds to a PVDC carbonheat treated at1950◦C.This ribbon-like model is rather similar to an earlier model of glassy carbon proposed by Jenkins andKawamura.32However,models of this kind,which are intendedto represent the structure of non-graphitizing carbons follow-ing high-temperature heat treatment,have serious weaknesses,as noted earlier.Such models consist of curved and twistedgraphene sheets enclosing irregularly shaped pores.However,graphene sheets are known to be highlyflexible,and wouldtherefore be expected to become ever more closely folded to-gether at high temperatures,in order to reduce surface energy.Indeed,tightly folded graphene sheets are quite frequently seenin carbons that have been exposed to extreme conditions.33Thus,structures like the one shown in Figure1(b)would be unlikelyto be stable at very high temperatures.It has also been pointed out by Oberlin34,35that the modelsput forward by Jenkins,Ban,and their colleagues were basedon a questionable interpretation of the electron micrographs.In most micrographs of partially graphitized carbons,only the {0002}fringes are resolved,and these are only visible when they are approximately parallel to the electron beam.Therefore,such images tend to have a ribbon-like appearance.However,because only a part of the structure is being imaged,this appear-ance can be misleading,and the true three-dimensional structuremay be more cagelike than ribbon-like.This is a very importantpoint,and must always be borne in mind when analyzing imagesof graphitic carbons.Oberlin herself believes that all graphiticcarbons are built up from basic structural units,which comprisesmall groups of planar aromatic structures,35but does not appearto have given a detailed explanation for the non-graphitizabilityof certain carbons.The models of non-graphitizing carbons described so farhave assumed that the carbon atoms are exclusively sp2and arebonded in hexagonal rings.Some authors have suggested thatsp3-bonded atoms may be present in these carbons(e.g.,Refs.36,37),basing their arguments on an analysis of X-ray diffrac-tion patterns.The presence of diamond-like domains would beconsistent with the hardness of non-graphitizing carbons,andmight also explain their extreme resistance to graphitization.Aserious problem with these models is that sp3carbon is unsta-ble at high temperatures.Diamond is converted to graphite at1700◦C,whereas tetrahedrally bonded carbon atoms in amor-phousfilms are unstable above about700◦C.Therefore,the242P.J.F.HARRI Spresence of sp 3atoms in a carbon cannot explain the resistance of the carbon to graphitization at high temperatures.I t should also be noted that more recent diffraction studies of non-graphitizing carbons have suggested that sp 3-bonded atoms are not present,as discussed further in what follows.Evidence for Fullerene-Like Structures in Microporous CarbonsThe evidence that microporous carbons might have fullerene-related structures has come mainly from high-resolution TEM studies.The present author and colleagues initiated a series of studies of typical non-graphitizing microporous carbons using this technique in the mid 1990s.30,38,39The first such study in-volved examining carbons prepared from PVDC and sucrose,after heat treatments at temperatures in the range 2100◦C–2600◦C.38The carbons subjected to very high temperatures had rather disordered structures similar to that shown in Figure 8(a).Careful examination of the heated carbons showed that they often contained closed nanoparticles;examples can be seen in Figure 10.The particles were usually faceted,and often hexagonal or pentagonal in shape.Sometimes,faceted layer planes enclosed two or more of the nanoparticles,as shown in Figure 10(b).Here,the arrows indicate two saddle-points,similar to that shown in Figure 5(b).The closed nature of the nanoparticles,their hexagonal or pentagonal shapes,and other features such as the saddle-points strongly suggest that the parti-cles have fullerene-like structures.I ndeed,in many cases the par-ticles resemble those produced by arc-evaporation in a fullerene generator (see Figure 6)although in the latter case the particles usually contain many more layers.The observation of fullerene-related nanoparticles in the heat treated carbons suggested that the original,freshly prepared car-bons may also have had fullerene-related structures (see next section).However,obtaining direct evidence for this is diffi-cult.High resolution electron micrographs of freshly prepared carbons,such as that shown in Figure 7(a),are usuallyratherFI G.10.(a)Micrograph showing closed structure in PVDC-derived carbon heated at 2600◦C,(b)another micrograph of same sample,with arrows showing regions of negative curvature.38featureless,and do not reveal the detailed structure.Occasion-ally,however,very small closed particles can be found in the carbons.30The presence of such particles provides circumstan-tial evidence that the surrounding carbon may have a fullerene-related structure.Direct imaging of pentagonal rings by HRTEM has not yet been achieved,but recent developments in TEM imaging techniques suggest that this may soon be possible,as discussed in the Conclusions.As well as high-resolution TEM,diffraction methods have been widely applied to microporous and activated carbons (e.g.,Refs.40–44).However,the interpretation of diffraction data from these highly disordered materials is not straightforward.As already mentioned,some early X-ray diffraction studies were interpreted as providing evidence for the presence of sp 3-bonded atoms.More recent neutron diffraction studies have suggested that non-graphitizing carbons consist entirely of sp 2atoms.40It is less clear whether diffraction methods can establish whether the atoms are bonded in pentagonal or hexagonal rings.Both Petkov et al .42and Zetterstrom and colleagues 43have interpreted neutron diffraction data from nanoporous carbons in terms of a structure containing non-hexagonal rings,but other interpreta-tions may also be possible.Raman spectroscopy is another valuable technique for the study of carbons.45Burian and Dore have used this method to analyze carbons prepared from sucrose,heat treated at tem-peratures from 1000◦C–2300◦C.46The Raman spectra showed clear evidence for the presence of fullerene-and nanotube-like elements in the carbons.There was also some evidence for fullerene-like structures in graphitizing carbons prepared from anthracene,but these formed at higher temperatures and in much lower proportions than in the non-graphitizing carbons.New Models for the Structure of Microporous Carbons Prompted by the observations described in the previous section,the present author and colleagues proposed a model for the structure of non-graphitizing carbons that consists ofNEW PERSPECTIVES ON GRAPHITIC CARBONS STRUCTURE243FI G.11.Schematic illustration of a model for the structure of non-graphitizing carbons based on fullerene-like elements.discrete fragments of curved carbon sheets,in which pentagons and heptagons are dispersed randomly throughout networks of hexagons,as illustrated in Figure11.38,39The size of the micropores in this model would be of the order of0.5–1.0nm, which is similar to the pore sizes observed in typical microp-orous carbons.The structure has some similarities to the“ran-dom schwarzite”network put forward by Townsend and col-leagues in1992,47although this was not proposed as a model for non-graphitizing carbons.I f the model we have proposed for non-graphitizing carbons is correct it suggests that these carbons are very similar in structure to fullerene soot,the low-density, disordered material that forms on walls of the arc-evaporation vessel and from which C60and other fullerenes may be ex-tracted.Fullerene soot is known to be microporous,with a sur-face area,after activation with carbon dioxide,of approximately 700m2g−1,48and detailed analysis of high resolution TEM mi-crographs of fullerene soot has shown that these are consis-tent with a structure in which pentagons and heptagons are dis-tributed randomly throughout a network of hexagons.49,50It is significant that high-temperature heat treatments can transform fullerene soot into nanoparticles very similar to those observed in heated microporous carbon.51,52Carbonization and the Structural Evolutionof Microporous CarbonThe process whereby organic materials are transformed into carbon by heat treatment is not well understood at the atomic level.53,54In particular,the very basic question of why some organic materials produce graphitizing carbons and others yield non-graphitizing carbons has not been satisfactorily answered. It is known,however,that both the chemistry and physical prop-erties of the precursors are important in determining the class of carbon formed.Thus,non-graphitizing carbons are formed, in general,from substances containing less hydrogen and more oxygen than graphitizing carbons.As far as physical properties are concerned,materials that yield graphitizing carbons usu-ally form a liquid on heating to temperatures around400◦C–500◦C,whereas those that yield non-graphitizing carbons gen-erally form solid chars without melting.The liquid phase pro-duced on heating graphitizing carbons is believed to provide the mobility necessary to form oriented regions.However,this may not be a complete explanation,because some precursors form non-graphitizing carbons despite passing through a liquid phase.The idea that non-graphitizing carbons contain pentagons and other non-six-membered rings,whereas graphitizing car-bons consist entirely of hexagonal rings may help in understand-ing more fully the mechanism of carbonization.Recently Kumar et al.have used Monte Carlo(MC)simulations to model the evo-lution of a polymer structure into a microporous carbon structure containing non-hexagonal rings.55They chose polyfurfuryl al-cohol,a well-known precursor for non-graphitizing carbon,as the starting material.The polymer was represented as a cubic lattice decorated with the repeat units,as shown in Figure12(a). All the non-carbon atoms(i.e.,hydrogen and oxygen)were then removed from the polymer and this network was used in the。

2013年博士考试高级动物生物化学试题一、名词解释（20分）（每题4分,中英文回答均可）1、Telomerase端粒酶：是一种RNA-蛋白质复合物。

其RNA序列常可与端粒区的重复序列互补；蛋白质部分具有逆转录酶活性，因此能以其自身携带的RNA为模板逆转录合成端粒DNA。

2、Signal peptide信号肽：常指新合成多肽链中用于指导蛋白质夸膜转移（定位）的N-末端氨基酸序列（有时不一定在N端）。

3、Promoter启动子：在DNA分子中，RNA聚合酶能够结合并导致转录起始的序列。

4、Covalent modification 共价修饰：酶蛋白肽链上的一些基团可与某种化学基团发生可逆的共价结合，从而改变酶的活性，这一过程称为酶的共价修饰或者化学修饰。

5、Real time quantitative PCR实时定量PCR: 是指在PCR反应体系中加入荧光基团，利用荧光信号积累实时监测整个PCR进程，使每一个循环变得“可见”，最后通过标准曲线对样品中的DNA (or cDNA) 的起始浓度进行定量的方法。

二、简答题（40分）（每题8分）1、简述化学渗透假说。

（1）线粒体内膜的电子传递链是一个质子泵。

传氢体和传电子体在线粒体内膜是间隔交替排列的。

由于使H+和e交替传递，从而使H+发生定向转移。

（2）传氢体从内膜内侧接受2H后，将2个e传给电子传递体，同时2H+泵出内膜外侧。

（3）泵出的H+不能自由返回膜内侧（膜对H+是不通透的），因而膜外侧H+浓度高于内侧，形成H+浓度的跨膜梯度，由于原有外正内负的跨膜电位增高，同时也形成了电位梯度。

（4）质子浓度差和电位差构成了质子的动力势，推动质子由外入内，膜外的质子在质子动力势的推动下，通过镶嵌在线粒体内膜的ATP合酶复合体返回膜内，并推动该酶合成ATP。

2、剧烈运动以后，血液流经组织时，血红蛋白对氧的亲和力发生什么变化，为什么？1）酮体是脂肪酸在肝内正常的中间代谢产物，是肝输出能源的一种形式；2）酮体是肌肉尤其是脑的重要能源。

走近诺贝尔化学奖(双语课程)_中南民族大学中国大学mooc课后章节答案期末考试题库2023年1.钱永健先生因在研究绿色荧光蛋白方面的杰出成就而获2008年诺贝尔奖。

在某种生物中检测不到绿色荧光，将水母绿色荧光蛋白基因转入该生物体内后，结果可以检测到绿色荧光。

由此可知（）答案:绿色荧光蛋白基因在该生物体内得到了表达2.甲烷分子是正四面体结构，碳原子位于正四面体的中心，四个氢原子分别位于正四面体的四个顶点上，而不是正方形的平面结构，其实验根据是（）答案:CH2Cl不存在同分异构体3.最近，医学家们通过用放射性14C原子标记的C60示踪发现，C60的一种羧酸衍生物在特定条件下可通过断裂DNA杀死细胞，从而抑制艾滋病（AIDS）病毒。

其中，关于放射性14C的叙述中正确的是( )答案:与12C互为同位素4.放射性同位素能被用作示踪原子，以下说法错误的是( )答案:放射性同位素容易制造5.如果让一株C3植物在含有C18O2的环境中生长，则最先结合有放射性的氧元素的物质是（）答案:三碳化合物6.下列现象中与原子核内部变化有关的是（）答案:天然放射现象7.1911年，卢瑟福提出了一个基于（）实验现象的核结构模型，被认为是物理学中最美丽的实验之一答案:α粒子散射8.欧内斯特.卢瑟福获得了（）年的诺贝尔化学奖答案:19089.原子核发生β衰变时，此β粒子是（）答案:原子核内的一个中子变成一个质子时，放射出的一个电子10.镭的所有同位素中，不是天然放射性同位素的是（）答案:镭22711.世界防治疟疾日 (World Malaria Day)，世界疟疾日由世界卫生大会在2007年5月第六十届会议上设立，旨在推动全球进行疟疾防治。

你知道世界防治疟疾日是几号吗？（）答案:4月25日12.高分子界的始祖是（）答案:施陶丁格尔13.下列不属于合成材料的是（）答案:涂料14.高密度聚乙烯是（）答案:线性高分子15.镭的所有同位素中，半衰期最长的是（）答案:镭22616.世界上第一位女性诺贝尔奖获得者是（）答案:玛丽.居里17.齐格勒和纳塔被授予诺贝尔化学奖，是因为他们（）答案:高聚物化学和技术领域的发现18.在人类中，细胞色素P450酶参与（）的代谢。

二氧化碳浓度升高对植物影响的研究进展摘要摘要：二氧化碳是作物光合作用的原料，对植物的生长发育会产生显著影响。

本文通过对国内外二氧化碳浓度升高的研究现状，归纳出其对植物的影响状况。

二氧化碳浓度的升高对植物体的生长整体上具有促进作用，主要表现在植物形态、植物生理、植物根系、产量品质、植物种群、植物群落和植物生态系统。

对植物生理的影响主要表现在植物光合作用、呼吸作用、蒸腾作用、植物抗逆性等方面。

关键词：CO2；植物；影响0前言2009年11月24日发布的《哥本哈根诊断》报告指出,到2100年全球气温可能上升7°C,海平面可能上升1米以上。

世界自然基金委员会发表的另一份报告称,到2050年,全球海平面将上升50厘米,就全球而言,136座沿海大城市,价值28.21万亿美元的财产将受到影响。

为此,就要求大气中的温室气体浓度稳定在450ppm 二氧化碳当量,气温升高控制在2°C左右。

根据世界银行报告《2010世界发展报告:发展与气候变化》提供的最新资料,在过去150年,由于人类排放的温室气体,全球气温已经比工业化前升高了将近1°C;预计21世纪(指2000-2100年)全球温度将比工业化前总共升高5°C。

C02是作物光合作用的原料，C02浓度增加及其温室效应引起的气候变化，对植物的生长发育会产生显著影响。

近20年来，世界各国科学家对此作了较为详细的研究，其研究涉及到植物的形态学特征、生理生化机制、生物量及籽粒品质等多方面内容，取得了明显的进展。

1 CO2浓度升高对植物体的影响1.1对植物形态的影响CO2浓度的升高对植物形态具有一定的影响，会使植物的冠幅、高度增大;茎干中次生木质部的生长轮加宽,材积增大;节间数、叶片数增多;叶片厚度增加,栅栏组织层数增加,下表皮有的覆盖有角质层,单位面积内表皮细胞和气孔数量减少;根系数量增多,根幅扩大;果实种子增大。

1.2对植物生理的影响1.2.1对光合作用的影响光合作用作为植物物质生产的生理过程,连接植物生长、叶的化学特征、物候和生物产量分配对CO2浓度升高的反应。

Inside the Living Cell: Structure andFunction of Internal Cell PartsCytoplasm: The Dynamic, Mobile Factory细胞质：动力工厂Most of the properties we associate with life are properties of the cytoplasm. Much of the mass of a cell consists of this semifluid substance, which is bounded on the outside by the plasma membrane. Organelles are suspended within it, supported by the filamentous network of the cytoskeleton. Dissolved in the cytoplasmic fluid are nutrients, ions, soluble proteins, and other materials needed for cell functioning.生命的大部分特征表现在细胞质的特征上。

细胞质大部分由半流体物质组成，并由细胞膜（原生质膜）包被。

细胞器悬浮在其中，并由丝状的细胞骨架支撑。

细胞质中溶解了大量的营养物质，离子，可溶蛋白以及维持细胞生理需求的其它物质。

The Nucleus: Information Central（细胞核：信息中心）The eukaryotic cell nucleus is the largest organelle and houses the genetic material (DNA) on chromosomes. (In prokaryotes the hereditary material is found in the nucleoid.) The nucleus also contains one or two organelles-the nucleoli-that play a role in cell division. A pore-perforated sac called the nuclear envelope separates the nucleus and its contents from the cytoplasm. Small molecules can pass through the nuclear envelope, but larger molecules such as mRNA and ribosomes must enter and exit via the pores.真核细胞的细胞核是最大的细胞器，细胞核对染色体组有保护作用（原核细胞的遗传物质存在于拟核中）。