Unit1.The ability to predict what the writer is going/ about/ trying to say next is both anaid to understanding and a sign of it.A prediction begins from the moment you read the title and from expectations of what hebook is likely to contain. Even if the expectations/predictions are contradicted, they areuseful because they have started you thinking about the topic and made you activelyinvolved.If you formulate your predictions as questions which you think the text may answer,you are preparing yourself to read for a purpose: to see which of your questions are in factdealt with and what answers are offered. If your reading is more purposeful you are likelyto understand better.Naturally your predictions/expectations will not always be correct.This does notmatter at all as long as you recognize when they are wrong, and why. In fact mistakenpredictions can tell you the source of misunderstanding and help you to a void certainfalse assumptions.Prediction is possible at a number of levels.From the title of the book you canknow/foretell the topic and the possibly something about the treatment.From thebeginning of the sentences, you can often predict how the sentence will end . Betweenthese extremes,you can predict what will happen next in a story,or how a writer willdevelop/present his argument, or what methods will be used to test a hypothesis.Because prediction ensures the reader’ s active involvement, it worthis training.cation is not an end, but a means to an end. In other words, we do noteducate children just/only for the purpose of educating them. Our purpose is to fit themfor life.In many modern countries it has for some time been fashionable to think that, byfree education for all, one can solve all the problems of society and build a perfect nation.But we can already see that free education for all is not enough; we find in some/manycountries a far larger number of people with university degrees than there are jobs forthem to fill. Because of their degrees, they refuse to do what they think to be "low" work,and, in fact, work with hands is thought to be dirty and shameful in such countries.But we have only to think a moment to see/know/understand that the work of acompletely uneducated farmer is far more important than that of a professor. We can livewithout education, but we die if we have no food.If no one cleaned our streets and tookthe rubbish away from our houses, we should get terrible diseases in our towns.In fact, when we say that all of us must be educated to fit ourselves for life, it meansthat we must be ready/willing/educated/taught to do whatever job suited to our brainand ability, and to realize that all jobs are necessary to society,that is verywrong/incorrect/erroneous to be ashamed of one's work or to scorn someone else’ s.Only such a type of education can be called valuable to society.Unit3.Human beings learn to communicate with each other will nonlinguistic meansas well as linguistic ways/means/ones. All of us are famil iar with the say it wasn’ t what he said; it was the way that he said it when,by using/saying the word way we meansomething about the particular vice quality that was in evidence., or the set of a shoulder,or the obvious tension of certain muscles.A message may even be sent by the accompanying tone and gestures, so that each of I’ m ready, you are beautiful, and I don’ t know where he is can mean the opposite of any such interpretation.Often wehave/meet/encounter/experience difficulty in finding exactly what in the communicationcauses the change of meaning, and any statement we make leads to the source of thegap between the literal meaning of the words and the total message that is likely to beexpressed in impressionistic terms.It is likely to refer to some thing like a “ glint in”aperson ’ eyes , or a“ threatening” gesture, or“ provocative” manner.Unit4. How do the birds find their way on their enormously long journeys? The youngbirds are not taught the road by their parents, because often the parents fly off first. Wehave no idea how the birds find their way, particularly as many of them fly at/by night,when landmarks could hardly be seen . And other birds migrate over the sea, where thereare no landmarks at all. A certain kind of plover, for instance/example, nests in Canada.At the end of the summer these birds migrate from Canada to South America; they fly2,500 miles, non-stop, over the ocean. Not only is this very long flight an extraordinary featof endurance, but there are no landmarks on the ocean to guide/direct the birds.It has been suggested that birds can sense the magnetic lines of force stretching from thenorth to south magnetic pole of the earth, and so direct themselves. But all experimentshitherto made to see whether magnetism has any effect/influence whatsoever onanimals have given negative results. Still,where there is such a biological mystery as migration,even improbable experiments are worth trying.It/this was being done inPoland, before the invasion of that country, on the possible influence of magnetism onpath- finding.Magnets were attached to the birds’heads to see if/whether theirdirection-sense was confused thereby. These unfinished experiments had, of course, tobe stopped.Unit5.Man first existed on earth half a million years ago. Then he was little more thanan animal; but early man had several big advantages over the animals. He had a largehead/brain, he had an upright body , he had clever hands; he had in his brain specialgroups of nerve cells, not found in animals, that enabled him to invent a language anduse it to communicate with his fellow men.The ability to speak was of very greatuse/value/significance/importance because it was allowed men to share ideas, and toplan together,so that tasks impossible for a single person could be successfullyunder-taken by intelligent team-work. Speech also enabled ideas to be passed on fromgeneration to generation so that the stock of human knowledge slowly increased.It was these special advantages that put men far ahead of all other living creatures inthe struggle for survival/existence. They can use their intelligence handing/overcomingtheir difficulties and master them.nguage varies according to sex and occupation.The language of mandiffers subtly from that of women.Men do not usually use expressions such as“ its darling,” andwomen tend not to swear as extensively as men. Likewise, the languageused in addressing men and women differs subtly: we can compliment a man on a newnecktie with the compliment/words“ what a pretty tie, that is!” but not with“ how pretty you look today! ”----an expression reserved for complimenting a woman.The occupation of a person causes his language to vary, particular in the use he makes oftechnical terms, that is, in the use he makes of the jargon of his vacation. Soldiers, dentist,hairdressers,mechanics,yachtsmen,and skiers all have their particular special languages. Sometimes the consequence is that such persons have difficulty in communicating with people outside the vacation on professional maters because thetechnical vocabulary is not understood by all. Although we can relate certain kinds ofjargon to levels of occupation and professional training,we must also note that all occupations have some jargon, even these of the criminal underworld. There may well bea more highly developed use of jargon in occupations that require considerable education,in which words,and the concepts they use , are manipulated rather than objects,forexample in the legal and teaching circle/world/field and in the world of finance.Unit7. The space age began on October 4, 1957, when Sputnik I was launched. Thisfirst man-made satellite was followed by many others,some of which went around thesun. Now the conquest of the space between the planets, and between the earth and thesun, continues at a rapid rate.Each mew satellite and space probe gives scientists new information. As men exploreouter space,some of the questions they have long asked/wondered about will beanswered at last.The greatest question of all concerns life itself. Is there intelligent life out side theearth? Are there people, or creatures of some sort/kind living on Mars, Venus, or someother planet of the solar system? Are there planets orbiting/going/circling around starsother than our sun?The only kind of life we know about would have to be upon a planet.Only a planetwould have the temperatures and gas that all living things seem to need. Until a shorttime ago, we thought there were only a few planets. Today, scientists believe that manystars have planets going around them.We know that there are nine planets in our own solar system-Mercury, Venus, Earth,Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto. If any other planets exist in our solarsystem, or anywhere else, our telescopes are not powerful enough to pick up their feeblereflected light. But astronomers guess that one star in a hundred has at least one planetwhere life could exist.We are quite sure that life could begin on a young planet. A new plant would be likelyto contain great seas, together with heavy clouds of water vapor and other gases. Electricstorms would be common. It is possible that simple living cells might from when electricitypassed through the clouds.An experiment made in1952at the University of C hicagoseems to prove this. By passing electricity through nonliving materials, scientist madecells like those of living creatures.Unit8.At the beginning of the nineteenth century the only acceptable roles forwomen were domestic there was virtually nothing for them to do except stay at home orhire out as maids, governesses, and, before long, teachers. Women were not allowed toown property-in most cases, not even the clothes they wore. A working wife was notallowed to keep her wages but was required to turn them over to her husband. In case ofseparation or divorce, a woman had no legal claims on her husband and was not allowedto keep the children. She had to legal status, which meant that she was not permitted tobring suit or to give testimony in courts. Often, she was not permitted to inherit propertyor to make a will. She was barred from public office and excluded form public lifegenerally.For the most part,women lacked opportunities for education,vocationaltraining, and professional employment. The national consensus was that women belongin the home, and determined efforts were made to see that they stayed there.Unit9.Sydney’ s best feature is her harbor.Most Sydneysid ers can see at least aglimpse of blue sea from their windows.Nearly everyone lives within an hour from abeach.On weekends sails of all shapes,sizes and colors glide across the water.Watching the yacht races is a favorite Saturday activity.The harbor divides Sydney into north and south sections. The harbor bridge connectsthe two. It was built in 1932 and cost 20 million.Another Sydney symbol stands on the harbor shore.Sydney’ s magnificent operahouse celebrated its20th anniversary last year.Danish designer Jorn Utzon won aninternational contest with his design. The structure contains several auditoria and theaters.But not all concerts are held in the building. Sunday afternoon concerts on the building’ souter walk attract many listeners.Sydney’ strendy suburb is Paddington.Houses are tightly packed together. Manywere first built for Victorian artists. Now fashionable shops, restaurants, arts galleries andinteresting people fill the area.The best time to visit is Saturday, when vendors selleverything. So there is one of the world’ s most attractive---citiesSydney, Austrian.Unit 10Architectural design influences how privacy is achieved as well as how social contact ismade in public places. The concept of privacy is not unique to a particular culture but what it means isculturally determined.People in the United States tend to achieve privacy by physically separating themselves from others. Theexpression“ good fences make good neighbors” is a preference for privacy from neighbors’ hom can afford it, each child has his or her own bedroom. When privacy is needed, family members may closetheir bedroom doors.In some cultures when individuals need privacy, it is acceptable for them simply to look into themselves. Thatis, they do not need to remove themselves physically from a group in order to achieve privacy.Young American children learn the rule “ knockbefore you enter which”teaches them to respect others ’privacy. Parents, too, often follow this rule priorto entering their children’ s rooms. When a bedroom door is closed it may be a(n) sign to others saying,““I Ineed’m privacy,angry,“”Do ornot” disturb. I’ busy.” For Americans, the physical division of space and the use of architectural features permit a sense of privacy.The way space is used to help the individual to achieve privacy, to build homes or to design cities if culturally influenced. Dr. Hall summarizes the relationship between individuals and their physical surroundings:Man and his extensions constitute one interrelated system. It is a mistake to act as though man was onething and his house or his cities, or his language wee something else.Unit11.The Library of Congress is the largest library in the world.Its books,pamphlets, documents, manuscripts, official, papers, photographs, and prints amount tosome86million items---a number that swells day by day----housed on535miles ofshelves.Congress authorized a library in 1800, which amounted to three thousand books and afew maps when it was destroyed when the British burned the Capitol in 1814. to replace it,Thomas Jefferson sold the government his own library of almost 6500 volumes---thefinest in the nation at the time. The collection, again housed in the Capitol, had grown to55000 when a fire burned more than half of it. In1866 a portion of the Smithsonian Institution library’s was added to the library of Congress,and in the same year the government entered an international program by which copies of U.S. documents wereexchanged for those of other countries. The copyright law of 1870 ensured the librarywould always be up to date by requiring publishers to send two copies of each book published to the library in order to obtain copyright.By 1870 the collections had outgrown its Capitol quarters. A suggestion to raise the Capitol dome and fill it with bookshelves was rejected, and in 1873 Congress authorized acompetition for the design of a library building. A variety of disputes delayed constructionfor more than a de cade, but the library’ s Thomas Jefferson Building was finally opened in 1897.Unit12.As a nation, we starting to realize that we can solve the’t solid waste dilemmajust by finding new places to put trash. Across the country, many individuals, communities and business have found creative ways to reduce and better manage theirtrash through a coordinated mix of practices that includes source reduction.Simply put source reduction is waste prevention.It includes many actions that reducethe disposal amount and harmfulness of waste created. Source reduction can conserveresources, reduce pollution, and help cut waste disposal and handing costs (it avoids thecosts of recycling, landfilling, and combustion).Source reduction is a basic solution to too much garbage: less waste means less of awaste problem. Because source reduction actually prevents the increase of waste in thefirst place ,it comes before other measures that deal with trash after it is already generated. After source reduction, recycling is the preferred waste management optionbecause it reduces the amount of waste going to landfills and conserves resources.Unit13.The first step in helping the patient is to accept and acknowledge his illness.The cause of symptoms must be found, and measures to relieve them and to prevent recurrence must be taken. Thorough examinations are essential. Although the physicianmay suspect that the illness is due to emotional rather than physical cause,he mustsearch carefully for any evidence of physical disease.It is not unknown for an illness considered psychosomatic to be later diagnosed as cancer or some other disease. The thorough search for physical causes of the symptoms helps to gain the patient ’ s confidence. He knows that his condition and symptoms are being taken seriously. If noorganic basis for his complaints is found, he usually will find this news easier to acceptwhen he knows he has had a thorough examination.Finding no physical cause for thedisorder points the way to understandi ng the patient’ s condition. What is the cause? Is it emotional stress?If so,what kind?What are the problems which are upsetting the patients?Unit14.The work of French scientist Jean Baptiste Lamarck(1744-1829)has contributed to the theory of evolution. Lamarck believed that the environment shaped thenature/trait/characteristic of plant and animal life. he believed that the bodies of plantsand animals changed/had to fit their environment and a useful physical change would bepassed on to the plant’ s or animal’ s offspring.For example, Lamarck thought that giraffes developed long necks because they hadto stretch to get/eat the leaves of tall trees for marck didn ’think that giraffes possessed/developed/had long necks all at once, however. He thought that the earliestgroup of giraffes stretched/lengthened their necks a small amount.Their offspring inherited this longer neck. The offspring then stretched their necks a little bit longer.They passed this even longer neck on to their own offspring.After many generations, giraffes developed the long necks that they have today.Not all of Lamarck theory’s is accepted today. Most scientists do not believe that theenvironment has a(n)effect/influence on the evolution of life forms. Nut t hey don ’ t agreewith the notion/idea that a physical change in a plant’ s or animal’ s body is passed on to the offspring. Instead, they believe that a change must occur in the plant’ s or animal’ s cells before a change in offspring can take place.Unit15.In a very big city, in which millions of people live and work,fast,frequentmeans of transportation are of the greatest importance. In London, where most peoplelive long distance/away from their work, all officers, factories and schools would have tochoose if the buses, the trains and the Underground stopped work.Originally the London Underground had steam trains which were not very differentfrom other English trains, except that they went along in big holes under the ground inorder to keep away from the crowded city above their heads.Steam trains used coal,which filled the underground stations with terrible smoke. As a result, the old trains weretaken away, and electric ones put in their place. Now the London Underground is veryclean, and the electric trains make faster runs possible.At every Underground station/stop there are maps of all the Underground lines in London, so that it is easy to see how to get wherever one wants to go. Each station has itsname written up clearly and in large letters several times, so that one can see when onecomes to where one must get out.At some stations one can change to a different underground train,and in some places, such as Piccadilly, there are actually three linescrossing each other. The trains on the three lines are not on the same level, so that thereshould not be accidents. T o change trains, one has to go up or down some stairs to a newlevel. It would be tiring to have to walk up these stairs/steps, so the stairs are made tomove themselves,and all that the people/passengers have to do is to stand and becarried up or down to where they wish.In fact,everything is done to make the Underground fast and efficient.Unit16.Why “ grandfather” clock? Well, these clocks were passed through the familyand so were always thought of as“ grandfather’ s clock.” But the first domestic timepieceswere hung from a nail on the wall.Unfortunately dust got into the works and even worsechildren used to swing from the weights and the pendulum. So first the face and worksand then the weights and the pendulum were protected by wooden cases. Before longthe clock was nearly all case and was stood on the ground/floor and called,not surprisingly, a long-case clock. These“ grandfather” clocks were very expensive,adem asthey were from fine wood ,often beautifully carved or decorated with ivory.Famousmakers of this period included Thomas Tompion, John Harrison and Edward East, butdon’ t get too excited if you find that the clock Grandma left you has one of these nameson the back. Before you start jumping up and downing and shouting,“ we’ re rich, we’ re rich,”remember that plenty of people before the20 th century had the idea of makingcheap clocks/timepieces of famous original and“ borrowing” the names of theirttersbe.And don’ tforget that the first chiming mechanism wasn’ t invented/created/made until1695, so a chiming clock, however charming it sounds, will date from the 18th century. Afake/false/imitated late 17 th century grandfather clock made by East sold recently for justunder 20000.Unit17. Suppose you send your child off to the movies for three hours next Sunday. Andthree hours on Monday and the same number of hours Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday,Friday, and Saturday. Thus is essentially what is happening to the average child in American today, except it is not the screen in the movie house down the street he sits infront of, it is instead the television set right in your own house.According to the Nielsen Index figures for TV viewing, it is dais that by the time a childgraduates from high school he has had 11000 hours of schooling, as opposed to 15000hours of viewing . I would like to repeat that. By the time the child is 18 years old, he hasspent more hours in front of TV than he has in school.Over TV he will have witnessed bythat time some 18000 murders and countless highly detailed cases of robbery,arson, bombing,shooting,beatings,forgery,smuggling,and torture---averaging approximatelycone per minute in the standard television cartoon for children under the age of ten. Ingeneral, seventy-five percent of all network dramatic programs contain violence.Dr.Albert Bandura of Standford University reaches/draws two conclusions aboutviolence on TV: (1) that it tends to reduce the child tions’againstinhibi acting in a violent,aggressive manner, and (2) that children will imitate what they see. Dr. Bandura pointsout that a child won’ t necessarily run out and attack the first person he sees afterwatching violence on the screen, but that, if provoked later on, he may very well put whathe has learned into practice .One of the lessons of television is that, violence works. If you have a problem with someone, the school of TV says to slap him in the face , stab him in the back. Because most of the program has shown how well violence has paid off, punishment at the end tends not to have much of an inhibitory effect.。
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