Signal and System

signal and system 英文原版书Title: An Overview of the Book "Signal and System"Introduction:The book "Signal and System" is an essential resource for anyone interested in understanding the fundamentals of signal processing and system analysis. It provides a comprehensive and in-depth exploration of the concepts, theories, and applications related to signals and systems. This article aims to provide a detailed overview of the book, highlighting its key points and relevance.I. Fundamental Concepts of Signals and Systems:1.1 Definition and Properties of Signals:- Explanation of signals as time-varying or spatially varying quantities.- Discussion on continuous-time and discrete-time signals.- Description of signal properties such as amplitude, frequency, and phase.1.2 Classification of Signals:- Overview of different types of signals including periodic, aperiodic, deterministic, and random signals.- Explanation of energy and power signals.- Introduction to common signal operations such as time shifting, scaling, and time reversal.1.3 System Classification and Properties:- Definition and classification of systems as linear or nonlinear, time-invariant or time-varying.- Explanation of system properties like causality, stability, and linearity.- Introduction to system representations such as differential equations, transfer functions, and state-space models.II. Time-Domain Analysis of Signals and Systems:2.1 Convolution and Correlation:- Detailed explanation of convolution and its significance in system analysis.- Discussion on correlation as a measure of similarity between signals.- Application of convolution and correlation in practical scenarios.2.2 Fourier Series and Transform:- Introduction to Fourier series and its representation of periodic signals.- Explanation of Fourier transform and its application in analyzing non-periodic signals.- Discussion on the properties of Fourier series and transform.2.3 Laplace Transform:- Overview of Laplace transform and its use in solving differential equations.- Explanation of the relationship between Laplace transform and frequency response of systems.- Application of Laplace transform in system analysis and design.III. Frequency-Domain Analysis of Signals and Systems:3.1 Frequency Response:- Definition and interpretation of frequency response.- Explanation of magnitude and phase response.- Analysis of frequency response using Bode plots.3.2 Filtering and Filtering Techniques:- Introduction to digital and analog filters.- Discussion on different filter types such as low-pass, high-pass, band-pass, and band-stop filters.- Explanation of filter design techniques including Butterworth, Chebyshev, and Elliptic filters.3.3 Sampling and Reconstruction:- Explanation of sampling theorem and its importance in signal processing.- Overview of sampling techniques and their impact on signal reconstruction.- Discussion on anti-aliasing filters and reconstruction methods.IV. System Analysis and Stability:4.1 System Response and Impulse Response:- Explanation of system response to different input signals.- Introduction to impulse response and its relationship with system behavior.- Analysis of system stability based on impulse response.4.2 Transfer Function and Frequency Domain Analysis:- Definition and interpretation of transfer function.- Explanation of frequency domain analysis using transfer function.- Application of transfer function in system design and analysis.4.3 Feedback Systems and Control:- Overview of feedback systems and their role in control theory.- Explanation of stability analysis and design using control theory.- Discussion on PID controllers and their applications.V. Applications of Signal and System Theory:5.1 Communication Systems:- Explanation of modulation techniques and their role in communication systems.- Overview of demodulation techniques and their significance.- Discussion on error control coding and channel equalization.5.2 Digital Signal Processing:- Introduction to digital signal processing and its applications.- Explanation of digital filters and their role in signal processing.- Overview of image and speech processing techniques.5.3 Signal Processing in Biomedical Engineering:- Application of signal processing in biomedical signal analysis.- Discussion on medical imaging techniques such as MRI and CT scans.- Explanation of signal processing methods used in ECG and EEG analysis.Conclusion:The book "Signal and System" provides a comprehensive and detailed exploration of the fundamental concepts, theories, and applications related to signals and systems. It covers a wide range of topics including signal classification, system analysis, frequency-domain analysis, stability, and various applications. By studying this book, readers can gain a solid understanding of signal and system theory, which is essential in various fields such as communication, digital signal processing, and biomedical engineering.。

SystemVerilog中的位拼接是一种非常重要的功能，它允许在硬件描述语言中进行灵活的数据处理和操作。

在本文中，我们将深入探讨SystemVerilog中的位拼接，包括其基本概念、语法规则、应用场景和实际案例分析。

1. 概念位拼接是SystemVerilog中一种将多个位或位域连接成一个新的数据结构的操作。

通过位拼接，可以将多个信号或变量按照一定的顺序连接在一起，形成一个更大的数据类型。

这种操作通常用于数据的重组和重排，以满足特定的数据传输或处理需求。

2. 语法规则在SystemVerilog中，位拼接的语法规则非常简单明了。

一般来说，可以使用花括号{}来进行位拼接操作。

具体而言，语法格式如下：{signal1, signal2, signal3, ...}其中，signal1、signal2、signal3等表示要进行位拼接的各个信号或变量。

括号内的信号或变量按照顺序连接，形成一个新的数据类型。

需要注意的是，被拼接的信号或变量的位宽必须与拼接后的数据类型位宽相匹配，否则会导致编译错误或运行时异常。

SystemVerilog还提供了一种更加灵活的位拼接方式，即使用{<<{}}运算符。

这种运算符可以将一个数据类型的部分位域连接到另一个数据类型上，从而实现更加灵活的位拼接操作。

语法格式如下：{<<{dest, src, ...}}其中，dest表示目标数据类型，src表示源数据类型，{}内部列出了要拼接的位域。

通过这种方式，可以在拼接时灵活地选择位域的起始位置和长度，从而实现更加精细化的数据重组。

3. 应用场景位拼接在硬件描述语言中有着广泛的应用场景。

其中，最常见的应用包括：(1) 数据传输：当需要将多个信号或变量打包成一个数据类型进行传输时，可以使用位拼接将它们连接在一起，从而实现更加高效的数据传输。

(2) 数据处理：在进行数据处理和操作时，有时需要将多个数据类型进行拆分、重组和重排。

《信号与系统》专业术语中英文对照表第 1 章绪论信号（signal）系统（system）电压（voltage）电流（current）信息（information）电路（circuit）网络（network）确定性信号（determinate signal）随机信号（random signal）一维信号（one –dimensional signal）多维信号（multi–dimensional signal）连续时间信号（continuous time signal）离散时间信号（discrete time signal）取样信号（sampling signal）数字信号（digital signal）周期信号（periodic signal）非周期信号（nonperiodic（aperiodic）signal）能量（energy）功率（power）能量信号（energy signal）功率信号（power signal）平均功率（average power）平均能量（average energy）指数信号（exponential signal）时间常数（time constant）正弦信号（sine signal）余弦信号（cosine signal）振幅（amplitude）角频率（angular frequency）初相位（initial phase）周期（period）频率（frequency）欧拉公式（Euler’s formula）复指数信号（complex exponential signal）复频率（complex frequency）实部（real part）虚部（imaginary part）抽样函数Sa(t)（sampling（Sa）function）偶函数（even function）奇异函数（singularity function）奇异信号（singularity signal）单位斜变信号（unit ramp signal）斜率（slope）单位阶跃信号（unit step signal）符号函数（signum function）单位冲激信号（unit impulse signal）广义函数（generalized function）取样特性（sampling property）冲激偶信号（impulse doublet signal）奇函数（odd function）偶分量（even component）奇分量（odd component）正交函数（orthogonal function）正交函数集（set of orthogonal function）数学模型（mathematics model）电压源（voltage source）基尔霍夫电压定律（Kirchhoff’s voltage law（KVL））电流源（current source）连续时间系统（continuous time system）离散时间系统（discrete time system）微分方程（differential function）差分方程（difference function）线性系统（linear system）非线性系统（nonlinear system）时变系统（time–varying system）时不变系统（time–invariant system）集总参数系统（lumped–parameter system）分布参数系统（distributed–parameter system）偏微分方程（partial differential function）因果系统（causal system）非因果系统（noncausal system）因果信号（causal signal）叠加性（superposition property）均匀性（homogeneity）积分（integral）输入–输出描述法（input–output analysis）状态变量描述法（state variable analysis）单输入单输出系统（single–input and single–output system）状态方程（state equation）输出方程（output equation）多输入多输出系统（multi–input and multi–output system）时域分析法（time domain method）变换域分析法（transform domain method）卷积（convolution）傅里叶变换（Fourier transform）拉普拉斯变换（Laplace transform）第 2 章连续时间系统的时域分析齐次解（homogeneous solution）特解（particular solution）特征方程（characteristic function）特征根（characteristic root）固有（自由）解（natural solution）强迫解（forced solution）起始条件（original condition）初始条件（initial condition）自由响应（natural response）强迫响应（forced response）零输入响应（zero-input response）零状态响应（zero-state response）冲激响应（impulse response）阶跃响应（step response）卷积积分（convolution integral）交换律（exchange law）分配律（distribute law）结合律（combine law）第3 章傅里叶变换频谱（frequency spectrum）频域（frequency domain）三角形式的傅里叶级数（trigonomitric Fourier series）指数形式的傅里叶级数（exponential Fourier series）傅里叶系数（Fourier coefficient）直流分量（direct composition）基波分量（fundamental composition）n 次谐波分量（nth harmonic component）复振幅（complex amplitude）频谱图（spectrum plot（diagram））幅度谱（amplitude spectrum）相位谱（phase spectrum）包络（envelop）离散性（discrete property）谐波性（harmonic property）收敛性（convergence property）奇谐函数（odd harmonic function）吉伯斯现象（Gibbs phenomenon）周期矩形脉冲信号（periodic rectangular pulse signal）周期锯齿脉冲信号（periodic sawtooth pulse signal）周期三角脉冲信号（periodic triangular pulse signal）周期半波余弦信号（periodic half–cosine signal）周期全波余弦信号（periodic full–cosine signal）傅里叶逆变换（inverse Fourier transform）频谱密度函数（spectrum density function）单边指数信号（single–sided exponential signal）双边指数信号（two–sided exponential signal）对称矩形脉冲信号（symmetry rectangular pulse signal）线性（linearity）对称性（symmetry）对偶性（duality）位移特性（shifting）时移特性（time–shifting）频移特性（frequency–shifting）调制定理（modulation theorem）调制（modulation）解调（demodulation）变频（frequency conversion）尺度变换特性（scaling）微分与积分特性（differentiation and integration）时域微分特性（differentiation in the time domain）时域积分特性（integration in the time domain）频域微分特性（differentiation in the frequency domain）频域积分特性（integration in the frequency domain）卷积定理（convolution theorem）时域卷积定理（convolution theorem in the time domain）频域卷积定理（convolution theorem in the frequency domain）取样信号（sampling signal）矩形脉冲取样（rectangular pulse sampling）自然取样（nature sampling）冲激取样（impulse sampling）理想取样（ideal sampling）取样定理（sampling theorem）调制信号（modulation signal）载波信号（carrier signal）已调制信号（modulated signal）模拟调制（analog modulation）数字调制（digital modulation）连续波调制（continuous wave modulation）脉冲调制（pulse modulation）幅度调制（amplitude modulation）频率调制（frequency modulation）相位调制（phase modulation）角度调制（angle modulation）频分多路复用（frequency–division multiplex（FDM））时分多路复用（time –division multiplex（TDM））相干（同步）解调（synchronous detection）本地载波（local carrier）系统函数（system function）网络函数（network function）频响特性（frequency response）幅频特性（amplitude frequency response）相频特性（phase frequency response）无失真传输（distortionless transmission）理想低通滤波器（ideal low–pass filter）截止频率（cutoff frequency）正弦积分（sine integral）上升时间（rise time）窗函数（window function）理想带通滤波器（ideal band–pass filter）第 4 章拉普拉斯变换代数方程（algebraic equation）双边拉普拉斯变换（two-sided Laplace transform）双边拉普拉斯逆变换（inverse two-sided Laplace transform）单边拉普拉斯变换（single-sided Laplace transform）拉普拉斯逆变换（inverse Laplace transform）收敛域（region of convergence（ROC））延时特性（time delay）s 域平移特性（shifting in the s-domain）s 域微分特性（differentiation in the s-domain）s 域积分特性（integration in the s-domain）初值定理（initial-value theorem）终值定理（expiration-value）复频域卷积定理（convolution theorem in the complex frequency domain）部分分式展开法（partial fraction expansion）留数法（residue method）第 5 章策动点函数（driving function）转移函数（transfer function）极点（pole）零点（zero）零极点图（zero-pole plot）暂态响应（transient response）稳态响应（stable response）稳定系统（stable system）一阶系统（first order system）高通滤波网络（high-low filter）低通滤波网络（low-pass filter）二阶系统（second system）最小相移系统（minimum-phase system）维纳滤波器（Winner filter）卡尔曼滤波器（Kalman filter）低通（low-pass）高通（high-pass）带通（band-pass）带阻（band-stop）有源（active）无源（passive）模拟（analog）数字（digital）通带（pass-band）阻带（stop-band）佩利－维纳准则（Paley-Winner criterion）最佳逼近（optimum approximation）过渡带（transition-band）通带公差带（tolerance band）巴特沃兹滤波器（Butterworth filter）切比雪夫滤波器（Chebyshew filter）方框图（block diagram）信号流图（signal flow graph）节点（node）支路（branch）输入节点（source node）输出节点（sink node）混合节点（mix node）通路（path）开通路（open path）闭通路（close path）环路（loop）自环路（self-loop）环路增益（loop gain）不接触环路（disconnect loop）前向通路（forward path）前向通路增益（forward path gain）梅森公式（Mason formula）劳斯准则（Routh criterion）第 6 章数字系统（digital system）数字信号处理（digital signal processing）差分方程（difference equation）单位样值响应（unit sample response）卷积和（convolution sum）Z 变换（Z transform）序列（sequence）样值（sample）单位样值信号（unit sample signal）单位阶跃序列（unit step sequence）矩形序列(rectangular sequence)单边实指数序列（single sided real exponential sequence）单边正弦序列（single sided exponential sequence）斜边序列（ramp sequence）复指数序列（complex exponential sequence）线性时不变离散系统（linear time-invariant discrete-time system）常系数线性差分方程（linear constant-coefficient difference equation）后向差分方程（backward difference equation）前向差分方程（forward difference equation）海诺塔（Tower of Hanoi）菲波纳西（Fibonacci）冲激函数串（impulse train）第7 章数字滤波器（digital filter）单边Z 变换（single-sided Z transform）双边Z 变换(two-sided (bilateral) Z transform) 幂级数（power series）收敛（convergence）有界序列（limitary-amplitude sequence）正项级数（positive series）有限长序列（limitary-duration sequence）右边序列（right-sided sequence）左边序列（left-sided sequence）双边序列（two-sided sequence）Z 逆变换（inverse Z transform）围线积分法（contour integral method）幂级数展开法（power series expansion）z 域微分（differentiation in the z-domain）序列指数加权（multiplication by an exponential sequence）z 域卷积定理（z-domain convolution theorem）帕斯瓦尔定理（Parseval theorem）传输函数（transfer function）序列的傅里叶变换（discrete-time Fourier transform：DTFT）序列的傅里叶逆变换（inverse discrete-time Fourier transform：IDTFT）幅度响应（magnitude response）相位响应（phase response）量化（quantization）编码（coding）模数变换（A/D 变换：analog-to-digital conversion）数模变换（D/A 变换：digital-to- analog conversion）第8 章端口分析法（port analysis）状态变量（state variable）无记忆系统（memoryless system）有记忆系统（memory system）矢量矩阵（vector-matrix ）常量矩阵（constant matrix ）输入矢量（input vector）输出矢量（output vector）直接法（direct method）间接法（indirect method）状态转移矩阵（state transition matrix）系统函数矩阵（system function matrix）冲激响应矩阵（impulse response matrix）朱里准则（July criterion）。

Android中的Signal信号ContentsSignal 信号 (1)[1] signal中文描述列表 (2)[2] Android信号处理 (5)[3] What is si_codes (8)Example: SEGV_ACCERR (12)Example: BUS_ADRALN (12)Example: SIGPIPE (14)[4] signal and Traces/tombstone (14)[5] Example: Add some logs to debug signal: (16)1 Who kill system_server (16)2 see kernel why unkown reason exit (16)[6] Reference (16)What is signalHow many kind signal,General signalHow to send signalHow to handle signalHow to generally use signalSignal and system callsignal handle Reentrant Functionssignal setsignal queuesigprocmask FunctionSignals are a limited form of inter-process communication used in Unix, Unix-like, and other POSIX-compliant operating systems. A signal is an asynchronous notification sent to a process or to a specific thread within the same process in order to notify it of an event that occurred. Signals originated in 1970s Bell Labs Unix and have been more recently specified in the POSIX standard.When a signal is sent, the operating system interrupts the target process' normal flow of execution to deliver the signal. Execution can be interrupted during any non-atomic instruction. If the process has previously registered a signal handler, that routine is executed. Otherwise, the default signal handler is executed.Embedded programs may find signals useful for interprocess communications, as the computational and memory footprint for signals is small.[1] signal中文描述列表Signal DescriptionSIGABRT 由调用abort函数产生，进程非正常退出SIGALRM 用alarm函数设置的timer超时或setitimer函数设置的interval timer超时SIGBUS 某种特定的硬件异常，通常由内存访问引起SIGCANCEL 由Solaris Thread Library内部使用，通常不会使用SIGCHLD 进程Terminate或Stop的时候，SIGCHLD会发送给它的父进程。

铁路信号专业词汇(中英对照版)1 通信信号communication and signal2 信号工程signal engineering3 信号设计signal design4 信号signal5 信号理论signal theory6 信号系统signalling system7 信号配线signal wiring8 信号电路signal circuit9 点灯电路lighting circuit10 报警电路warning circuit11 接口电路interface circuit12 测试电路testiing circuit13 方向电路directional circuit14 电路设计circuit design15 电路分析circuit analysis16 延续进路succesive route;succesisve route17 信号楼signal box;signal tower18 控制中心control center19 继电器室relay house;relay room20 电源室power supply roon;power supply room21 区间section22 信号施工signal construction23 信号厂signal shop24 工厂化施工industrial construction25 电缆接续cable connecting26 电缆敷设cable laying27 电缆敷设机cable laying machine28 铁路信号;铁道信号railway signalling29 固定信号fixed signal30 移动信号movable signal31 视觉信号vision signal;visual signal32 闪光信号flashing light signal;flash signal;flashing signal33 音响信号acoustic signal;whistle signal34 手信号hand signal35 防护信号protecting signal;protection signal36 机车信号cab signalling37 驼峰信号hump signal;humping signal38 区间信号section signaling;wayside signaling39 行车信号running signal;train signal40 调车信号shunting signal41 引导信号calling-on signal42 地面信号trackside signal;ground signal43 进站信号home signal44 车站信号station signal;signaling at stations45 出站信号starting signal 46 报警信号alarming signal47 事故信号accident signal48 色灯信号colour light signal49 信号色度signal colour fidelity50 信号标志signal indicator51 信号显示signal visibility;signal aspect and indication52 道口信号crossing signal53 道口自动信号crossing automatic signal;automatic level crossing signal54 道口通知设备crossing announcing signal;highway level crossing announcing device55 道口控制器crossing controller56 道口栏木crossing barrier;cross barrier at grade crossing57 道口防护crossing protection58 道口遥信遥测设备remote control crossing;remote surveillance and telemetering for highway l59 道口安全crossing safety60 道口事故level crossing accidents61 轨道电路track circuit62 交流轨道电路a.c.track circuit;ac track circuit63 脉冲轨道电路pulse track circuit64 无绝缘轨道电路jointless track circuit65 阀式轨道电路value-type track circuit;valve type track circuit66 音频轨道电路audio frequency track circuit67 极频轨道电路polar freguency coded track circuit;polar-frequency pulse track circuit68 移频轨道电路frequency shift track circuit;frequency-shift modulated track circuit69 长轨道电路long track circuit70 轨道电路区段track circuit district71 轨道电路测试track circuit testing72 轨道传感器track sensor73 计轴器axle counter74 钢轨阻抗rail impedance75 轨道绝缘;绝缘节rail insulation;insulation section76 极性交叉polar reversal;polar transposition77 钢轨接续线rail bond78 钢轨导接线;钢轨接续线rail bond;rail bond79 断轨保障broken rail protection80 断轨防护;断轨保障broken rail protection;broken rail protection81 轨道占用track occupied82 分路效应shunting effect83 调整状态normal state84 联锁interlocking85 集中联锁centralized interlocking86 继电集中联锁relay system interlocking87 电气集中联锁electric interlocking88 电子集中联锁electronic concentration interlocking89 微机集中联锁microcomputer-based interlocking90 非集中联锁non-centralized interlocking91 电锁器联锁interlocking with electric lock;interlocking by electric locks92 色灯电锁器联锁colour light interlocking system with electriclock;interlocking by electric locks with color light-si93 臂板电锁器联锁interlocking system of semaphore signal;interlocking by electric locks with semaphore94 联锁设备interlocking equipment95 电锁器electric lock96 转辙器switch97 导管装置pipe installation98 锁闭设备locking device99 表示设备indication panel;display board100 信号表示signal indication101 锁闭locking102 解锁release103 闭塞blocking;block system104 人工闭塞manual block105 区间闭塞section block;section blocked106 半自动闭塞semi-automatic block;semi-automatic block system107 继电半自动闭塞all-relay semiautomatic block;all-relay semi-automatic block system108 自动闭塞automatic block;automatic block system109 移频自动闭塞frequency shift modulated automatic block;automatic block with audio frequency shift modulat110 脉冲自动闭塞pulse automatic block;automatic block with impulse track circuit111 极频自动闭塞polar frequency coded automatic block;automatic block with polar frequency impulse track112 交流计数自动闭塞a.c.counting code automatic block113 计轴闭塞axle counter permissive block114 单线闭塞single line block115 移动闭塞movable block116 无线闭塞wireless blocking117 电子闭塞electronic blocking118 列车接近通知train approach announcement 119 区间占用block occupancy;section occupied120 区间占用位置检测location detecting of occupied section 121 移频机车信号frequency shift cab signal122 点式机车信号intermittent type cab signalling;intermittent type cab signaling123 连续式机车信号continuous cab signal;continuous type cab signaling124 无线机车信号radio cab signalling125 机车信号设备cab signalling equipment;cab signaling equipment126 车上信号设备cab signal device127 地面信号设备trackside signal facility128 感应器inductor129 点式自动停车intermitent type automatic train stop130 自动停车装置automatic stopping device;automatic train stop equipment131 列车自动控制automatic train control132 列车自动控制系统automatic train control system 133 列车自动控制装置automatic train control device 134 列车自动防护automatic train protection135 列车自动防护系统automatic train protection system136 列车自动运行automatic train operation137 列车自动减速automatic train deceleration138 列车速度自动监督automatic train speed supervision139 超速防护train overspeed protection140 测速装置speedometer141 列车运行监测train running monitoring142 车次表示train number display;train number indication143 车次自动表示;车次自动显示automatic train number display144 车辆抄号设备wagon number checking eguipment145 车辆识别装置vehicle identifier146 监视装置monitor device147 监视系统monitor system;supervision system 148 跟踪系统tracing system149 卫星监测satellite monitoring150 卫星定位satellite localization151 列车位置表示train location indication;train position indication152 行车指挥自动化running command automation;automation of traffic control153 调度集中centralized traffic control;ctc;centrallized traffic control154 调度集中装置centralized traffic contol installation155 计算机辅助调度computer-aided dispatching156 遥控remote control157 遥信装置remote-signal equipment158 调度监督dispatchers supervision;dispatchers supervision system159 调度监督设备dispatchers supervision equipment 160 进路控制route control161 进路控制装置routing control equipment162 编组站自动化automation of marshalling station 163 自动化编组站automatic marshalling station 164 自动化驼峰automatic hump yard165 驼峰溜放调速humping governing166 编组站测速yard speed measurement167 编组站测长yard distance-to-coupling measurement168 编组站测阻yard rollability measurement169 编组站测重yard weight sensing170 驼峰机车信号hump cab signalling171 驼峰电气集中联锁electric interlocking for hump yard172 车辆加减速器car accelerator/retarder173 车辆减速器car retarder174 车辆缓行器;车辆减速器wagon retarder;wagon retarder175 减速顶retarder;dowty retarder176 溜放速度free rolling speed177 进路存储器route storage178 制动位retarder location179 目的制动objective breaking;target braking180 自动摘钩设备automatic uncoupling equipment 181 牵引小车pushing trolley182 铁鞋skate;cast brake shoe183 信号设备signal facility;signal device184 信号机signal185 色灯信号机colour light signal;color-light signal 186 透镜式色灯信号机multi-lens colour light signal;multi-lenses signal187 探照式色灯信号机colour searchlight signal188 臂板信号机semaphore signal189 信号灯signal lamp;signal light190 信号灯泡signal light bulb191 信号玻璃signal glass192 灯丝转换filament transfer193 信号电缆signal cable194 信号表示器signal repeater195 应答器transponder196 信号继电器indicating relay197 电码继电器code relay198 插入式继电器plug-in relay;plug-in type relay 199 安全型继电器safety relay 200 时间继电器;延时继电器time relay;time delay relay201 电磁继电器electromagnetic relay202 座式继电器desk type relay;shelf-type relay203 轨道继电器track relay204 返还系数release factor205 继电器接点relay contact206 继电器线圈relay coil207 接点contact point208 转辙机switch machine209 电动转辙机electric point machine;electric switch machine210 电空转辙机electropneumatic point machine;electropneumatic switch machine211 液压转辙机hydraulic switch machine212 转辙机部件switch machine part213 道岔转换switch setting;switch in transition214 道岔锁闭switch locking;switch point locking 215 道岔密贴调整switch adjustment216 挤岔splitting of point tongue;forcing open of the point217 信号电源signal power supply218 电源屏power supply panel219 电源转接屏power switch board220 备用电源stand-by power supply221 不间断电源uninterrupted supply222 电池battery;cell223 太阳能电池solar cell224 太阳能电源solar power supply225 充电battery charging226 信号供电singal feeding227 自动转换automatic transition228 信号维修signal maintenance229 测试test230 信号测试台signal test board231 检修repair232 检测器detector。

专利名称：Infrared communication system and infraredsignal receiving apparatus发明人：Katsuyoshi Tsutsumi,Akira Yaegashi,TakahiroFujimori,Junichi Yanagisawa申请号：US11179626申请日：20050713公开号：US07457534B2公开日：20081125专利内容由知识产权出版社提供专利附图：摘要：An infrared communication system is disclosed, that has a transmitter and a receiver. The transmitter includes a modulator, a first converter, an infrared transmissionsection. The modulator modulates a first electric signal and generates a second signal as a modulated signal. The first converter converts the second signal into an infrared signal. The infrared transmission section transmits the infrared signal to the receiver. The receiver includes a filter, a second converter, and a demodulator. The filter restrains rays having a spectrum whose peak is present at a predetermined wavelength emitted by a plasma display panel. The second converter converts the infrared signal passed through the filter into a third electric signal. The demodulator demodulates the third electric signal.申请人：Katsuyoshi Tsutsumi,Akira Yaegashi,Takahiro Fujimori,Junichi Yanagisawa地址：Gunma JP,Kanagawa JP,Tokyo JP,Kanagawa JP国籍：JP,JP,JP,JP代理机构：Oblon, Spivak, McClelland, Maier & Neustadt, P.C.更多信息请下载全文后查看。

信号与系统目录（Signal and system directory）Chapter 1 signals and systems1.1 INTRODUCTION1.2 signalContinuous signals and discrete signalsTwo. Periodic signals and aperiodic signalsThree, real signal and complex signalFour. Energy signal and power signalThe basic operation of 1.3 signalAddition and multiplicationTwo, inversion and TranslationThree, scale transformation (abscissa expansion)1.4 step function and impulse functionFirst, step function and impulse functionTwo. Definition of generalized function of impulse functionThree. The derivative and integral of the impulse functionFour. Properties of the impulse functionDescription of 1.5 systemFirst, the mathematical model of the systemTwo. The block diagram of the systemCharacteristics and analysis methods of 1.6 systemLinearTwo, time invarianceThree, causalityFour, stabilityOverview of five and LTI system analysis methodsExercise 1.32The second chapter is the time domain analysis of continuous systemsThe response of 2.1LTI continuous systemFirst, the classical solution of differential equationTwo, about 0- and 0+ valuesThree, zero input responseFour, zero state responseFive, full response2.2 impulse response and step responseImpulse responseTwo, step response2.3 convolution integralConvolution integralTwo. The convolution diagramThe properties of 2.4 convolution integralAlgebraic operations of convolutionTwo. Convolution of function and impulse function Three. Differential and integral of convolutionFour. Correlation functionExercise 2.34The third chapter is the time domain analysis of discretesystemsThe response of 3.1LTI discrete systemsDifference and difference equationsTwo. Classical solutions of difference equationsThree, zero input responseFour, zero state response3.2 unit sequence and unit sequence responseUnit sequence and unit step sequenceTwo, unit sequence response and step response3.3 convolution sumConvolution sumTwo. The diagram of convolution sumThree. The nature of convolution sum3.4 deconvolutionExercise 3.27The fourth chapter is Fourier transform and frequency domainanalysis of the systemThe 4.1 signal is decomposed into orthogonal functions Orthogonal function setTwo. The signal is decomposed into orthogonal functions 4.2 Fourier seriesDecomposition of periodic signalsTwo, Fourier series of odd even functionThree. Exponential form of Fu Liye seriesThe spectrum of 4.3 period signalFrequency spectrum of periodic signalTwo, the spectrum of periodic matrix pulseThree. The power of periodic signal4.4 the spectrum of aperiodic signalsFirst, Fu Liye transformTwo. Fourier transform of singular functionsProperties of 4.5 Fourier transformLinearTwo, parityThree, symmetryFour, scale transformationFive, time shift characteristicsSix, frequency shift characteristicsSeven. Convolution theoremEight, time domain differential and integral Nine, frequency domain differential and integral Ten. Correlation theorem4.6 energy spectrum and power spectrumEnergy spectrumTwo. Power spectrumFourier transform of 4.7 periodic signals Fourier transform of sine and cosine functionsTwo. Fourier transform of general periodic functionsThree 、 Fu Liye coefficient and Fu Liye transformFrequency domain analysis of 4.8 LTI systemFrequency responseTwo. Distortionless transmissionThree. The response of ideal low-pass filter4.9 sampling theoremSampling of signalsTwo. Time domain sampling theoremThree. Sampling theorem in frequency domainFourier analysis of 4.10 sequencesDiscrete Fourier series DFS of periodic sequencesTwo. Discrete time Fourier transform of non periodic sequences DTFT4.11 discrete Fu Liye and its propertiesDiscrete Fourier transform (DFT)Two. The properties of discrete Fourier transformExercise 4.60The fifth chapter is the S domain analysis of continuous systems 5.1 Laplasse transformFirst, from Fu Liye transform to Laplasse transformTwo. Convergence domainThree, (Dan Bian) Laplasse transformThe properties of 5.2 Laplasse transformLinearTwo, scale transformationThree, time shift characteristicsFour, complex translation characteristicsFive, time domain differential characteristicsSix, time domain integral characteristicsSeven. Convolution theoremEight, s domain differential and integralNine, initial value theorem and terminal value theorem5.3 Laplasse inverse transformationFirst, look-up table methodTwo, partial fraction expansion method5.4 complex frequency domain analysisFirst, the transformation solution of differential equation Two. System functionThree. The s block diagram of the systemFour 、 s domain model of circuitFive, Laplasse transform and Fu Liye transform5.5 bilateral Laplasse transformExercise 5.50The sixth chapter is the Z domain analysis of discrete systems 6.1 Z transformFirst, transform from Laplasse transform to Z transformTwo, z transformThree. Convergence domainProperties of 6.2 Z transformLinearTwo. Displacement characteristicsThree, Z domain scale transformFour. Convolution theoremFive, Z domain differentiationSix, Z domain integralSeven, K domain inversionEight, part sumNine, initial value theorem and terminal value theorem 6.3 inverse Z transformFirst, power series expansion methodTwo, partial fraction expansion method6.4 Z domain analysisThe Z domain solution of difference equationTwo. System functionThree. The Z block diagram of the systemFour 、 the relation between s domain and Z domainFive. Seeking the frequency response of discrete system by means of DTFTExercise 6.50The seventh chapter system function7.1 system functions and system characteristicsFirst, zeros and poles of the system functionTwo. System function and time domain responseThree. System function and frequency domain responseCausality and stability of 7.2 systemsFirst, the causality of the systemTwo, the stability of the system7.3 information flow graphSignal flow graphTwo, Mason formulaStructure of 7.4 systemFirst, direct implementationTwo. Implementation of cascade and parallel connectionExercise 7.39The eighth chapter is the analysis of the state variables of the system8.1 state variables and state equationsConcepts of state and state variablesTwo. State equation and output equationEstablishment of state equation for 8.2 continuous systemFirst, the equation is directly established by the circuit diagramTwo. The equation of state is established by the input-output equationEstablishment and Simulation of state equations for 8.3discrete systemsFirst, the equation of state is established by the input-output equationTwo. The system simulation is made by the state equationSolution of state equation of 8.4 continuous systemFirst, the Laplasse transform method is used to solve the equation of stateTwo, the system function matrix H (z) and the stability of the systemThree. Solving state equation by time domain methodSolution of state equation for 8.5 discrete systemsFirst, the time domain method is used to solve the state equations of discrete systemsTwo. Solving the state equation of discrete system by Z transformThree, the system function matrix H (z) and the stability of the systemControllability and observability of 8.6 systemsFirst, the linear transformation of state vectorTwo, the controllability and observability of the systemExercise 8.32Appendix a convolution integral tableAppendix two convolution and tableAppendix three Fourier coefficients table of commonly used periodic signalsAppendix four Fourier transform tables of commonly used signalsAppendix five Laplasse inverse exchange tableAppendix six sequence of the Z transform table。

专利名称：SIGNAL SCANNING SYSTEM发明人：NOJIRI SHIYOUJI,KUMAZAKI MASAYUKI 申请号：JP5034583申请日：19830328公开号：JPS59176990A公开日：19841006专利内容由知识产权出版社提供摘要：PURPOSE:To attain the ease of a work and inexpensive cost by forming the transmission line into one line without complicating the constitution of the scanning device side and the device side to be scanned in a signal scanning system for telephone exchange or the like. CONSTITUTION:A basic clock (a) is impressed to a driver 12 and impressed to the serial input terminal of a shift register 13 as a data. Monostable multivibrators 23 and 24 are triggered by the basic clock (a) transmitted via a transmission line 30 at the side of a device 20 to be scanned and a counter 25 is advanced and the state signal (e) of a point in response to its output (d) is outputted from a selector 26 and fed to a driver 21. Thus, the signal (b) of the transmission line 30 becomes a form similar to that of the clock (a) when the point state is at 0 and becomes a pulse form when at 1. The signal (b) is impressed to a shift register 13 via a receiver 14, then signals 0, 1 appear respectively at a terminal Q0 and are stored.申请人：FUJITSU KK更多信息请下载全文后查看。

信号转导系统（Signal transduction system）signal transductionOrganisms are highly responsive to changes in the environment (including external and internal environments). If the bacteria tend to nutrient movement, feeling the visual cells to light, hunger hormone signal (feul molecules) of the fuel molecules such as sugar, fat, protein and other internal energy release, growth factor induced differentiation are typical examples. The sensation and response of cells to external stimuli are mediated by signal transduction (system). The system consists of receptors, enzymes, channels, and regulatory proteins. Through the signal transduction system, cells can sense, amplify and integrate various external signals.Section 1 general situation of cellular signalRecognition of extracellular signaling moleculesIn higher multicellular organisms, interaction between cells is achieved by signal molecules, signaling molecules including proteins, peptides, amino acids, nucleotides, steroids, fatty acid derivatives and some water soluble gases, such as carbon monoxide and nitric oxide. Most of these signal molecules by signal (signaling cells) secreted by cells, some by diffusion through the cell membrane and release, some are the cell membrane closely, other cells by cell contact can affect cell contact and signal.Signaling molecules act on target cells through a specificclass of proteins, receptors, which recognize the signaling molecules in particular. Most of the target cell receptor is a transmembrane protein (transmembrane proteins), when the receptor protein and extracellular signal molecules (also known as ligand binding ligand) was activated, thus starting the cascade target intracellular signal transduction system (cascade). Some receptors located in intracellular signaling molecules must enter the cell binding to receptors and receptor activation, these signal molecules are very small and the molecular weight is fat soluble and can diffuse into the cell through the cell membrane.Two, secretory signaling molecules, action pathwayParacrine (paracrine)Signaling molecules secreted by cells act only as local receptors, acting on adjacent target cells, called paracrine. Paracrine signaling molecules secreted by the cells, can not spread to the far distance, the target cell signaling molecules quickly near the intake, or by extracellular enzyme degradation (Figure 17-1A).Synapse (synapses)In higher multicellular organisms, nerve cells (or neurons) can communicate with distant target cells through axons. When the nerve cells in the environment or to receive signals from other cells are activated, can transmit electrical impulses along the axon, pulse arrival axon terminal nerve endings, can stimulate peripheral secretion of neurotransmitter (neurotransmitter).Nerve terminals contact the chemical synapse and postsynaptic target cells and release neurotransmitters to target cells (Fig. 17-11B).endocrineThe hormone secreting signaling cells are called endocrine cells, and hormones produced by endocrine cells enter the bloodstream and then reach the target cells in other parts of the organism (Fig. 17-1C). The endocrine signal is slower than the synaptic signal, because the former is slowed by blood, and the latter is not only fast but accurate.Autocrine (autocrine)There is a signaling pathway associated with the same cell, or the target cell of the signal is the cell that produces the signal itself, which is called autocrine. In vivo development and differentiation process, once a cell has directed differentiation, the cells can secrete autocrine signaling molecules to enhance the differentiation process of this specific, therefore autocrine signaling is thought to be an organism in early developmental stage with "community effect" (community effect) based mechanism.Gap junction (gap, junction)A signaling molecule that enables neighboring cells to collaborate via gap junctions. This channel, which connects the cell membrane directly, allows cells to exchange small molecules of intracellular signaling molecules such as Ca2+ andcAMP, but macromolecules signaling molecules cannot pass.Second types of cell membrane receptorsThe receptor is a kind of special protein located on the cell membrane or intracellular signaling molecules, can specifically recognize and bind with them, thus starting the cascade of intracellular signal transduction system. Depending on where cells are located, receptors can be divided into cell membrane receptors and intracellular receptors. Cell membrane receptor proteins account for only a small proportion of total protein, only 0.01%, and therefore are difficult to purify. Because of the development of recombinant DNA technology, cloning of receptor protein genes can greatly promote the study of receptor proteins. There are three types of cell membrane receptor proteins: ion channel coupled receptors (ion-channel, coupled, receptors), G protein coupled receptors (G-protein, coupled, receptors), and receptors (enzyme coupled). As a signal transduction conductor, membrane receptors can bind to extracellular signaling molecules with high affinity and convert extracellular signals into one or more signals within the cell, thereby altering cellular biological behavior.Ion channel coupled receptorIon channel coupled receptors are involved in the rapid transmission of synaptic signals between electrically excitable cells, which are mediated by a subset of neurotransmitters. Binding of neurotransmitters to the receptor alters the structure of the receptor, allowing ions to enter the postsynaptic cells through the channels that aremade up of receptor proteins, and alter the excitability of postsynaptic cells, as shown in figure 17-2.Two, G protein coupled receptorThe G protein coupled receptor indirectly regulates other membrane-bound targets that may be enzymes or ion channels. The connection between receptor and target protein is achieved by GTP binding regulatory protein (G protein). If the target protein is the target protein enzyme, so the activation can change the concentration of molecules related to signal transduction in cells; if the target protein is ion channels, you can change the cell membrane permeability of ions, as shown in figure 17-3.Three 、 enzyme coupled receptorIn combination with signaling molecules, the receptor protein itself acts as an enzyme, or activates other enzymes associated with the receptor. The ligand binding sites of such receptors are located outside the cell and the catalytic site is within the cell, as shown in figure 17-4. The enzyme activity of these receptors is mainly protein kinase activity, or protein kinase related activity, which catalyzes the phosphorylation of protein related to signal transduction in target cells.The third section is a signal transduction system mediated by G protein coupled receptorsG protein coupled receptor familyG protein coupled receptors are one of the largest family of cell membrane receptors. More than one hundred species of these receptors have been found in mammals. This family receptor can bind to many signaling molecules, including hormones, neurotransmitters, and local mediators. From a chemical structure, signal molecules can be proteins, peptides, amino acids and derivatives of fatty acids. The same signaling molecules can bind and activate different members of this receptor family; for example, epinephrine can bind to and activate at least 9 G protein coupled receptors. Structurally, the members of this receptor family are very similar. They are all transmembrane proteins with only one polypeptide chain. The transmembrane portion is composed of 7 discontinuous peptide segments, as shown in figure 17-5. This receptor family is, in terms of biological evolution, conserved not only in the structure of proteins but also functionally. Because whether in unicellular organisms or in multicellular organisms, they are able to receive extracellular signals and then transduce them to G proteins.Two, trimeric GTP- binding protein (trimeric, GTP-binding, proteins, G protein)G is a class of membrane proteins that bind to GTP or GDP and have GTP enzyme activity on the cytoplasmic surface of the cell membrane, and their activity depends on whether they bind GTP or GDP. When combined with GTP, the G protein is active and is not active when combined with GDP. The active G protein stimulates other components of the intracellular signaling system. G proteins can be divided into two groups, one is the trimeric GTP- binding protein as an extracellular signaltransducer, and the other is a monomeric GTP- binding protein (also known as the monomeric GTP enzyme) that acts on intracellular signaling. Generally referred to as the G protein, the trimeric GTP- binding protein is composed of three different subunits, namely, alpha subunit, beta subunit, and gamma subunit.The G protein has many kinds, are common to activate adenylate cyclase stimulatory G protein (stimulatory G, protein, Gs), inhibition of adenylate cyclase inhibitory G protein (inhibitory G, protein, Gi) and phospholipase C- (activation of phospholipase C- beta beta, a specific role of phospholipase C in lipositol Gq). G protein also has the activity of GTP enzyme, and the GTP bound to G protein is GDP, thus inactivating the G protein.Three and second messengers (second, messengers)Most of the G protein coupled receptor can activate the chain reaction, changing the concentration of one or several kinds of small signalling molecules within the cell, through these small signal molecules will further signals, such as cAMP, Ca2+, IP3 and DG etc., usually this kind of signal transduction in cells of small molecular compounds called second messenger. CAMP and Ca2+ are two kinds of a more comprehensive understanding of the intracellular messenger, in most animal cells, two different reaction pathways to stimulate the two intracellular messenger concentration changes, most of the G protein coupled receptor is only the regulation of a signal transduction pathway, as shown in figure 17-6.Four, through the cAMP signal transduction system(1) the receptor controls cAMP concentration by modulating adenylate cyclaseAs an intracellular messenger, the concentration of cAMP varies considerably, and in cellular responses to hormones, the concentration of cAMP varies more than 5 times in seconds.The mechanism of this rapid reaction is achieved by two enzymes, adenylyl cyclase and cAMP phosphodiesterase. The substrate of adenylate cyclase is ATP, and the product is cAMP, which is a cell membrane binding protein. Phosphodiesterase can rapidly hydrolyze cAMP to produce 5 '-AMP, as shown in figure 17-7. Extracellular signals control cAMP levels mainly by altering adenylate cyclase activity rather than phosphodiesterase activity. Combination of different hormones and receptors on the membrane of target cells, some by the Gs protein activates adenylate cyclase and increased the intracellular cAMP concentration, such as thyroid stimulating hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone, luteinizing hormone, parathyroid hormone, epinephrine, glucagon, antidiuretic hormone; some by Gi protein inhibits adenylate cyclase, can reduce the intracellular concentration of cAMP. Alpha 2 - adrenergic receptor coupled with Gi protein, beta adrenergic receptor coupled with Gs protein, so the combination of epinephrine and receptor through with different types of G protein, stimulate or inhibit adenylate cyclase, thereby controlling the intracellular concentration of cAMP.(two) the mechanism of activation of G protein coupledreceptors to adenylyl cyclaseIn the signal transduction mediated by G protein, a G protein by GTP hydrolysis activity of GTP to GDP, re formed activated heterotrimeric G protein, the G protein signal transfer is conducive to the timely termination of receiving a signal protein G. On the other hand, when the signal molecules exist for a long time, a specific G protein coupled receptor kinase (G-protein coupled receptor kinases, GRK) the G protein coupled receptor C-terminal multiple serine residues phosphorylated, which coupled receptors and G protein; also capture protein (arrestin) can recognize and bind phosphorylation of the receptor, blocking the interaction between receptor and G protein.(three) cAMP dependent protein kinase mediates the cAMP effectIn animal cells, cAMP exerts its biological effects mainly by activating cAMP dependent protein kinases (protein, kinase, A, PKA, A). PKA catalyzes the transfer of the terminal phosphate groups of ATP molecules to specific serine residues or threonine residues on selected target proteins, which are covalently phosphorylated amino acid residues, thereby modulating the activity of the target protein. The inactive state of PKA has two identical catalytic subunits and two identical regulatory subunits that regulate subunit binding to cAMP. When the cAMP and regulatory subunit combination, conformation of the subunit changes the regulatory subunit from the enzyme molecule disassociated, catalytic subunit from catalytic activation, substrate protein phosphorylation, as shown in figure 17-9. Epinephrine and skeletal muscle cellmembrane beta adrenergic receptor, Gs protein by intracellular adenylate cyclase activation, elevated cAMP, cAMP activated PKA, PKA two kinds of enzyme phosphorylation, a phosphorylase kinase, the enzyme was phosphorylated and activated and the activation of glycogen phosphorylase, finally the glycogen decomposition (Fig. 17-10). Another enzyme that is phosphorylated by PKA is glycogen synthase, which is inactivated by phosphorylation. Thus, the blood glucose levels are elevated by the action of these two enzymes, which promote glycogen breakdown and inhibit glycogen synthesis.In some animal cells, the increase in cAMP concentration activates transcription of some specific genes. For example, in a cell that secretes a growth hormone releasing hormone (somatostatin or GHRIH) (the hypothalamus and pancreas delta cells), cAMP can open up genes encoding the hormone. The regulatory region of such genes has a short sequence of cis elements called cAMP response elements (cAMP, response, element, CRE) that recognize CRE transcription factors known as CRE binding proteins, referred to as CREB. When CREB is phosphorylated by PKA and combined with CRE, it promotes transcription of the genes involved.The biological effects of cAMP are transient because there is a mechanism in the cell that allows the phosphorylation of PKA phosphorylated proteins to catalyze the dephosphorylation of serine / threonine phosphoprotein phosphatases.Five, through the Ca2+ signal transduction systemCa2+ acts as a cellular signal in many cellular responses, suchas cell proliferation, secretion, muscle contraction, and rearrangement of the cytoskeleton. The intracellular Ca2+ concentration was very low, less than 10-7M, much lower than the Ca2+ concentration in the extracellular fluid. The endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria and sarcoplasmic reticulum of cells are repositories of intracellular Ca2+. Many signaling molecules cause extracellular fluid Ca2+ influx or subcellular release of Ca2+, resulting in rapid increases in cytosolic Ca2+, regulating various activities of life. Ca2+ signal in two ways: in the presence of nerve cells in a way, when the cell membrane depolarization (depolarization) caused Ca2+ into nerve endings, start neurotransmitter secretion, the content will be described in detail in physiology; another way is to combine the extracellular signal and G protein coupled receptor and signal transduction to the endoplasmic reticulum, the endoplasmic reticulum in the cytoplasm by Ca2+ released into the cytoplasm, Ca2+ cell response control.(1) activation of phosphoinositide signaling pathways via G protein coupled receptorsPhospholipid (inositol) is located in the inner layer of the phospholipid bilayer of the cell membrane. The inositol phospholipid associated with signal transduction is the phosphorylated derivative of phosphatidylinositol (phosphatidylinositol, PI): PI monophosphate (PIP) and PI two phosphate (PIP2). The relationship between PI, PIP2, and inositol three phosphate (inositol, trisphosphate, IP3) is shown in figure 17-11. After binding and activation of the receptor by extracellular signaling molecules, the G protein is activated, and the Gq protein activates phospholipase C-beta, which is attached to the cell membrane, and then phospholipase C- beta causes PIP2 cleavage. Two molecules are produced: IP3 and two DG (diacylglycerol), both of which play an important role in signal transduction (Fig. 17-12). The role of phosphoinositide signaling pathway of extracellular signal such as hormone, vasopressin (vasopressin); there are neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine (acting on pancreatic and smooth muscle); antigen (in mast cells); a thrombin (acting on platelet) etc..(two) the role of IP3 and DGPIP2 IP3 is produced by the hydrolysis of small molecules of water soluble, leaving the membrane can quickly spread in the cytoplasm, specific Ca2+- channel IP3 and endoplasmic reticulum binding, can make the endoplasmic reticulum cavity Ca2+ release into the cytosol, and the release of Ca2+ has a positive feedback effect, which is released Ca2+ binding to the Ca2+ channel, and then promote the release of Ca2+.The important role of DG is to activate protein kinase C (protein, kinase, C, PKC), and PKC is a class of Ca2+ dependent protein kinases that enable selective phosphorylation of serine / threonine residues of target proteins. Because of the action of IP3, Ca2+ in cytoplasm can transfer PKC from cytoplasm to cytoplasmic surface of cell membrane. Activation of PKC in Ca2+, DG, and phosphatidylserine in cell membrane phospholipid components. The highest concentration of PKC in mammalian midbrain cells is the phosphorylation of ion channel proteins in neurons, thereby altering the excitability of nerve cell membranes. In many cells, PKC can regulate the expression ofrelated genes by activating phosphorylation cascades and finally phosphorylation and activation of some transcription factors.(three) the action of CalmodulinCalmodulin (calmodulin) is a specific Ca2+ binding protein that exists in almost all eukaryotic cells. As intracellular Ca2+ receptors, calmodulin mediates a variety of biological processes regulated by Ca2+. The primary structure of calmodulin is highly conserved, with only one polypeptide chain, containing about 150 amino acid residues, and having 4 high affinity calcium binding sites. The conformation changes after binding with Ca2+. Ca2+ activates calmodulin by allosteric action. The Ca2+- calmodulin complex is capable of binding to a variety of target proteins and altering the activity of target proteins. These target proteins have a variety of enzymes and transporters on the cell membrane, such as the Ca2+-ATP enzyme on the cell membrane (which pumps Ca2+ out of the cytoplasm). However, the effect of Ca2+- calmodulin is mediated mainly by the Ca2+- calmodulin dependent protein kinase (CaM kinase). CaM kinase also activates target proteins by phosphorylation of specific serine or threonine on target proteins. CaM kinase has a wide range of specificity, suggesting that these enzymes mediate multiple roles in Ca2+ in animal cells.Six, the interaction of cAMP and Ca2+ pathwaysAlthough cAMP intracellular signaling pathways and Ca2+ intracellular signaling pathways are two independent pathways, they also interact with each other. First, intracellular Ca2+levels and cAMP levels interact with each other, such as adenylyl cyclase and phosphodiesterase, which are directly related to the level of cAMP, are regulated by the Ca2+- calmodulin complex. PKA is capable of phosphorylation of some Ca2+ channels and Ca2+ pumps, enabling them to alter activity, such as PKA phosphorylation of IP3 receptors on the endoplasmic reticulum, and initiation or inhibition of IP3 induced release of Ca2+. Second, enzymes that are regulated directly by Ca2+ and cAMP interact with each other, as some CaM kinases can be altered by phosphorylation of PKA. Third, these enzymes can interact with a number of target molecules, in which PKA and CaM kinases are phosphorylated in different parts of some proteins.Fourth enzyme coupled receptor mediated signal transduction systemEnzyme coupled receptors and G protein coupled receptor is a kind of membrane protein, and the domain of extracellular signal molecules in the cell membrane, cytoplasmic domain within the cell itself has enzyme activity, or directly associated with other enzymes. There are 5 types of enzyme coupled receptors known as receptor kinases cyclase (receptor, guanylyl, cyclases), and receptor tyrosine kinase (receptor, tyrosine, and tyrosine);③酪氨酸激酶相关受体 (tyrosine - kinase associated receptors);④受体酪氨酸磷酸酶(receptor tyrosine phosphatases); ⑤受体丝氨酸／苏氨酸激酶 (receptor serine／threonine kinases).本章只介绍前三种酶偶联受体介导的信号转导系统.一、受体鸟苷酸环化酶信号转导系统这类受体与细胞外信号分子结合后, 能催化细胞质内cgmp的生成,因该跨膜受体的胞质结构域具有鸟苷酸环化酶活性, 催化gtp生成cgmp, cgmp再激活cgmp依赖的蛋白激酶 (cgmp dependent protein kinase, g激酶), g激酶能使靶蛋白上的丝氨酸或苏氨酸残基磷酸化, 激活靶蛋白.在此信号转导系统中, cgmp是细胞内信号分子.与camp信号不同之处是: 在camp信号途径中联系受体与环化酶的是g蛋白, 而在cgmp信号途径中此联系通过受体本身.但在某些细胞中, 如视觉细胞, cgmp的生成也通过g蛋白.通过受体鸟苷酸环化酶途径的细胞外信号, 有心钠素等.二、受体酪氨酸激酶信号转导系统(一) 受体酪氨酸激酶第一个被确认具有酪氨酸特异的蛋白激酶活性的受体是表皮生长因子 (epidermal growth factor, egf) 受体.egf受体只有一条肽链, 约有1200个氨基酸残基.当egf与egf受体结合后, 受体的细胞质酪氨酸激酶结构域即被激活, 激活的酪氨酸激酶能选择性地使受体蛋白本身的酪氨酸残基或其他靶蛋白上的酪氨酸残基磷酸化.现已发现, 大多数生长因子和分化因子的受体都属这一类受体, 这些受体都可以通过自身磷酸化 (car phosphorylation) 来启动细胞内信号的级联反应.(二) 受体酪氨酸激酶信号转导系统中的其他成分1.具有sh结构域的蛋白质这类蛋白质不是指含有sh基团 (巯基) 的蛋白质, 而是指最初在src (一种癌基因) 蛋白中发现的一段序列, sh是src同源性 (src homology) 的缩写.已发现有许多种含有sh结构域的蛋白质, 如gtp酶激活蛋白 (gtpase - activating protein,gap), 磷脂酶c -. gamma. (plc - γ作用与plc - β相同), 类src非受体型蛋白酪氨酸激酶src - like nonreceptor protein tyrosine kinase), irs 1等.这些蛋白质都具有两种sh结构域 - - sh2和sh3.sh2能识别磷酸化的酪氨酸残基, 使含有sh2的蛋白质与激活的受体酪氨酸激酶结合.sh3的作用是与细胞内其他蛋白质结合.在具有sh2和sh3的蛋白质中有些是酶蛋白, 如上述gap, plc - γ等, 有的只是作为一种 "连接器", 如生长因子受体结合蛋白(growth factor receptor bound protein2, grb2), 它的作用就是作为连接受体酪氨酸激酶和其他蛋白质的桥梁.2.SOS protein (SOS) SOS can combine with the SH3 domain of GRB2, SOS is a guanine nucleotide exchange factor (guanine, nucleotide-exchange, factor, GEF) can combine with Ras protein, and the original Ras combined with the GDP exchange GTP. When the receptor tyrosine kinase is activated, it acts via GRB2; the translocation of SOS from the cytoplasm to the cytoplasmic surface of the cell membrane approaches the membrane-bound Ras.3.Ras protein (referred to as Ras) Ras belongs to the monomeric GTP enzyme Ras superfamily (Ras superfamily of monomeric GTPase), is located in the cytoplasm of the cell membrane surface membrane bound protein. The GTP enzyme activates the egg liner (GAP) to inactivate Ras with the hydrolysis of Ras bound to GDP, whereas guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) enables the exchange of GDP with Ras to GTP and activates Ras (Fig. 17-15) GTP. Ras plays a central role in signal transduction mediated by receptor tyrosine kinase, a key component that controls cell growth and differentiation. The mutation of Ras leads to the loss of signal transduction and can lead to malignant transformation of cells. Signal transduction pathways and mechanisms involved in theactivation of Ras signaling through extracellular signals (in EGF) are shown in figure 17-16.Ras signaling mediated by 4.Ras downstream of the signal can bind to the N terminal domain of the Raf protein with serine / threonine kinase activity. Raf binding with Ras can bind and phosphorylation of a protein that has both tyrosine kinase activity and serine kinase activity by C ends - MEK. Phosphorylated MEK can make another serine / threonine kinase protein - MAP kinase (microtubule-associated protein or mitogen-activated protein kinase) - phosphorylated and activated. Activated MAP kinase phosphorylation of a variety of different proteins, including transcription factors, and thus play a regulatory role in gene expression. Figure 17-17 is a simple hint of the receptor tyrosine kinase, the Ras signaling pathway.Three, tyrosine kinase related receptor signaling systemThe JAK-STAT signaling pathway is a typical example of the tyrosine kinase related receptor signaling system. This is a relatively simple signaling system with only three components: receptors, JAK kinases, and STAT.(I) tyrosine kinase related receptorThese receptors include receptors for a variety of cytokines (cytokines), such as interferon receptors and interleukin 2 receptors. Such receptors do not in themselves have intrinsic kinase activity, but when extracellular signaling molecules bind to form a two dimer, the receptor two binds to JAK kinaseand activates the JAK kinase.(two) JAK kinaseJAK kinases are a group of molecules with multiple members, each of which can specifically bind to the corresponding cytokine receptor. The JAK kinase originally known as the Janus kinase (Janus means the Janus Janus of the gateway), because this molecule has two kinase domains. JAK kinase belongs to tyrosine kinase, and the major substrate is STAT.(three) STATSTAT is a class of transcription factors, signal, transducers, and, activation, of, transcription acronym. At least 7 kinds of STAT are known,Each STAT is activated by the corresponding JAK kinase, respectively. Phosphorylation of STAT leads to the formation of STAT two dimers, which can be of the same two polymer or two different polymers (). The basis for the formation of a dimer is the interaction between the SH2 domain of the two STAT and phosphorylated tyrosine residues, respectively, on the two. The STAT two is transferred from the cytoplasm to the nucleus and is bound to the cis acting elements to regulate the expression of target genes.The JAK-STAT signal transduction pathway is shown in Figure 17-18The fifth section is a signal transduction system mediated byintracellular receptorsSmall molecule fat soluble (hydrophobic) extracellular signaling molecules include steroids, thyroid hormones, retinoids, vitamin D, etc.. Although these signal molecules differ in structure, the mechanism of signal transduction is the same. These lipid soluble molecules can diffuse into the cytoplasm or nucleus through the cell membrane, and bind with the protein in the cell, and finally through the receptor activated receptors to regulate gene expression, so this type of cellular receptor is a trans acting factor. These receptors are known as the intracellular receptor superfamily (intracellular, receptor, superfamily) or the steroid receptor superfamily (steroid-hormone, receptor, superfamily).I. the domain of the intracellular receptorThese receptors have two domains, namely, the DNA binding domain, the hormone binding domain, and a region of change (Fig. 17-19). The DNA binding domain of different receptors showed higher primary structure homology, lower homology of hormone binding domain, but no homology in primary structure of variable region. The variable domain contains the activated domain, the DNA binding domain, and the zinc finger structure with 4 cysteine residues. The intracellular receptor combines the DNA binding domain with the response element of the corresponding target gene,Two, the mechanism of gene expression regulated by lipid soluble extracellular signaling moleculesFig. 17-21 is a schematic diagram of the mechanism of action of glucocorticoids. Glucocorticoid through the cell membrane into the cells after combined with glucocorticoid receptor, receptor binding hormone activated by activation of the receptor into the nucleus binding glucocorticoid response element (GRE, located within the enhancer) when the hormone receptor complex and enhancer binding after activation of promoter, transcription. The mechanisms underlying other lipid soluble hormones are essentially the same.。

信号链（SignalChain）芯片信号链一个系统中信号从输入到输出的路径。

具体来说，信号链是对从信号采集（传感器）、信号处理（放大、缩小、滤波）、模数转换（A/D转换器）、到程序处理（微处理器）这一个信号处理过程的总称。

由一个一个模块（芯片）组成一整条“链条”。

简单的说，所谓信号链芯片（就是Sensor+ADC+MCU），是连接真实世界和数字世界的桥梁。

在信号链芯片的传递之下，真实世界的声音、压力、温度、湿度，图像，距离等真实信号会转变成了数字世界的信息，再将这些数字信号交由微处理器MCU进行处理。

信号链芯片的分类信号链类芯片技术壁垒较高，主要的技术门槛在于是模拟数字转换ADC芯片的技术壁垒，目前市场采用最多的模数转换芯片按照结构和原理主要分为3大门类：01.Σ-Δ结构型高精度的ADC所谓的Σ-ΔADC的原理，就是利用过采样(Oversampling)技术、将噪声整形技术和数字滤波技术以很低的采样精度和很高的采样速率将模拟信号数字化，将高精度的转换问题化简为低精度的转换问题，增加有效精度。

这种模数转换结构将会越来越多地出现在一些特定的应用领域中，采样精度高达24-36 bits；采样速率从1sps到几百Ksps；特别适用于在温度，压力，称重等低速、低频信号的采集。

由于采用混合信号CMOS工艺，可实现低价格、高精度的数据采集和数字信号处理；同时过采样技术和Σ-Δ调制技术，增加了系统中数字电路的比例，减少了模拟电路的比例，并且易于与数字系统实现单片集成。

适应了VLSI(Very Large Scale Integration超大规模集成电路）技术发展的要求。

02.SAR结构型的中高速ADC更快的信号转换，如对于快速旋转的电动机，持续不断地需要互补的采样速度，编码器中具有高分辨率和快速转换速率的模数转换器（SAR-ADC）是其功能的核心。

SAR-ADC的输入带宽(数十MHz)比采样频率高。

所需输入信号带宽一般在10MHz内。

专利名称：Infrared communication system and infraredsignal receiving apparatus发明人：Katsuyoshi Tsutsumi,Akira Yaegashi,TakahiroFujimori,Junichi Yanagisawa申请号：US11179626申请日：20050713公开号：US20060024037A1公开日：20060202专利内容由知识产权出版社提供专利附图：摘要：An infrared communication system is disclosed, that has a transmitter and a receiver. The transmitter includes a modulator, a first converter, an infrared transmissionsection. The modulator modulates a first electric signal and generates a second signal as a modulated signal. The first converter converts the second signal into an infrared signal. The infrared transmission section transmits the infrared signal to the receiver. The receiver includes a filter, a second converter, and a demodulator. The filter restrains rays having a spectrum whose peak is present at a predetermined wavelength emitted by a plasma display panel. The second converter converts the infrared signal passed through the filter into a third electric signal. The demodulator demodulates the third electric signal.申请人：Katsuyoshi Tsutsumi,Akira Yaegashi,Takahiro Fujimori,Junichi Yanagisawa地址：Gunma JP,Kanagawa JP,Tokyo JP,Kanagawa JP国籍：JP,JP,JP,JP更多信息请下载全文后查看。