Chapter 4 Phonological Overregularity

语言学C h a p t e r-4--E x e r c i s e s-含答案(总10页)--本页仅作为文档封面，使用时请直接删除即可----内页可以根据需求调整合适字体及大小--Chapter 4 From Word to TextI. Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false:1. Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.2. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, butthere is no limit to the number of sentences nativespeakers of that language are able to produce andcomprehend.3. An endocentric construction is also known as headedconstruction because it has just one head4. Constituents that can be substituted for one another withoutloss of grammaticality belong to the same syntacticcategory.5. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories arecommonly recognized and discussed, namely, nounphrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliaryphrase.6. Number and gender are categories of noun and pronoun.7. Word order plays an important role in the organization ofEnglish sentences.8. Like English, modern Chinese is a SVO language.9. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.10. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.( 1-5 TTFTF 6-10 TTTTT )II.Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:1 A s________ is a structurally in dependent unit that usuallycomprises a number of words to form a completestatement, question or command2. A clause that takes a subject and a finite verb, and at thesame time structurally alone is known as an f__________clause3. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or averb phrase and which says something about the subjectis grammatically called p_________.4. A c_________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, oneof which is incorporated into the other.5. In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinateclause is normally called an e_______ clause.6. Major lexical categories are o___ categories in the sensethat new words are constantly added.7. G_________ relations refer to the structural and logicalfunctional relations between every noun phrase andsentence8. A a__________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.9. A s__________ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.10. A s__________ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.Answers:1. sentence2. finite3. predicate4. complex5. embedded6. open7. grammatical8. simple9. sentence 10. subjectIII. There are four given choices for each statement below.Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:1 The head of the phrase “the city Rome”is__________A the cityB RomeC cityD the city and Rome 2. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause.A. coordinatorB. particleC. PrepositionD. subordinator3 Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.A. recursiveB. grammaticalC. socialD. functional4. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand_____________.A. how words and phrases form sentences.B. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC. how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD. All of the above.5 The phrase “on the half” belongs to ________constructionA endocentricB exocentricC subordinateD coordinate6 . The theory of case condition accounts for the fact that__________.A. noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.B. noun phrases can be used to modify another noun phraseC. noun phrase can be used in adverbial positionsD. noun phrase can be moved to any place if necessary.7 The sentence structure is ________.A. only linearB. Only hierarchicalC. compelD. both linear and hierarchical8. The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite9. The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrasesto form grammatical sentences.A. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational10 The sentence “They were wan ted to remain quiet and notto expose themselves” is a ____________sentenceA simpleB coordinateC compoundD complex Answers:1 D2 D 3. A 4 D 5 B 6 A 7 D 8 C 9 D 10 AIV. Explain the following terms, using examples.1. Syntax2. IC analysis3. Hierarchical structureAnswers :1.Syntax: Syntax refers to the rules governing the way wordsare combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.2. IC analysis: Immediate constituent analysis, IC analysis forshort, refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of itsimmediate constituents – word groups (phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate sake ofconvenience.3. Hierarchical structure: It is the sentence structure thatgroups words into structural constituents and shows thesyntactic category of each structural constituent, such as NP, VP and PP.V. Answer the following questions:1. What are the major types of sentences Illustrate them with examples.2. What are endocentric construction and exocentric construction?3. Draw a tree diagram according to the PS rules to show the deep structure of the sentence:The child asked for a new book4. What are the major types of sentences according to traditional approach Illustrate them with examplesAnswers :1. Traditionally, there are three major types of sentences.They are simple sentence, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complex sentence. A simple sentence consists of asingle clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence, for example: John readsextensively. A coordinate sentence contains two clausesjoined by a linking word that is called coordinatingconjunction, such as "and", "but", "or". For example: John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for herhistory exam. A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence do not have equal status, one is subordinate to the other. For example: Before John gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in linguistics.2. An endocentric construction is one whose distribution isfunctionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to oneof its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole. A typical example is the three small childrenwith children as its head. The exocentric construction,opposite to the first type, is defined negatively as aconstruction whose distribution is not functionallyequivalent to any of its constituents. Prepositional phrasal like on the shelf are typical examples of this type.3.略4. Traditionally, there are three major types of sentences. Theyare simple sentence, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complex sentence. A simple sentence consists of a singleclause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence, for example: John readsextensively. A coordinate sentence contains two clausesjoined by a linking word that is called coordinatingconjunction, such as "and", "but", "or". For example: John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for her history exam. A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. Thetwo clauses in a complex sentence do not have equalstatus, one is subordinate to the other. For exam­ple:Before John gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in lin­guistics.。

Shakespearean sonnet: A sonnet is a form if lyric poetry with 14 lines and a specific rhyme scheme. The Shakespearean sonnet (also called the English sonnet) has three four-line stanzas (quatrains) in iambic pentameter and a heroic couplet. Each of the four-line stanzas rhymes every other line, and the sonnet ends with a heroic couplet. The rhyming pattern in a Shakespeare`s sonnet is abab cdcd efef gg.Oxymoron is the yoking of two expression which are incompatible/a theatrical figure in which an epigrammatic effect is created by the conjunction of incongruous or contradictory terms.矛盾修饰Iambic pentameter is a rhythmic pattern of English verse. A line of iambic pentameter consists of five verse feet (i.e. ten syllables), with the unstressed syllable prior to the stressed syllable in each foot.五步抑扬格Parallelism means exact repetition in equivalent positions. It differs from simple repetition in that identity does not extend to absolut e duplication. It requires some variable features of the pattern.排比，对偶Extended metaphor is a type of metaphor developed by a number of different figurative expressions. Usually an extended metaphor has one basic comparison as its core, from which other relevant figurative expressions derive.扩展性隐喻Heroic couplet is a verse unit consisting of two rhymed lines in iambic pentameter.英雄双韵体Paradox is a type of statement that seems to be absurd, self-contradictory or self-evidently false at the first sight, but is or may be true if considered in a different way.似是而非的隽语Couplet: A couplet is a two- line unit that is always indented; both lines rhyme at the end.Onomatopoeia refers to both the use of words formed in imitation of the natural sounds associated with the object or action involved, and recurrence of phonemes in a text unit that suggests certain natural sounds.拟声，像声Onomatopoeia: There are two interpretation of Onomatopoeia. Firstly, Onomatopoeia refers to the use of words formed in imitation of the natural sounds associated with the object or action involved. Secondly, Onomatopoeia refers to the recurrence of phonemes in a text unit that suggests certain natural sounds which reinforce the meaning conveyed in that text unit.Spenserian stanza is an English poetic stanza of nine iambic lines, the first eight being pentameter while the ninth is a longer line known either as an iambic hexameter or as an alexandrine. The rhyme scheme of the stanza is abab bcbc c.斯宾塞的诗节Open-class items: In English, there are two major classes of words: open-class items and close-system items. The open-class items include nouns, verbs (not including auxiliary verbs), adjectives and adverbs. The class is open in the sense that new items a re constantly being created.开放类词Close-system item include the other six classes of words such as pronouns, articles, prepositions. The system is closed in the sense that creation of new item is hardly possible. 闭合词类Grammetrics means the ways in which grammatical units (usually sentences) are fitted into metrical units such as lines and stanzas.语法单位嵌入诗歌单位Synecdoche is a type of transference of meaning which involves the a substitution of a part for the whole, or the whole for the part.提喻Extended metaphor is a type of metaphor developed by a number of different figurative expressions.Lexical deviation in literature refers almost exclusively to neologisms or the coinage of new words. In coining new words, the literary writer is not so much breaking rules of word-formation as extending the rules such as affixation, compounding, conversion and etc. those new words are usually made up for use on only one particular occasion.词汇变异Graphological deviation is a distinctiveness of a literary text (i.e. its departure from the communicatively normal characteristics) in terms of the encoding of meaning in visual symbols.语项变异Polysemy is the state of being a polyseme; i.e. a word or phrase with multiple meanings, but all the meanings come from the same etymology.一词多项Parallelism means exact repetition in equivalent positions. It differs from simple repetition in that identity does not extend to absolut e duplication. It requires some variable features of the pattern.排比，对偶Alliteration is the repetition of the initial consonant cluster in stressed syllables.押头韵Aphesis——the omission of an initial part of a word.（词首短元音省略）Syncope——the omission of a medial part of a word（词中音省略）Apocope——the omission of a final part of a word(词尾音省略) Overstatement is termed hyperbole in traditional rhetoric. It distorts the truth by great exaggeration. It is usually used to emphasize strong feeling and to create a sentimental.（夸张）Understatement is the opposite of overstatement in that it misrepresents the truth by deliberately understating it as opposed to exaggerating it. (低调陈述)Stylistics is an area of which straddles two disciplines: literary criticism and linguistics.Two assumptions: literature is made of language; literature is a type of communicative discourse.Graphology is the encoding of meaning in visual symbolsSyntactic deviation refers to departures from normal(surface)grammar. These include a number of features such as unusual clause themes, unusual phrase structures.Lexical deviation in literature refers almost exclusively to neologisms or the coinage of new wordsAffixation is the addition of a prefix or suffix to an item which already exists in the language.Compounding is the combination of two or more items to make a single compound one.Conversion,“zero affixation”, the adaptation of an item to a new grammatical function without changing its form.Paradox is a statement which is absurd because it is self-evidently false.Synecdoche is a type of transference of meaning which involves the substitution of a part for the whole.Metonymy is another type of transference which involves substitution, and therefore has often been confused with synecdoche. the substitution of a word referring to an attribute of the thing that is meant, rather than the substitution of a part for the whole, or the whole for a part.Irony is misrepresenting the truth by saying the opposite of what one feels to be the case.正话反说，反话正说Rhyme is identity of sounds between words or verse lines extending back from the end to the last fully accented vowel and not further. Masculine rhymes; feminine rhymes; an alternation of masculine and polysyllabic rhymes; end rhymes. Internal rhyme (occurs within a verse line); half-rhyme formed by the vowel or the final consonant cluster.Assonance is the repetition of identical vowel or diphthong in stressed syllables.半韵Consonance is the repetition of the final consonant cluster in stressed syllables.和声Foot is actually the unit of stressed and unstressed syllables which is repeated to form a metrical pattern.·Surface-structure deviation:1.Phonological deviation:Omission（aphesis; syncope; apocope）; Mispronunciation and sub-pronunciation; Special pronunciation; Change of stress2.Graphological deviation: Shape of text; Type of print(italics,bold print,capitalization, ecapitalization); Grammetrics; Punctuation; Indentation.3.Syntctic deviation: Unusual clause theme; Deviation phrase structure4.Lexical deviation: Affixation; Compounding; Conversion ·Deep-surface deviation:1.Contradiction: Oxymoron; Paradox2.Transference: Synecdoche; Metonymy; Metaphor (three elements: tenor, vehicle, ground)3.Deception: Overstatement; Understatement (litotes, meiosis); Irony (types: verbal irony, dramatic, Socratic)4.Ambiguity ·Phonological overregularity:1.Phonemic patterning: Alliteration; rhyme(masculine rhymes, feminine rhyme, an alternation of masculine, polysyllabic rhymes, end rhymes)assonance; consonance; onomatopoeia2.Rhythmic patterning: Stress(open-class items, close-system items); Metre(tambic抑扬, trochee扬抑, anapaest抑抑扬, dactyl扬抑抑, spondee扬扬); Metrical variation·Syntactic overregularity: Repetition: immediate; intermittent Parallelism: large-scale; small-scaleDefinition of stylistics：Stylistics is an area of study which straddles two disciplines: literary criticism and linguistics.①Wales—the study of style ②Widdowson—the study of literary discourse from a linguistic orientation and I shall take the view that what distinguishes stylistics from literary criticism on the one hand and linguistics on the other is that it is essentially a means of linking the two. ③Leech —the study of the use of language in literature; a meeting-ground of linguistics and literary study.Three revolutions in social sciences:①the modernist movement in art and literature(1890-the beginning of World War2)②the one in literary criticism which has had a profound and radical influence on stylistics; I.A. Richards, Pratical Criticism(1929)③the third①to show why and how the text means what it does; ②the second is that★Short: Description←Interpretation←Evaluation. ★Halliday: two phase—analytic phase and interpretative phase. (Relations: these phases are conceptually distinct; they may be interleaved one with the other; they overlap.)Stylistic analysis is generally concerned with the uniqueness of a text. This naturally involves comparisons of the language of the text with that used in conventional types of discourse and also the language uses in that text with those in another.Style The question of what is style is still one of heated dispute. Aristotle defined style as form; Cicero defined style as eloquence; Buffon defined style as the man; Murry defined style as personal idiosyncrasy…Nowadays the choice, deviance，and style as foregrounding, We must note that there is some overlap among these various definitions.文体，风格Widdowson: Style as deviance, the distinctiveness of a literary text resides in its departure from the characteristics of what is communicatively normal. Traugott and Pratt: Style as choice, results from a tendency of a speaker or writer to consistently choose certain structures over others available in the language.(is not the same as saying that it is always conscious choice; is a matter of form or expression, sometimes content involved.)Mayer (Leech): Style as foregrounding, include both the deviance features and those linguistic phenomena which are not deviance, but striking.4 points P19Five main types of metaphor, grouped partly in accordance with Chapman’s organization.①One type of sensory perception is expressed in terms of another ②A non-human referent is given human attributes ③A non-animate referent is given animate characteristics ④An abstraction is treated as if it were animate ⑤A human referent is treated either as an inanimate being or an animal or a bird.Two steps of meter: ①First step is to examine the type of foot it has. (Four types of foot: Iamb, Trochee, Anapaest and Dactyl) ②Second step is to see how many feet there are in a line. We have: Monometer, Dimeter, Trimeter, Tetrameter, Pentameter, Hexameter. Chapter 1 Introduction1.1 Definition of stylisticsWales—the study of styleWiddowson—the study of literary discourse from a linguistic orientation and I shall take the view that what dist inguishes stylistics from literary criticism on the one hand and linguistics on the other is that it is essentially a means of linking the two. Leech—the study of the use of language in literature; a meeting-ground of linguistics and literary study.Stylistics is an area of study which straddles two disciplines: literary criticism and linguistics.1.2 Emergence of Stylistics as an Interdisciplinary Field of StudyThree revolutions in social sciences:# the modernist movement in art and literature(1890-the beginning of World War2)#the one in literary criticism #the third revolution took place in linguistic science starting in the late 1950‟s.1.3 Two Important Assumptions of StylisticsThe first important assumption of stylistics is that literature is made of language. The second is the assumption that literature is a type of communicative discourse.1.4 The Goals, Components and Procedure of Stylistic InquiryHalliday identifies two possible goals of stylistic inquiry: the first is to show why and how the text means what it does; the second is that of showing why the text is valued as it is.The components of literary criticism—Short: the three parts are logically ordered: Description←Interpretation←Evaluation. Halliday: two phase—analytic phase and interpretative phase. (relations of two phases: these phases are conceptually distinct; they may be interleaved one with the other; they overlap.)1.5 The Nature of Stylistic AnalysisStylistic analysis is generally concerned with the uniqueness of a text. This naturally involves comparisons of the language of the text with that used in conventional types of discourse and also the language uses in that text with those in another. Chapter2 Three views on Style2.1 Style as DevianceJan Mukarovsky <<Standard language and poetic language>>2.2 Style as ChoiceBy style as choice is meant that style results from a tendency of a speaker or writer to consistently choose certain structur e over others available in the language.2.3 Style as ForegroundingThe term foregrounding is a concept of pictorial arts, referring to that part of the composition that appears to be closest to th e view.Chapter3 Surface-structure Deviation3.1 Phonological Deviation3.1.1 Omission(省略)Aphesis—the omission of an initial part of a wordSyncope—the omission of a medial part of a wordApocope—the omission of a final part of a word3.1.2 Mispronunciation and Sub-standard Pronunciation3.1.3 Special Pronunciation3.1.4 Change of Stress3.2 Graphological Deviation3.2.1 Shape of T ext: the shape of a piece of literary work, especially a poem, can be designed in an unconventional way so that it may be suggestive of a certain literary theme.3.2.2 Type of Print: italics, bold print, capitalization and decapitalization, etc.3.2.3 Grammetrics 1.every line of the poem creates a strong pulling-forward effect. 2. the majority of the lines in the first two stanzas create a very strong pulling-forward effect because they arouse syntactic expectations from the reader.3.3 Syntactic Deviation: refers to departures from normal (surface) grammar.3.3.1 Unusual Clause Theme3.3.2 Deviant Phrase Structure3.4 Lexical Deviation: three major rules of word-formation: affixation, compounding and conversion.3.4.1 Affixation: is the addition of a prefix or suffix to an item which already exists in the language.3.4.2 Compounding: is the combination of two or more items to make a single compound one.3.4.3 Conversion, which is often described as …zero affixation‟, is the adaptation of an item to a new gr ammatical function without changing its form.Chapter4 Deep-structure Deviation---refers to semantic deviation, which may be defined as “linguistic effects involving something odd in the cognitive meaning of a certain linguistic unit”4.1 ContradictionContradiction is a type of semantic deviation which conveys self-conflicting information. Two types: Rhetoric oxymoron and paradox.4.1.1 Oxymoron 4.1.2 Paradox4.2 TransferenceIn literature, transference of meaning is the process whereby literary absur dity leads the mind to comprehension on a figurative plane.4.2.1 Synecdoche is a type of transference of meaning which involves the substitution of a part for the whole.4.2.2 Metonymy is another type of transference which involves substitution, and there fore has often been confused with synecdoche. However, metonymy is the substitution of a word referring to an attribute of the thing that is meant, rather than the substitution of a part for the whole, or the whole for a part.4.2.3 Metaphor “metaphoric rule”—the figurative meaning is derived from the literal meaning or it is, as it were, the literal meaning.There are three elements in metaphor: tenor (for the literal meaning); vehicle (for the figurative meaning); ground (of comparison)There are five mai n types of metaphor, grouped partly in accordance with Chapman‟s organization.A. One type of sensory perception is expressed in terms of another.B. A non-human referent is given human attributesC. A non-animate referent is given animate characteristicsD. An abstraction is treated as if it were animateE. A human referent is treated either as an inanimate being or an animal or a bird.----the extended metaphor.4.3 Deception4.3.1 Overstatement is termed hyperbole in traditional rhetoric. It distorts the truth by great exaggeration. It is usually used to emphasize strong feeling and to create a sentimental, satiric or comic effect. An overstatement is often metaphorical.4.3.2 Understatement is the opposite of overstatement in that it misrepresents the truth by delibera tely understating it as opposed to exaggerating it.4.3.3 IronyVerbal irony, achieves emphasis by misrepresenting the truth. It takes the form of saying the opposite of what one feels to b e case.4.4 AmbiguityWe mean the case of more than one cognitive meaning for the same piece of language.Ambiguity can be purely phonetic, resulting from homophony.Most case of ambiguity are at the level of lexis, resulting from either homonymy or polysemy.Chapter5 Phonological Overregularity5.1 Phonemic Patterning (ways in which phonemes are patterned)The most important types of patterning in English literature are:5.1.1 Alliteration is the repetition of the initial consonant cluster in stressed syllables. (In English, a syllable consists of three parts: an initia l consonant cluster, a vowel or diphthong and a final consonant cluster; it‟s the main stressed syllable of a word which generally carries the alliteration)5.1.2 Rhyme—identity of sounds between words or verse lines extending back from the end to the last fully accented vowel and not further.Masculine (one-syllable); feminine (two syllable); polysyllabic.Half-rhyme is formed by repeating either the vowel(or diphthong) or the final consonant cluster.Pararhyme, repeats the initial consonant cluster as well as the final consonant cluster.Rhymes are arranged in a pattern within a poem. This pattern is called a rhyme-scheme. The way of making it: to denote the rhyme schemes by marking the different rhymes with decapitalized letters in alphabetical order according to the sequence of their occurance.5.1.3 Assonance is the repetition of identical vowel or diphthong in stressed syllables. It is one of the important phonologi cal features of literary texts.5.1.4 Consonance is the repetition of the final consonant cluster in stressed syllable.5.1.5 Onomatopoeia5.2 Rhythmic Patterning5.2 .1 StressIn English, every word except the monosyllabic ones has one syllable that carries the stress. Some polysyllabic words may have two stresses. But one of them is stronger than the other. The stronger stress is called a primary stress, and the other a secondary stress.5.2.2 MetreAccentual syllable, it‟s a pattern of regularity both in the number of syllables and the number of stresses.The analysis of the meter of a poem usually consists of two steps. The first step is to examine the type of foot it has. The foot is actually the unit of stressed and unstressed syllables which is repeated to form a metrical pattern. The four main types of foot: Iamb, Trochee, Anapaest and Dactyl. The second step is to see how many feet there are in a line. Thus we have: Monometer, Dimeter, Trimeter, Tetrameter, Pentameter, Hexameter.。

Chapter 4Affixation 词缀法（30%-40%）Compounding 复合构词法（28%-30%）Conversion 转类法（26%）Shortening 缩略法（8%-10%）包括（clipping 截短法acronymy 首字母拼音法）Blending 拼缀法(1%-5%)一. Affixation 词缀法Affixation, also called derivation 派生法（derivatives 派生词）,is the formation of new words by adding affixes to stems.Affixation is the formation of word by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems. Prefixation 前缀法Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems.Feature: prefixes do not generally change the word –class of the stem but only modify its meaning.Classification: we shall classify prefixes on a semantic basis into nine groups.Negative prefixes 否定意义的词缀：a-,dis-,in-(il-,ir-,im-),non-,nu-.Reversative prefixes 逆向意义的词缀：de-,dis-, un-. e.g. de-compose ,unwarp.Pejorative prefixes 贬义的词缀: mal-, mis- ,pseudo-. e.g. mistrust , pseudo-friend.Prefixes of degree or size表示程度、大小等意义的词缀: arch-, extra- ,hyper- ,macro- ,micro- , mini- ,out- ,over- ,sub- ,super-,sur-, ultra- ,under- . e.g. archbishop , hyperactive ,superfreeze. Prefixes of orientation and attitude 表示倾向和态度等意义的前缀：anti-, contra- ,counter- pro- . e.g. anti-government,Locative prefixes 方位意义的词缀：extra-,fore- ,inter- ,intra- ,tele-, trans-. E.g. extraordinary, telecommunication,Prefixes of time and order 表示时间和顺序的词缀:ex-,fore-, post- ,pre- ,re- . e.g. ex-professor , foretell ,post-election.Number prefixes 数字的前缀: bi- ,multi- , poly- ,semi-, hemi- ,tri- ,uni- ,mono-. E.g. multi-purpose ,semi-naked, tricycle, monorail.Miscellaneous prefixes 其他种类意义的前缀: auto- ,neo- ,pan- , vice- . e.g. autobiography ,vice-chairman.Suffixation 后缀法Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems.Feature: suffixes mainly change the word class.Classification: we shall group suffixes on a grammatical basis into noun suffixes , verb suffixes, adjective suffixes, adverb suffixes.Adjective suffixes: It is worth noting that both –ic and –ical can be affixed to the same stem in some cases , but differ in meaning . e.g. economic \economical二. Compounding 复合构词法Compounding , also called composition（compounds 复合词）,is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems.Words produced through compounding yields 28%-30% of all the new words.The differences between compounds and free phrases show in three aspects:1) Phonetic features.2) Semantic features.3) Grammatical features.Formation of compounds1) Noun compoundse.g. Sit-in ，stockholder , up-bringing2) Adjective compoundse.g. law-abiding , record-breaking ,town-bred , four-leg.3) Verb compoundsThe limited number of verb compounds are created either through conversion or backformation . Verb compounds in the way of back-formation are formed mainly by dropping the suffixes:-er, -ing, -ion , etc.三. Conversion 转类法Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. Conversion is a method of turning words of one part of speech to those of a different part of speech.1. An alternative for conversion is functional shift .2. The derivational process , in which an item is converted to a new word class without theaddition of an affix , is called zero-derivation .3. Words produced by conversion are primarily nouns , adjectives ,and verbs .The most productive conversion is the conversion that takes place between nouns and verbs.4. Full conversion and partial conversion are concerned with adjectives when converted tonouns.1) Full conversion: A noun fully converted from an adjective has all the characteristics ofnouns . It can take an indefinite article or –(e)s to indicate singular or plural number.2) partial conversion: nouns partially converted from adjectives do not possess all thequalities a noun does. They must be used together with definite articles .3) Such words as “the poor ”,”the richer ”,”the most corrupt ”are all examples of partial. 5.The conversion of two syllable nouns into verbs involves a change of stress.双音节的名词转化成动词会有重音的变化。

新编语⾔学教程第2版第4章答案《新编简明英语语⾔学教程》第⼆版第4章练习题参考答案Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows: NP →(Det) N (PP) ...VP →(Qual) V (NP) ...AP →(Deg) A (PP) ...PP →(Deg) P (NP) ...We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which X stands for the head N, V, A or P.3. What is category? How to determine a word's category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution.若详细回答，则要加上：Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning. The meanings associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways. The property or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives. For example, when we say that pretty lady, we are attributing the property ‘pretty’ to the lady designated by the noun. Similarly, the properties and attributes of the actions, sensations and states designated by verbs can typically be denoted by adverbs. For example, in Jenny left quietly the adverb quietly indicates the manner of Jenny's leaving.The second criterion to determine a word's category is inflection. Words of different categories take different inflections. Such nouns as boy and desk take the plural affix -s. Verbs such as work and help take past tense affix -ed and progressive affix -ing. And adjectives like quiet and clever take comparative affix -er and superlative affix -est. Although inflection is very helpful in determining a word's category, it does not always suffice. Some words do not take inflections. For example, nouns like moisture, fog, do not usually take plural suffix -s and adjectives like frequent, intelligent do not take comparative and superlative affixes -er and -est.The last and more reliable criterion of determining a word's category is its distribution. That is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word. For example, nouns can typically appear with a determiner like the girl and a card, verbs with an auxiliary such as should stay and will go, and adjectives with a degree word such as very cool and too bright.A word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures.It has (或写Conjunction exhibits) four important properties:1) There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to theconjunction.2) A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3) Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4) The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role each element can play:Head:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary.Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure(or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).第7—13⼩题⼤部分要求画树形图，这⾥省略。

Chapter 4Deep-structure Deviation: it refers to semantic deviation, which may be defined as “Linguistic effects involving something odd in the cognitive meaning of a certain linguistic unit, e. g., a word or phrase” (Leech, 1969; 131)”4.1 ContradictionContradiction is a type of semantic deviation which conveys self-conflicting information. It can be readily divided into two types which are termed in rhetoric oxymoron and paradox.4.1.1 OxymoronOxymoron is “the yoking together of two expressions which are incompatible, so that in combination they have no conceivable literal reference to reality” (Leech, 1969:132) Understanding：It is a figure of speech in which apparently contradictory terms appear in conjunction. The conjunction of words which, at first view, seem to be contradictory or incongruous, but whose surprising juxtaposition expresses a truth or dramatic effect, such as, cool fire, deafening silence, wise folly, etc. ...Example: Dudley Field Malene called my conviction a , “victorious defeat .”4.1.2 ParadoxA paradox is a statement which is absurd because it is self-evidently false.In brief, oxymoron and paradox are devices that allow the literary writer to express a certain truth or message through apparent falsehood.Understanding：It is a seemingly absurd or contradictory statement, even if actually well-founded. And it is a true statement or group of statements that leads to a contradiction or a situation which defies intuition. The term is also used for an apparent contradiction that actually expresses anon-dual truth.Example: His complaint is too funny not to be taken seriously.4.2 TransferenceTransference of meaning is the process whereby literary absurdity leads the mind to comprehension on a figurative plane. Transference in literature refers to such traditional figures of speech as synecdoche, metonymy and metaphor.4.2.1 SynecdocheSynecdoche is a type of transference of meaning which involves the substitution of a part for the whole.Understanding: a figure of speech in which a part is made to represent the whole or vice versa. And it involves the use of a narrower or a more general term to designate something, eg "a sail!" meaning "a ship!"Example: The case had erupted round my head.4.2.2 MetonymyMetonymy is another type of transference which involves substitution, and therefore has often been confused with synecdoche. However, metonymy is the substitution of a word referring to an attribute of the thing that is meant, rather than the substitution of a part for the whole, or the whole for a part.Understanding: It is the substitution of the name of one thing for that of another. Example: Mark Twain‟s pen would prove mightier than his pickax.4.2.3 MetaphorMetaphor, the figurative meaning is derived from the literal meaning or it is, as it were, the literal meaning. There are three elements in a metaphor.Ⅰ.tenor (for the literal meaning) Ⅱ. Vehicle (for the figurative meaning) Ⅲ. The ground (of comparison)Metaphor has been classified into types in different ways. There are five main types of metaphor, grouped partly in accordance with Chapman‟s organ ization. (1983:81-82)A.One type of sensory perception is expressed in terms of another,e.g.B. A non-human referent is given human attributes, e.g.C. A non-animate referent is given animate characteristics, e. g.D.An abstraction is treated as if it were animate, e.g.E. A human referent is treated either as an inanimate being or an animal or a bird, e.g. Understanding: Metaphors are comparisons that equate two entities to show that the two distinct entities are similar/comparable in one important way. Metaphors are a way to describe something. Authors use them to make their writing more interesting or entertaining.Unlike similes that use the words "as" or "like" to make a comparison, metaphors state that something is something else.Example: Her eyes were pools of water.4.3 DeceptionDeception simply refers to the deliberate use of overstatement, understatement and irony, each of which misrepresents the truth in some way.4.3.1 OverstatementOverstatement is termed hyperbole in traditional rhetoric. It distorts the truth by great exaggeration. It is usually used to emphasize strong feeling and to create a sentimental, satiric or comic effect.Understanding: Overstatement- making something seems more important than it really is. An overstatement is often metaphorical.Example: The trial that rocked the world.4.3.2 UnderstatementUnderstatement is the opposite of overstatement in that it misrepresents the truth by deliberately understating is as opposed to exaggerating it. There are two types of understatement, namely litotes and meiosis. Litotes is the most common and is marked by the use of a negative construction. It is employed to foreground a positive emphasis. Meiosis is merely understatement without the use of a negative construction, e.g.Understanding: Understatement is a form of speech which contains an expression of less strength than what would be expected. This is not to be confused with euphemism, where a polite phrase is used in place of a harsher or more offensive expression.Example: It's just a flesh wound.4.3.3 IronyVerbal irony achieves emphasis also by misrepresenting the truth. It takes the form of saying the opposite of what one feels to be the case.Understanding：This term derives from a character in a Greek comedy. In most of the modern critical uses of the term “irony”, there remains the root sense of dissembling or hiding what is actually the case; not, however, in order to deceive, but to achieve rhetorical or artisticeffects.Example：You get something for free and when it stops working, you go back to the shop and ask for your money back.4.4AmbiguityAmbiguity is the case of “more than one cognitive meaning for the same piece of language (Leech, 1969:205). In non-literary discourse, ambiguity is usually taken to be the opposite of clarity and is therefore normally considered a fault. In literature, however, it is regarded as a virtue, roughly correspondent to …richness‟ or …wit‟, for in literature we are ready to read extra-meanings.Ambiguity can be purely phonetic resulting from homophony, i.e. words that have the same pronunciation but differ in form and meaning.Understanding: Ambiguity means a word or phrase that suggests more than one connotation. Most cases of ambiguity are at the level of lexis, resulting from either homonymy or polysemy.Example: I can't recommend this book too highly.Chapter 5 Phonological Overregularity5.1Phonological Patterning5.1.1AlliterationAlliteration is the repetition of the initial consonant cluster in stressed syllables. It is frequently found in proverbial and idiomatic expressions, and these expressions in speech are emphatic in effect, though we may not be very conscious of them. It is also a feature of tongue twisters which can create humorous effects and may be used to practice certain sounds.5.1.2 RhymeRhyme is defined as “identity of sounds between words or verse lines extending back from the end to the last fully accented vowel and not further”.The general function of rhymes is to get the texts more organized and to bestow “music” to the texts. Like alliteration ,it may also be used to achieve more significant effects. Rhymes may also be used to bind lines which are closely associated in content.5.1.3Assonance 谐音Assonance is the repetition of identical vowel or diphthong in stressed syllables. It is found not only at the end of the lines but also within the lines. Its chiefy function to unify words and ideas.Example: Think from how many treesDead leaves are broughtTo earth on seed or wing(Vernon Watkins, The Compost Heap)In this poem, trees ,leaves, and seed are used in assonance. These words are stressed rhythmically in the lines. Assonance not only contributes to musical quality of a literary text, but also to its meaning.5.1.4Consonance 辅音韵Consonance is the repetition of the final consonant cluster in stressed syllables. It may beemployed to replace rhyme. The assonance in this poem functions to make the text more organized and at the same time adds to the musical quality of the poem.5.1.5Onomatopoeia 象声，拟声Firstly , it refers to the use of words formed in imitation of the natural sounds associated with the object or action involved.Secondly, it is relevant to our discussion may be phrased as the recurrence of phonemes ina text unit that suggests certain natural sounds which reinforce the meaning conveyed inthat text unit.The examples of Onomatopoeia are more significant than those in the prose passages, it can give a vivid description to the sounds.5.2 Rhythmic Patterning. 5.2.1. Stress5 .2.2 Metre 格律，韵律1,1）Iamb 抑扬格：unstressed +stressedExamples: In every cry of every manIn every infant‟s cry of fear(W.Blake, london)2)Trochee 扬抑格stressed +unstressedMen of England , wherefore ploughFor the Lords who lay yellow?(P.B. Shelly, Song to the Men of England )3)Anapaest 抑抑扬格unstressed +unstressed +stressedThe Assy rian came down like the wolf on the fold .(Byron, The Destruction of Sennacherib)4)Dactyl 扬抑抑格stressed +unstressed +unstressedSing me a song of a lad that is gone.(R.L. Stevenson)5)Spondee 扬扬格stressed + stressedSweet day , so cool , so calm , so bright(G.Herbert, Virtue)2 1)Monometer one foot2)Dimeter two feet3)Trimeter three feet4)Tetrameter four feet5)Pentameter five feet6)Hexameter six feet5.2.3 Metrical VariationMetrical Variation including : leaving one foot without a strong stress, putting two strong stresses in one foot, inverting any foot, putting a hypermetric syllable at the end of a line or having a catalectic foot (i.e. a foot having one or two syllables short),etc.They have a strong communicative function and can create great aesthetic effects, and help to avoid monotony which may arise when a rigid metrical pattern is adopted.Chapter 6 Syntactic Overregularity6.1 RepetitionIt is restricted to mean the case of exact copying of a certain previous unit in a text, such as a word, phrase or even a sentence.6.1.1 Immediate RepetitionIt means the repeated unit immediately follows the initial unit.Example:Gold! Gold! Gold! Gold!Bright and yellow, hard and coldMolten, graven, hammer‟d and roll‟dHeavy to get and light to hold.(Thomas Hood)6.1.2 Intermittent RepetitionIt is known as ploce in traditional rhetoricExample:O, how that name befits my composition,Old Gaunt indeed, and gaunt in being old.(Shakespeare, Richar dⅡ)6.2 Parallelism6.2.1 Large-scale Parallelism P135-P142It is consists of more than two juxtaposed(并列的) units.6.2.2 Small-scale Parallelism P142-P144It is consists of only two juxtaposed units.Chapter8 Speech Acts, The Cooperative Principle and Turn-taking8.1 Speech Act Theory P188-P1961)a locutionary act2) an illocutionary acta) Representativesb) Expressivesc)Verdictivesd)Directivese) Commissivesj) Declarations8.2 The Cooperative Principle1) The maxim of quantityMake your contribution as informative as is required. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.2) The maxim of qualityDo not say that for which you lack adequate evidence or which you believe to be false.3)The maxim of relationMake your contributions relevant to the purpose in hand.4)The maxim of mannerAvoid obscurity, ambiguity and unnecessary prolixity, and be orderly.8.3 Turn-takingIt means the participants in a conversation take turns in speaking.Politeness Principle (老师添加内容)1, Tact maxim 得体准则2, Generosity maxim 慷慨准则3,Approbation maxim 赞誉准则4,Modesty maxim 谦逊准则5,Agreement maxim 一致准则6, Sympathy maxim 同情准则。

Phonology(音位学)Phonetics is a study of the production,transmission and perception of speech sounds, and their physical properties.Phonemes音位are the minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language. Allophones 音位变体are the different realizations of a particular phoneme in a language. Phones are the smallest identifiable phonetic unit or segment in a stream of speech.Minimal pair最小对立体：a pair of words which differ from each other by one sound.3 conditions: 1 the two forms are different in meaning; 2 the two forms are different in one segment; 3 the different sounds occur in the same position of the two words: teach---cheat, read—dearIf two or more sounds never appear in the same enviornment, that is, each sound only appears in the enviornment where the other never occurs, they are in complementary distribution.互补分布pen—pet, pat—spat—tap, lead—realIf two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of one sound for another brings about a change of meaning, they are in contrastive distribution.Will—till 对比分布When two sounds can appear in the same environment and the substitution of one for the other does not cause any change in meaning, they are in free variation. 自由变体A distinctive feature区别性特征is one which distinguishes one phoneme from another,like /nasal/,/voiced/. put forward by Jakobson.The assimilation rule同化原则the effect of phonetic context or situation on a particular phone.Deletion rule删除: delete a sound although it is orthographically represented Sequential rules顺序:state the possible combination of phonemes and the constraints over such a combination for a language.suprasegmental features(超切分特征) features that have effect on more than one segment, which also known as prosody(韵律语音特征): stress, tone, intonation and juncture.stress(重音,重读) some nouns are stressed on the first syllables while the verbs are stressed on the second syllables:Tone(声调): the level of pitch that is used in a linguistically contrastive ways.Tone language: ma ma ma ma(妈,麻马骂)Intonation(语调) 5 intonations: the falling tones: certainty; the rising tones: uncertainty, the level tones: undecided yet whether known or unknown,juncture(连音): the boundary features that may demarcate grammatical units:A name an aimnarrow transcription(严式音标):symbolizes all the possible speech sounds, broad transcription(宽式音标): transcribes or indicates only the only those speech sounds that distinguish one word from another in a language . It is phonemic.。

Chapter Four Morphology0. Introductioni. In Chapter 1, we have mentioned that all human languages have the feature of duality of structure. That is to say, each language has two levels: the sound-meaningless level and the grammatically-meaningful level.ii. In Chapters 2 and 3, we studied two sub-branches of linguistics: phonetics and phonology. Phonetics deals with the speech sounds available in a language. But phonology is concerned with the sound system of a language. Although they study different things, they work at the same level --- the sound-meaningless level.iii. From now on, we shall move to the second level --- the grammatically-meaningful level. The following chapters all work at this level.iv. What does morphology study? It studies the smallest meaningful units in the grammatical system. Then what is the smallest unit in the grammatical system?1. Morphemesi. Introduction: traditionally, words were regarded as minimal meaningful units at the grammatical level, mainly because words in written form are clearly separated from one another by spaces. But is that right?ii. Definition: Technically, a morpheme is defined as a minimal meaningful unit in the grammatical system of a language.2. Classifications of morphemes2.0 IntroductionMorphemes can be classified both semantically and structurally.A. Semantically, morphemes are grouped into general categories: root morphemes and affixational morphemes: simply speaking, roots and affixes.B. Structurally speaking, they fall into two classes: free morphemes and bound morphemes.2.1 Roots, affixes, free morphemes and bound morphemesi. Definition of the termsA. root --- the root is the most important part of a word that carries the principal meaning.B. affix --- affixes are lexically dependent on roots and do not convey the fundamental meaning of words.C. free morphemes --- free morphemes are those that can stand by themselves as individual words.D. bound morphemes --- bound morphemes are never found alone as words, but are always joined with other morphemes.举例：disagree, meaningless, receiveii. Classification of free morphemes:Free morphemes can be further divided into two sub-groups:A. lexical morphemes --- The lexical morphemes include nouns, adjectives, adverbs and verbs which carry the content of the messages we convey.B. functional morphemes --- The functional morphemes include conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns.iii. Interrelations between semantic and structural classifications of morphemesA. All free morphemes are roots.B. Not all roots are free morphemes.C. All affixes are bound morphemes.D. Not all bound morphemes are affixes.2.2 Prefixes, suffixes and infixesAffixes can be further classified in terms of their position or in terms of their function. Along the dimension of position, we may divide affixes into three groups:i. prefixes --- The affixes that are placed before roots are called prefixes.ii. suffixes --- The affixes that are placed after roots are called suffixes.iii. infixes --- The affixes within roots are called infixes.2.3 Inflectional and derivational affixesAccording to function, affixes are classified into inflectional and derivational affixes.Differences:i. function:A. inflectional affixes（屈折变化形式词缀）1) mark grammatical relations such as number, gender, tense, aspect, case and degree2) never create new words3) never cause a change in grammatical classB. derivational affixes（派生词缀）1) create new words2) very often cause a change in grammatical class (but not always)ii. position:A. Inflectional affixes are always suffixes; they are always after derivational affixes if both are present in the same word.B. Derivational affixes are prefixes or suffixes; they always before inflectional suffixes if both are present in the same word.Question: Are -ing and -ed inflectional or derivational affixes?Answer: Both are possible.3. Morphs and allomorphsi. Three phonological terms:A. Phonemes are minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language. / /B. Phones are the realizations of phonemes in general. [ ]C. Allophones are the realizations of a particular phoneme. [ ]ii. Three morphological terms:A. Morphemes are minimal meaningful units in the grammatical system of a language.{ }B. Morphs（语子、形素）are the realizations of morphemes in general. / /C. Allomorphs（词位变体）are the realizations of a particular morpheme. / /iii. Examples:The morpheme｛z｝may be realized by three allomorphs: /s/, /z/ and /iz/.The morpheme｛d｝may be realized by three allomorphs: /t/, /d/ and /id/.The morpheme｛haus｝may be realized by two allomorphs: /haus/ and /hauz/.4. Identifying morphemes（鉴别词位）4.0 Introductioni. Identifying morphemes generally involves two major stages:A. cutting sound sequences into morphs（把语音的序列划分为语子）B. grouping morphs into morphemes（把语子归类为词位）ii. Before we move to the question as to what should be done at each stage, two points have to be clarified:A. Morphs are obtained on the basis of phonemic data rather than on spelling forms of words.B. A morpheme is not equated with a syllable.4.1 Cutting sound sequences into morphs（把语音的序列划分为语子）i. What is the basic technique of cutting sound sequences into morphs?The basic technique of cutting sound sequences into morphs is comparison.For example:ii. Four principles of judging whether two or more minimal meaningful sequences of phonemes are the same morph or different morphs:If two or more minimal meaningful sequences of phonemesA. are identical in both form and meaning, then they are regarded as one morph;B. are the same in form but different in meaning, then there are as many morphs as there are meanings;C. are the same in meaning but different in form, then there are as many morphs as there are forms;D. are different both in form and meaning, there are as many morphs as there are different forms and meanings.4.2 Grouping morphs into morphemes（把语子归类为词位）i. PrincipleIf two or more morphs are semantically identical and also in complementary distribution, they are then said to be allomorphs of the same morpheme.ii. Classification of allomorphsA. phonologically conditioned allomorphs音位环境变体B. morphologically conditioned allomorphs词位环境变体4.3 Empty morph and zero morphi. empty morph --- It is defined as a morph that has form but no meaning.ii. zero morph --- It is defined as a morph that has meaning but no form.5. Morphemic analysis1) What is the relation between the morphemes of a word?Generally speaking, there are two kinds of relations.i. Superficially, they are linked to each other like beads in a string, that is, the linear order 线性顺序of morphemes.ii. Internally, they are arranged in hierarchical structure, that is, the hierarchical order等级顺序of morphemes. It has to be revealed by IC analysis.2) What is IC analysis?i. Definition:IC analysis means that we divide the morphemes of a word into two groups and then divide each group into subgroups, and so on, until we reach single morphemes.ii. Examples:iii. Three terms:A. ultimate constituents（最终成分）--- The forms at the bottom of the tree-branch diagram are called ultimate constituents.B. immediate constituents（直接成分）--- The forms under each point where the tree branches are called immediate constituents of the form on one level above.C. constituents --- All the forms in the tree-branch diagram except the word itself are called the constituents of the word.iv. Is IC analysis arbitrary segmentation?v. Two basic principles of IC analysisA. Divisions depend on meaningful relations between morphemes, that is, divisions depend on meaningful relations between morphemes.例如：untouchable disgracefulB. Divisions should be compatible with morphological rules.vi. What are morphological rules?A. Definition: Morphological rules are the rules that determine how morphemes are combined to form new words.B. Rules:1) un + adj, participle → adj2) n, adj + ify → vt3) v + able → adj4) adj + ly → adv, n + ly à adj5) in, il, ir, im + adj → adj6) adj + ness → n7) v + ment → n8) v + ence, ance → n9) re + v → v10) en + adj, n → v11) adj, n + en → v12) dis + v → v13) adj + ize → v14) de + v → v15) n + ful → adjC. Examples:untruly, unmanly, unmentionable, disagreement6. The role of morphology in English6.1 Grammatical functions of inflectional morphologyi. Inflectional endings: -s, -'s, -ed, -ing, -er, -estii. The primary function of inflectional morphemes is not to transmit information, but to convey grammatical meanings.iii. Example:Several students discussed how to improve their English yesterday afternoon.6.2 Derivational morphology派生词法and word-formation processes构词法i. three ways to obtain new wordsA. borrowing words from other languagesB. creating entirely new wordsC. forming new words from existing morphemes and wordsii. word-formation processes1) Main processesA. Affixation（词缀法）a. Definition: When a new word is formed by putting an affix to the base, the process involved is called affixation.b. Attention: Do such affixes include inflectional affixes? Does the term 'base' necessarily refer to 'root' of a word?c. Examples: 参见105页第三段下面。

《不要温和地走进那个良夜》解读论文摘要：诗中的语音和文体变异让读者更加体会诗人的斗志，高频率的长元音、头韵、半谐音的巧妙地运用，使诗中从头到尾充满了一种向上的奋发，企图和不服命运的抗争的饱满的情绪，在生命的最后一刻还要燃烧和咆哮的斗志。

一、诗歌简介《不要温和地走进那个良夜》是英国诗人狄兰·托马斯创作于20世纪中期的诗歌，该诗歌表达了诗人对于死神将可爱的人们带离这个世界表达了愤怒，即“怒斥光明的消逝”。

该诗作于诗人的父亲逝世前的病危期间，整首诗充斥着夜晚与白昼、黑暗与光明、温和与狂暴、死亡与生命的二元对立，因此语言的张力十分饱满.二、诗歌中的文体结构变异分析1.表层结构变异——词汇变异（Lexical deviation）词汇的变异有三种，一为词汇性质的混淆，二为词汇搭配有意违反常规，矛盾搭配，三为对现有词汇的回避以及对新词的创造。

诗歌的第一句中“gentle”一词格外突出，“gentle”本为形容词，而在诗句“Do not go gentle into that good night”中，“gentle”被用作副词，很明显作者混淆了这一词的性质，但是却起到了耐人寻味的表达效果，这个词不仅仅是“go”的修饰语，它作为形容词更能刻画出诗人父亲的病态，弱不禁风，和衰老的特征，因此在这句诗中，作者将词汇性质混淆反而达到了一石二鸟的效果。

“good night”在诗中被译为“良夜”，表面意思为“美好的夜晚”，而实际上作者写这首诗的目的是为了表达死神将可爱的人们带离这个世界的愤怒之情，即“怒斥光明的消逝”，既然作者对死神是憎恶的，作者认为死神是可怕的，那么文中的“good night”就绝不会是褒义，作者有意地违反了常规的词语搭配，运用了矛盾搭配的手法，造成了一种出人意料、引人入胜的表达效果，能让读者更深的体会诗人的感情，意在告诉人们，此“良夜”并非彼“良夜”，不要轻易地向死神屈服。

2.深层结构变异——语义变异（Semantic deviation）悖论是指表面上不合常理，荒谬，却在某种意义上正确的修饰方法，在诗中的第17行，作者对自己的父亲呼唤“Curse， bless me now with your fierce tears， I pray.”，就是一种明显的悖论。

《英语语言学概论》配套习题（五）（问答题）《英语语言学概论》配套习题（五）（问答题）Chapter 1 Introduction to Linguistics1.What are design features of language?2.What are the characteristics of human language?3.Explain the characteristic of arbitrariness. What are the relationship betweenarbitrariness and convention?4.What does productivity mean for language?5.What functions does language have?6.Explain the metalingual function of language.7.What is the difference between synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics?8.What distinguishes prescriptive studies of language from descriptive studies oflanguage?Chapter 2 Phonology1.What does phonetics concern?2.How do the three branches of phonetics contribute to the study of speech sounds?3.How is the description of consonants different from that of vowels?4.In which two ways may consonants be classified?5.How do phoneticians classify vowels?6.To what extent does phonology differ from phonetics?7.What do minimal pair refer? Give an example to illustrate.8.What kind of phenomenon is complementary distribution?Chapter 3 Morphology1.What is a free morpheme? What is a bound morpheme?2.What is the difference between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes?3.What is compounding?4.What are the criteria of a compound word?5.What is acronymy?6.What is blending?7.Decide which way of word formation is used to form the following words.comsatmotellasememonightmareASEANROMbitbabysitcock-a-doodle-dogrunt8.What are closed-class words and open-class words?Chapter4 Syntax1.What is syntax?2.What is a simple, compound, or complex sentence?3.What is the hierarchical structure?4.How to distinguish immediate constituents from ultimate constituents?5.What are subordinate and coordinate constructions?6.What are deep and surface structures?7.Can you describe the syntactic structure of the sentence “The old tree swayed inthe wind” by using a tree diagram?8.How to reveal the differences in sentential meaning in the sentence “The motherof the boy and the girl will arrive soon” by drawing tree diagrams?Chapter 5 Semantics1.What is a semantic field? Can you illustrate it?2.What are the major types of synonyms in English?3.In what way do the following pairs offer contrast?4.Categorize the following pairs: child-kid, alive-dead, big-small, husband-wife.5.What is hyponymy composed of? Illustrate whether there is always asuperordinate to hyponyms, or hyponyms to a superordinate.6.How is meronymy different from hyponymy?7.Why may a sentence be ambiguous?8.What predication analysis? What is a no-place, one-place, two-place, orthree-place predicate? Give examples.Chapter 6 Pragmatics1.What does pragmatics study? How does it differ from traditional semantics?2.How are sentence meaning and utterance meaning related, and how do they differ?3.What is contextual meaning?4.Explain the meanings of locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary actthrough examples.5.What is cooperative principle(CP)?6.What is conversational implicature?7.How does the violation of the maxims of CP give rise to conversationalimplicature?8.What is adjacency pair?Chapter 8 Language and Society1.What is sociolinguistics?2.What is speech community?3.What is dialect?4.What is Sapir-Whorf hypothesis?5.What is speech variety?6.What is standard language?7.What is pidgin?8.What is bilingualism?9.What is multilingualism?Chapter 10-11 Language Acquisition1.What is psycholinguistics?2.What is bottom-up processing and what is top-down processing?3.What are the six major types of speech error? Give examples of each.4.What is the critical period for language acquisition?5.What is language acquisition and what is L2 language acquisition? What is learnerlanguage and what is target language?6.What is interlanguage(IL)?7.What are the different views on language transfer?8.What is the difference between input and intake?。

人文知识语言学部分我们对英语专业八级考试大纲以及近三年真题进行过认真地研究，并对人文知识的十个题目的知识考点分布做过仔细分析。

结果发现对语言学知识的考查一般占了其中的3小题。

通过分析把对语言学知识的考查重点归纳为以下几类：第一种：对知名的语言学家及其基本理论的重点考查。

1. The speech act theory was first put forward by__________.（2005年真题第40题）A. John SearleB. John AustinC. Noam ChomskyD. M.A.K. Halliday此题考点是对于言语行为理论的创立者的了解。

John Austin在1969年首先提出了“言语行为理论”，其他人如John Searle等都是在Austin之后才提出或者进一步阐述该理论的。

Noam Chomsky 创立的是转换生成语法，即TG Grammar，而M.A.K. Halliday创立的是系统功能语法，即Systemic-functional Grammar。

因此可知此题应选答案B。

2. The distinction between parole and langue was made by ___________.（2006年真题第40题）A. HallidayB. ChomskyC. BloomfieldD. Saussure此题考点是哪位语言学家指出了parole（言语）和langue（语言）的区别。

Saussure 是现代语言学的奠基人之一，他的学说源于langue和parole活动的异质性。

Halliday 则是系统功能语法的创始人。

Chomsky是转换生成语法的创始人，而Bloomfield 是结构主义的创始人。

所以答案应选D。

第二种：重点考查对一些重要原理的基本应用。

1. The word “ kid, child, offspring” are examples of ____________.（2006年真题第39题）A. dialectal synonymsB. stylistic synonymsC. emotive synonymsD. collocational synonyms此题考查的重点是对于近义词各种分类的理解和应用。