词汇学

1.1：word：A word is a basic form of a language that has a given sound, meaning and syntactic function.1.3:The relationship between sound and meaning is conventional,,the symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary, and there is no logical relationship between the sound and actual things and idea itself.1.5:Classification of words:1,the basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency;2,content words and functional words by notion;3,native words and borrowed words by origin;4,simple words,compound and derived words by morphology;5,Denizens and Aliens(pronunciation and spelling) by degree of assimilation and manner of borrow. Features of basic word stock:all national character ,stability, productivity polysemy,collocability.The different between content words and functional words:NOTION.Functional words do not have notion of their own,it do far more work of the expression on average than content words which is numerous.Slang:Certain words are labeled slang because their usage.Dough and bread(money); grass and pot(respectively);marijuana(type of plant life and cooking utensil;beaver(girl) ;smoky,bear(police);catch(talk to) holler(call) ;roger(understand); x-ray(radar);drank(blue eyed) are all slang words.2.1:The Indo-European Language Family:It’s assumed that the word has 3000 languages, which can be grouped into roughly 300 language families on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar,the Indo-European,One of these is made up of most language of Europe, the Near east and India.2.2:The first people known to inhabit the land were Celts.Their language wereDialects of still another another branch of the Indo-European language Family.The second major language known in England Latin of the Roman Legions.Old English(450-1150)has a vocabulary of about 5000-6000 words,with only a few borrowing from Latin and ScandinavianThe Scandinavian words entered the English language of English in the 9th century.Latin words brought in England in the 6th century.In an analytic language like Modern English, the word order is required to be relatively fixed. Modes of vocabulary development:creation:fruice(fruit+juice);SemanticChange(old form takes on new meaning crate new usage);borrowing(French,L-atin Greek’Scandinavian)3.1Morpheme:a minimal meaning unit of a language.Morph:The phonetic or orthographic strings or segments which represent one morpheme. Allomorph:refer to a member of a set of morphs which represent one morpheme.3.3: Classifying Morphemes:Free and Bound Morphemes;Derivational and Inflectional Morphemes(不改变词义和词性）；content and Grammatical Morphemes.The encompass both inflectional affixes and free morphemes such as in,and, do have,but that,which are called functional words.词素实例：For instance,each of the word-forms studies,studying,studied,consist of the morpheme study+;the form -es in studies,-ing in studying,-ed in studied are morphemes,which express grammar concepts instead of deriving new words.3.5:morpheme and word formationAffix are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function.A root is the basic form of word which cannot be further analyzed without totalLose of identify.A stem is that part of the word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed.A base is used as an all-purpose term.referring to a form to which affixes of any king can be added.4,Word formation :Affixation【prefixation(改变意义），suffixation(改变词性）】; Compounding;conversion[full conversion(adj-n.finals),miscellaneous/partial~P/v/l-n];Blending;clipping;Acronymy[initialisms(首字母缩略词WTO),Acronyms(ADs it was pronounced as a word)].5.1:Reference is the relationship between language and the world.Concepts is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind. Sense: the meaning of meaning is termed sense.语义分析：reference is a kind of abstraction,yet with the help of context it refers to something definite,cat without context denotes a set of cats,but it refers to a particular cat in”Jean forgot to feed her cat yesterday”Therefore,meaning can be pinned down by user,time,place,etc.the same thing can have different referring without causing any confusion, The cat can be reffered to as ,say,the animal,my dear,Jassy,this,she and so on.5.2:Motivation refers to the connection the linguistic symbol and its meaning. Onomatopoeic motivation:拟声理据bowbow bang,Pingpong,crow by cocks,quack by ducks,buzzing by bees squeak by mice neigh by horse,roar by lions.Semantic Motivation:语义理据is他和figurative sense of the word,eg.when we Say the foot of mountain we are comparing the lower part of the mountain to the foot of human being. Conceptional meaning is meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word meaning.概念意义为核心.6:sense relation:polysemy;Homonymy同形同音异义homophones(bear:a large heavy animal/put up with;son=sun in pronunciation);Synonymy;Antonymy;H-yponymy;Sematic field.7.1:Typeofchange:Extensionofmeaning-generalization;narrowing0fmeaning-specialization; Elevation of meaning-amelioration;Degradation of meaning-pejoration;Transference of meaning-transference;Euphemism 委婉语-euphemistic.8:Elimination of Ambiguity消除歧义：1，a word with multiple meaning is used in inadequate context.eg.he is a hard business man.the word hard in this context fail to narrow down the meaning,so reader may find it difficult to know the exact meaning. But there would be no Misunderstanding if the original sentence is extended as He is a hard businessman to deal with. Now the meaning is clear.2,Homonymy is another cause of ambiguity.eg.The ball was attractive.Here we can make two Different senses,ball may mean a round object to play in a game as well as dancing party.grammatically the usage is right.we can eliminate the sentence.the ball is attractive With nice music and a lot of people.3,Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity,eg.I like Mary better than Jean,this sentence is elliptical one and can have different interpretation,the first mean I like Mary better than Jean like Mary,or I like Mary better than I like Jean or etc.11:Aspects of Vocabulary:Word-sets and word associations are generally considered to be effective in retention are recall.1learning words with grammatical categories and collocations 2,by morphological structure3,in discourse4,by Lexical Phrases。